Lack of calcium and magnesium in the body symptoms. Magnesium deficiency causes problems with the cardiovascular system. Daily intake of magnesium for men
Family worries, overloads leave a woman little time to think about her health, proper and good nutrition. It is with food that most of the necessary macro- and microelements, which are part of all its tissues, enter the body. Their lack immediately affects the well-being and appearance. For example, if there are signs of nervous and physical exhaustion: a tendency to depression, fatigue, irritability, headache, constant desire sleep, and nightmares torment you in a dream - all this indicates a lack of magnesium in the body.
The daily requirement for magnesium for women is 400 mg. But in some conditions associated with its increased consumption, the body's need for this element is much greater. For example, during pregnancy, the need is 450 mg per day. It increases significantly with heart disease, nervous disorders, depression, cholelithiasis, as well as kidney stones (taking magnesium preparations leads to the dissolution of oxalate stones). The content of this element affects the operation various systems organism.
Nervous system
Magnesium is part of the nerve cells that are responsible for the functioning of the brain and emotional condition women. Its preparations are necessarily used in the treatment neuropsychiatric disorders, depression. Deficiency leads to increased predisposition to stress.
The cardiovascular system
Strengthens the heart muscle and blood vessels, promotes normal heartbeat. With a deficiency of this element, the risk of stroke and heart attack increases. In areas where the water is hard, people are less likely to experience these ailments. Magnesium and calcium, which are part of water hardness salts, interact in the stomach with food fats, participate in their breakdown and excretion, regulating cholesterol levels. This improves the condition of the vessels.
in the regulation of cholesterol important role plays lecithin (an amino acid, in the formation of which vitamin B6 is involved). Magnesium is a catalyst for this process. In addition, the element causes relaxation of the heart muscle. This contributes to the normalization of blood pressure, the establishment of a normal heart rhythm.
Skeletal system and teeth
Lack of magnesium in the body immediately affects the condition of the bones. Their fragility increases, the quality of dental tissue deteriorates.
reproductive system
It is one of the nutrients that affect the content of female sex hormones in the body. With a lack of this element in the body, there are various violations menstrual cycle. The level of estrogen affects the condition of the mammary glands, uterus and ovaries. Therefore, magnesium preparations are prescribed in the treatment and prevention of endometriosis, uterine fibroids, cervical dysplasia, as well as malignant tumors of the mammary glands, ovaries and uterus.
During pregnancy, the substance is necessary for normal formation bone, muscle and nervous tissue fetus, teeth bookmarks. Plays an important role in maintaining the health of the mother by supporting the work of the heart, nervous system preventing diseases of bones and teeth. Its content affects the condition of hair, nails and skin.
Of particular importance for women is the content of the element in the body during menopause, when the risk increases bone diseases. At this age, the assimilation significantly deteriorates. useful substances the body, so often there is a deficiency of magnesium and calcium. Its replenishment is carried out by washing out these elements from the bone tissue, which leads to the occurrence of osteoporosis (impaired bone strength), increasing the risk of fractures. In addition, both of these elements affect the strength of tooth enamel.
Video: The benefits of magnesium for women, which products contain it
Magnesium deficiency symptoms
This element not only helps to overcome stressful situations, adjusting nervous activity, but is an antiallergic agent, and also participates in the processes of removing toxins from the body. Signs of magnesium deficiency in female body are:
- Violation of the menstrual cycle.
- Vegetovascular disorders (headache, dizziness, pain in the back and neck, leg cramps). There is muscle twitching nervous tick), as well as "syndrome restless legs"(the inability to stay in one position for a long time, including when lying down). muscle cramps feeling of numbness and tingling in the arms and legs.
- Digestive disorders (constipation or frequent diarrhea), nausea, feeling of a lump in the throat.
- Nervous disorders(tendency to depression, insomnia, increased irritability, feeling short of breath during stressful situations).
- The appearance of fungal diseases.
- Cardiovascular disorders ( high blood pressure, cardiac arrhythmias).
- The appearance of late toxicosis during pregnancy (gestosis), dangerous state accompanied by increased pressure, edema, convulsive syndrome.
- Increased body response to change weather conditions(pain in the joints and muscles, migraines).
- Fragility of hair and nails, dry skin, deterioration of its sensitivity.
- The appearance of a silvery shimmer before the eyes.
Note: With an excess of magnesium in the body also appear characteristic symptoms: retardation of perception, drowsiness, slow heartbeat, dry mouth, nausea, diarrhea, vomiting. This condition can also occur due to a lack of calcium in the body. Since these two elements tend to displace each other from the tissues, then, when taking magnesium preparations, it is necessary to monitor the calcium content in the blood, making up for its deficiency if necessary.
Why does magnesium deficiency occur in the body
The lack of an element can be congenital, due to the genetic characteristics of the organism ("primary"). It can also be the result of eating foods containing a small amount of the element, a dysfunctional social environment, large physical activity and stress, abuse of coffee, alcohol, addiction to smoking and drugs.
The so-called "secondary" deficiency occurs in certain diseases ( diabetes, cardiac pathologies, neurotic disorders), pregnancy and menopause, the use of diuretics (their frequent use causes cardiac arrhythmia).
Treatment for symptoms of magnesium deficiency
Magnesium deficiency leads to serious consequences. In medical and preventive purposes in order to make up for the deficiency, drugs such as Magne B6, Magnesium Asparaginate, as well as dietary supplements are prescribed: Elemvital with Organic Magnesium, Bio-Magnesium, Magnesium Complex.
Recommendation: Since magnesium deficiency is often accompanied by a lack of other elements that aggravate symptoms various pathologies, then it is recommended to periodically, after consulting a doctor, take vitamin and mineral complexes containing magnesium, potassium, iron, zinc and other macro- and microelements, as well as various vitamins.
People who have signs of a magnesium deficiency in the body are advised by doctors to avoid worries, healthy lifestyle life. An important role is played by the consumption of foods with great content this important element.
Video: Consequences of magnesium deficiency in the body. The use of the drug "Magne B6"
Foods High in Magnesium
Absorption of the element occurs in the intestine (mainly in duodenum). Well digested only organic compounds. Inorganic salts of the element have low solubility, therefore, they are practically not absorbed.
In the presence of an excess of calcium, phosphorus and sodium, it is absorbed much worse. In the presence of a lack of magnesium, this circumstance must be taken into account when the diet is compiled. Not used fatty food since fat also reduces absorption.
Table of foods with the highest magnesium content
In order for the body to have enough magnesium, it is necessary to eat Rye bread, dishes from beans and peas, nuts and seeds, cocoa, herbs, fish. It is useful to use dry seasonings (cilantro, mint, celery and others) for cooking, use mineral water("Narzan", for example).
Vitamin complexes containing magnesium
In addition to this element, such complexes contain other macro- and microelements, necessary for the body and various vitamins. They are usually available in tablets or capsules.
Centrum. 1 tablet contains 100 mg of magnesium, 40 mg of calcium, iodine, phosphorus, iron and other elements. Vitamins include pyridoxine (B6), folic acid and others related to group B, as well as E, K, C, D3.
Teravit. 1 tablet contains 100 mg of magnesium and elements such as calcium, potassium, selenium, manganese and many others. Vitamins A, B, D3, folic acid.
Perfectil. Magnesium content - 50 mg. The composition includes plant extracts, which can cause allergic reaction. Therefore, the drug is contraindicated if there is an allergy to plants.
Berocca Plus. 1 tablet contains 100 mg of magnesium, as well as calcium and various vitamins.
Bio-Max. The drug contains vitamins, 35 mg of magnesium, and other mineral components in 1 tablet.
It is necessary to take these drugs in the indicated dose, otherwise you can harm the body by disturbing the natural balance of nutrients.
twitches, tremors and muscle spasms are signs of magnesium deficiency in the human body. In the worst case, a deficiency can even cause seizures or convulsions ( , ).
Scientists believe that these symptoms are caused by an increase in the flow of calcium into nerve cells, which overexcite or hyperstimulate muscle nerves ().
While supplements may relieve muscle twitches and cramps in people who are deficient, one review concluded that magnesium supplements are not effective tool to relieve muscle spasms in the elderly. In relation to other groups of people, further research is needed ().
Keep in mind that involuntary muscle cramps can have many other causes. For example, they can be caused by stress or too large quantity caffeine.
They may also be side effect certain medications or a symptom neurological disease such as neuromyotonia or motor neuron disease.
While occasional twitches are normal, you should see your doctor if your symptoms persist.
Summary:
Common symptoms of magnesium deficiency in the body include muscle twitching, spasms, and tremors. However, supplements are unlikely to reduce these symptoms in people who are not deficient in this micronutrient.
2. Mental disorders
Psychiatric disorders are another possible consequence of deficiency.
These include apathy, which is characterized by mental numbness or lack of emotion. Worsening of magnesium deficiency can even lead to delirium and coma ().
In addition, observational studies have linked low level magnesium c increased risk development of depression ().
Scientists have also suggested that magnesium deficiency may contribute to anxiety, but direct evidence is lacking ().
One review concluded that magnesium supplements may benefit a subgroup of people with anxiety disorders, but the quality of the evidence is low rate. Before any conclusions can be drawn, more qualitative research ().
In short, it seems that magnesium deficiency can cause nervous dysfunction and contribute to mental problems in some people.
Summary:
Magnesium deficiency can cause mental numbness, lack of emotion, delirium, and even coma. Scientists have suggested that its deficiency may also be a cause for concern, but no conclusive evidence supports this idea.
3. Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by weak bones and an increased risk of bone fractures. The risk of osteoporosis is affected by numerous factors. These include old age, lack of exercise, and vitamin K.
Interestingly, magnesium deficiency is also a risk factor for osteoporosis. Its deficiency can weaken bones directly, but it also lowers blood calcium levels, the main building block of bones ( , , , ).
Studies in rats confirm that dietary magnesium depletion results in decreased bone mass. Although such experiments have not been performed on humans, studies have linked insufficient intake magnesium with lower bone mineral density ( , ).
Summary:
Lack of magnesium can increase the risk of osteoporosis and bone fractures, although many factors influence this risk.
4. Fatigue and muscle weakness
Fatigue, a condition characterized by physical or mental exhaustion or weakness, is another symptom of magnesium deficiency in the body.
Keep in mind that everyone experiences fatigue from time to time. Typically, this simply means that you need to rest. However, severe or persistent fatigue can be a sign of a health problem.
Because fatigue is nonspecific symptom, its cause cannot be identified unless it is accompanied by other symptoms. Another, more specific sign of a lack of magnesium in the body is muscle weakness, also known as myasthenia gravis ().
Scientists believe that weakness is caused by a loss of potassium in muscle cells, a condition associated with a lack of magnesium (,).
Therefore, magnesium deficiency is one of the possible causes fatigue or weakness.
Summary:
Magnesium deficiency can cause fatigue or muscle weakness. However, this non-specific signs deficiency, the cause of which cannot be identified without other accompanying symptoms.
5. High blood pressure
Animal studies show that a lack of magnesium in the body can increase blood pressure and contribute to persistent high blood pressure, which is a significant risk factor for developing cardiovascular diseases ( , ).
While no direct data are available for humans, several observations suggest that low magnesium levels or a poor diet can increase arterial pressure ( , , ).
The most compelling evidence for the benefits of magnesium comes from controlled studies. Several reviews have concluded that magnesium supplements may lower blood pressure, especially in adults with high blood pressure ( , , ).
Simply put, a lack of magnesium in the body can increase blood pressure, which in turn increases the risk of heart disease. However, more research is needed before its role is fully understood.
Summary:
Evidence suggests that magnesium deficiency can raise blood pressure. In addition, supplements may benefit people with high blood pressure.
6. Asthma
Magnesium deficiency is sometimes observed in patients with severe asthma ().
In addition, magnesium levels tend to be lower in individuals with asthma than in healthy people ( , ).
Researchers believe that a lack of magnesium in the body can cause calcium to build up in the muscles that line Airways lungs. This causes the airways to constrict, making breathing difficult ( , ).
Interestingly, a magnesium sulfate inhaler is sometimes given to people with severe asthma to help relax and widen the airways. For those with life-threatening symptoms, injections are the preferred route of administration ( , ).
However, the evidence for the effectiveness of dietary magnesium supplementation in patients with asthma is inconsistent ( , , ).
In short, scientists believe that severe asthma may be a symptom of magnesium deficiency in some patients, but further research is needed to understand its role.
Summary:
Lack of magnesium in the body has also been linked to severe asthma. However, its role in the development of asthma is not well understood.
7. Arrhythmia
Among the most severe symptoms lack of magnesium in the human body - cardiac arrhythmia or irregular heartbeat ().
The symptoms of arrhythmia in most cases are minor. Often this condition has no symptoms. However, in some people it can cause heart palpitations (strong and frequent heartbeats).
To others possible symptoms arrhythmias include:
- dizziness
- dyspnea
- chest pain
- fainting
In the most severe cases an arrhythmia can increase the risk of stroke or heart failure.
Scientists believe that the imbalance of potassium levels inside and outside the heart muscle cells is to blame, which is associated with a magnesium deficiency (,).
Some patients with congestive heart failure and arrhythmias have been found to have lower magnesium levels than healthy individuals. Treating these patients with magnesium injections significantly improves heart function ().
Magnesium supplements may also reduce symptoms in some patients with arrhythmias ().
Summary:
One of the symptoms of magnesium deficiency in the body is cardiac arrhythmia, or an irregular heartbeat, which can increase the risk of developing more serious complications such as stroke or heart failure.
How to Get Enough Magnesium
| Age | Men | Women | Pregnancy | Lactation |
| 0-6 months | 30 mg* | 30 mg* | ||
| 7-12 months | 75 mg* | 75 mg* | ||
| 1-3 years | 80 mg | 80 mg | ||
| 4-8 years old | 130 mg | 130 mg | ||
| 9-13 years old | 240 mg | 240 mg | ||
| 14-18 years old | 410 mg | 360 mg | 400 mg | 360 mg |
| 19-30 years old | 400 mg | 310 mg | 350 mg | 310 mg |
| 31-50 years old | 420 mg | 320 mg | 360 mg | 320 mg |
| 51+ years old | 420 mg | 320 mg |
* Adequate intake Popcorn: 151 mg.
Summarize
Magnesium deficiency is a widespread problem that can cause a range of symptoms and cause some diseases.
Studies show that 75% of people living in developed countries do not consume enough this mineral. However, severe deficiency is much less common, in less than 2% of people, according to one estimate.
The symptoms of magnesium deficiency in the human body are usually minor, unless the level becomes very low. Deficiency can cause fatigue, muscle spasms, mental problems, cardiac arrhythmias, and osteoporosis.
If you think you have a magnesium deficiency, your suspicions can be confirmed with a simple blood test. You should talk to your doctor to rule out others. possible problems with health.
Whatever the outcome, try to eat plenty of magnesium-rich whole foods regularly, such as nuts, seeds, grains, or legumes.
These foods are also rich in other health benefits. nutrients. Including these products in your daily diet nutrition not only reduces the risk of magnesium deficiency, but also promotes health.
Hello, Dear friends! Today we will talk with you about how a lack of magnesium manifests itself in the body and what symptoms accurately indicate a lack of magnesium. Indeed, due to a lack of magnesium, a person becomes restless, unbalanced, nervous. The material of this article will tell you how to turn from a "savage" into calm person with a smile on your face.
The natural mineral magnesium is responsible for many processes in our body. Let's look at them in more detail.
Why does our body need magnesium?
Like other minerals, magnesium is involved in many metabolic processes and in human life support:
- Participates in the formation of bones and tooth enamel;
- Normalizes muscle activity;
- Reduces nervous excitement, regulating the processes of neuromuscular excitability;
- Reduces cholesterol in the blood and tissues;
- Prevents the development of kidney stones;
- Stimulates the immune system;
- inhibits development malignant cells;
- Normalizes the activity of the contractile function of the myocardium;
- Expands blood vessels;
- Stimulates intestinal motility;
- Participates in the activation of amino acids;
- Stimulates bile secretion;
- Promotes oxidation fatty acids;
- Normalizes sleep.
Magnesium is a vital element
Magnesium is found in almost every cell of our body, a lot of the mineral in the muscles, in the muscle fibers of blood vessels and the heart. In many ways, the state of our muscle mass depends on it.
Magnesium in in large numbers present in human bone tissue. Therefore, its deficiency instantly affects the condition of bones and teeth.
Magnesium is included in nerve fibers and cells that are responsible for our emotional state and the functioning of our brain. Magnesium deficiency is often the cause of chronic stress.
Therefore, it is important in nutrition to take into account the role of magnesium in the body for people, especially those who quickly consume this sought-after trace element. This group includes pregnant women, athletes and people whose lives are subject to conditions of stress, increased physical or psychological stress.
Magnesium plays an extremely important role in the life of the body. This micronutrient is essential for normal operation muscles and nervous system, energy production, bone building.
Without it, the production of energy, the growth of new cells, the functioning of the brain and other vital important features, sufficient amounts of magnesium are necessary for us so that we can cope with stress and withstand mental and physical stress.
During pregnancy, this microelement also takes part in the transfer of genetic information to the child.
What does a lack of magnesium in the body indicate, what are the symptoms of deficiency in women, how much intake is normally needed per day to maintain health? About everything - in order!
Daily allowance for ladies
About 55% of magnesium is found in the skeleton, teeth and blood, another 40% - in the brain, muscles, kidneys, liver, uterus and placenta. The norm of its content in the blood for women- 0.66-1.07 mmol / l.
If the level is in the range of 0.5-0.7 mmol / l, they speak of a moderate deficiency, and if the content is below 0.5 mmol / l - a severe lack of magnesium.
Dose daily consumption magnesium for women is normally 300 mg per day.
Under some circumstances daily allowance magnesium for women can change, for example, during pregnancy and lactation, the body's need for it increases significantly.
Low Level Signs
Moderate deficiency may not manifest itself in any way. However, in that case if it develops severe deficit characteristic symptoms appear:
- fatigue;
- confusion;
- nausea;
- loss of appetite;
- spasms in the muscles;
- feeling of tingling and numbness in the limbs.
A pronounced shortage has a marked effect on the general condition. At the same time, the person feels constant fatigue and fatigue even if the work does not require much physical effort.
Also characterized by a feeling of weakness in the morning, which occurs even after a long night's sleep.
With a significant deficit are also developing neurological disorders. Such women become irritable, their level of anxiety increases, attacks of tearfulness or fear, depression can also be observed.
Another possible manifestation- nightmares. In addition, with a deficiency of magnesium in the body, women often experience symptoms such as and, memory deteriorates and the ability to concentrate decreases.
Seizures occur most often in the calf muscles, a little less often in the feet and hands. Also, with a deficiency, twitching and pain in the muscles appear during their tension.
Violation of the tone of the heart muscle can lead to pain in the heart, tachycardia and arrhythmias. characteristic external signs- fragility of hair and them, foliation of nails.
About why a woman needs magnesium, what is its role in the body and health benefits, signs of deficiency, the video will tell:
Why there is a shortage
The body receives this trace element from food. It is absorbed in the small and large intestines.
Reasons for the shortage include factors that lead to a decrease in its consumption or an increase in consumption:
A common problem is lack of this substance in the daily daily diet . This can lead not only to insufficient Attentive attitude to their own nutrition, but also fasting and strict diets.
Another important factor - mental and physical overload and frequent stress.
Such problems cause a significant increase in magnesium consumption, which ultimately leads to its deficiency.
Also its level drops significantly during pregnancy. This is because the need of the body of the expectant mother in this element increases on average twice.
During pregnancy and after childbirth
Pregnant women and nursing mothers need to get more magnesium from food - the rate of its consumption increases by a third.
On the one hand, during gestation, the consumption of this microelement increases, on the other hand, its excretion from the body increases.
So, in the second trimester of pregnancy, the magnesium content in the urine increases by 25%. However, the deficit reaches its highest level in the third trimester.
Consumption rate for women during gestation- from 350 to 400 mg. After giving birth, she also remains on this high level in case of breastfeeding.
During pregnancy, hypomagnesemia is especially dangerous. Lack of it essential element can lead to problems in the growth and development of the fetus - first of all, these are violations of the formation of the nervous and skeletal systems.
It also regulates the transfer of genetic information from mother to child.
Its deficiency leads increased anxiety and emotional state future mother significantly worsens, and this is badly reflected in the process of bearing a child.
In addition, the lack can provoke premature contractions and early resolution of pregnancy.
With a deficiency, childbirth itself is difficult, since, as noted above, magnesium is necessary for the normal functioning of the muscles.
Diagnostics and medical care
If you suspect a lack of magnesium in the body the doctor may order a blood test, which will show the level of this trace element in the serum.
This study is often used for neurological problems, abnormalities in the work of the cardiovascular system, kidney failure, dysfunction thyroid gland. Based on the results of this analysis, one can judge whether it is insufficient or sufficient.
However, diagnosis is complicated by the fact that not always normal level The content of this microelement in the blood indicates the sufficient content of this element in the body as a whole.
It often happens that high concentration in the blood is maintained due to its removal from soft tissues and bones.
That's why to accept the right decision whether therapy makes sense, aimed at increasing its level, can only be a competent and attentive specialist, who will definitely take into account not only laboratory data, but also complaints and the patient's condition.
It is not easy to make up for a pronounced deficiency with the help of dietary correction. Therefore, for this purpose using special biological active additives - they can be prescribed by a doctor.
First of all, these are two-element complexes containing vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) as an additional component, such as Magne B6 or Magnelis B6.
Pyridoxine improves magnesium absorption in gastrointestinal tract and helps it to better penetrate into the cells.
Diet
The best prevention of magnesium deficiency is complete and balanced diet , rich in products containing this trace element. Adjusting your diet will also help you if you are slightly deficient.
It makes sense to add magnesium-rich foods to your diet for anyone who has made up for the deficiency with the help of a course of special preparations. This will reduce the risk of a similar problem in the future.
Foods rich in magnesium include:
Thus, cereals, to which you can add vegetables, fruits, seafood and nuts, will become a good basis for a diet aimed at filling the deficit.
Such a diet high content magnesium salts is recommended for hypertension, cholelithiasis in remission, atherosclerosis, constipation, as well as overweight people.
Prevention and Precautions
Magnesium deficiency in the body can always be prevented, and all that is required for this is to be attentive to yourself and your health:
- make sure that the diet is correct, varied and balanced;
- avoid physical, mental and emotional overload; , focusing only on external manifestations.
Symptoms similar to the manifestations of its deficiency - fatigue, nausea and loss of appetite, convulsions, etc. - can also be caused by many other conditions and pathologies.
At timely diagnosis Magnesium deficiency is replenished in most cases quickly and without much difficulty.
Therefore, if you suspect a lack of it in the body, it makes sense to consult a doctor who will listen to your complaints and prescribe all the tests and examinations necessary to determine the cause of the problems.
Based on their results, the specialist will be able to decide on the advisability of prescribing therapy aimed at filling the deficit.
The course of taking magnesium preparations will help increase vitality and the ability to resist stress, as well as generally improve the functioning of the whole organism, and above all - the nervous system, heart and kidneys.
Nerves
Do you easily lose patience and explode over trifles, often feel restless and nervous? Magnesium is also responsible for correct work nervous system, so that all this is the result of its lack in the body.Stress
As a result of regular and strong feelings the level of adrenaline in the blood rises, and the adrenal glands actively produce cortisol, the stress hormone. Magnesium, on the contrary, is actively excreted from the cells.Night cramps
At night you wake up from what drives you calf muscles and the cramp doesn't go away right away. Sometimes you notice tingling or heaviness in your legs. All of this can happen if you are deficient in magnesium. Magnesium takes part in calcium metabolism, the less it is, the higher the risk of seizures. By the way, a twitching eye is also a microconvulsant! 
bad dream
If there is not enough magnesium in the body, you have difficulty falling asleep and waking up with difficulty, and sometimes lie awake for hours. Insomnia - obvious symptom the fact that the work of your nervous system lacks the help of magnesium.Cardiopalmus
Arrhythmia, unusual sensations during the heartbeat - for example, "skips" of heartbeats, this is a sign of magnesium deficiency. Magnesium helps to regulate the balance of sodium and calcium in cells and directly affects the functioning of the cardiovascular system. 
Alcohol
Why do so many people lack magnesium? If you are using alcoholic drinks(even one glass of wine counts) more than three times a week, you are at risk. Wine, beer and cocktails are excellent diuretics, and magnesium is easily and quickly excreted from the body with fluid.Coffee with a bun
Magnesium is needed for proper carbohydrate metabolism It helps control glucose levels. If you are fond of coffee with donuts, you risk doubly: the diuretic effect of coffee and fast carbohydrates- This is a guaranteed high-speed removal of magnesium from the body.Excess weight
When you lack potassium and magnesium, the metabolic process is disrupted: your body cannot properly absorb proteins, fats and carbohydrates, and your metabolism slows down. 
