Higher nervous activity. Mental activity. Types of conditioned reflexes. dynamic stereotype

There are many classifications of conditioned reflexes:

§ If the classification is based on unconditioned reflexes, then food, protective, indicative, etc. are distinguished.

§ If the classification is based on receptors that are affected by stimuli, there are exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive conditioned reflexes.

§ Depending on the structure of the applied conditioned stimulus, simple and complex (complex) conditioned reflexes are distinguished.
In the real conditions of the functioning of the organism, as a rule, not separate, single stimuli, but their temporal and spatial complexes act as conditioned signals. And then the complex of environmental signals acts as a conditioned stimulus.

§ There are conditioned reflexes of the first, second, third, etc. order. When a conditioned stimulus is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus, a first-order conditioned reflex is formed. A conditioned reflex of the second order is formed if the conditioned stimulus is reinforced by a conditioned stimulus, to which a conditioned reflex was previously developed.

§ Natural reflexes are formed on stimuli, which are natural, accompanying properties of the unconditioned stimulus, on the basis of which they are developed. Natural conditioned reflexes, in comparison with artificial ones, are more easily formed and more durable.

8. Intelligent behavior. The structure of intelligence (according to Guilford).

Intelligent behavior is needed when it is necessary to find a solution to a new problem as quickly as possible, which cannot be achieved using the trial and error method.

The intellectual reaction is first of all the reaction of the inner plan. This means that it takes place in the head and does not involve any external activity. Some mental structure is responsible for intellectual reactions, usually called intellect. Unlike the trial and error method, during which a conditioned reflex is gradually developed, which is the correct solution, the intellectual method leads to the solution of the problem earlier, and after the found solution, errors are no longer observed.

Intelligence is a complex mental function responsible for the ability to solve various problems.

Intelligence includes components that allow:

• gain the experience necessary to solve the problem,
• remember this experience
• transform experience, adapt it to solve the problem (combine, process, generalize, etc.), in the end - find a solution
• evaluate the success of the solution found,
• replenish the "library of intelligent solutions."

Any intellectual reaction can be represented as a structure of basic cognitive functions:

• perception of the initial data of the task,
• memory (search and actualization of past experience related to the task),
• thinking (experience transformation, finding a solution and evaluating the result).

Perception + Memory + Thinking → Intellectual reaction.

According to Guilford, intelligence - it's a lot of intellectual abilities.

Processed Information → Smart Operations → Smart Operations Products.

Any intellectual ability is characterized by three parameters:

• type of smart operation,
• the type of information being processed,
• the type of product received.

Guilford distinguished the following types of intellectual operations:

Types of processed information (according to the degree of abstraction):

1. Figurative information (O) - a sensory-generalized result of the direct perception of an object.

2. Symbolic information (C) is some system of notation for real or ideal objects.

3. Conceptual (semantic) information (P) - the semantic meaning of phenomena, objects, signs.

4. Behavioral information (B) is associated with the general behavioral characteristics of a person or group.

Intelligent operation products:

• Implication (I) is associated with the transfer of properties, characteristics, structure from one object to another (for example, building an analogy).

According to Guilford's model, each triple of parameters represents an elementary intellectual ability:

type of operation / type of information / type of product (BOE = perception of figurative information, as a result of which a product is obtained - a unit - the perception of a picture as an indivisible whole).

The Guildford model can be used to solve practical problems of developmental learning:

• to assess the level of intellectual development;
• when selecting learning tasks for the topic being studied;
• when determining the sequence of educational tasks, to implement one of the main didactic principles "from simple to complex".

A reflex as a mental mechanism works successfully when an animal (human) finds itself in a situation that has already been encountered in its experience. Experience also underlies the formation of new reactions. Especially for the accelerated acquisition of important conditioned responses, many animals undergo a period of learning, which takes the form of a game.

It is likely that some species of animals in the course of their existence faced situations where survival depended on how quickly the problem was solved. In these situations, it was not the one who chose the solution method for a long time and trained his conditioned reflexes that survived, but the one who managed to transform the accumulated experience and, on the basis of this transformation, was able to almost immediately solve a new problem. For example, if in the struggle for food it is necessary to get a high-hanging fruit as quickly as possible, then the animal that immediately found an object with which this fruit could be knocked down significantly outperformed the animal that needed to use the trial and error method to achieve the same result. Thus, in phylogeny, a new line of behavioral development was determined - intellectual behavior. Intellectual behavior is associated with the emergence of a new type of reaction - intellectual. Without revealing in detail the problems associated with the mechanism of occurrence and features of the development of intellectual reactions (this will be the subject of further study), we will try to define what we mean by intellectual reactions and imagine all their diversity.

To begin with, we note that the intellectual reaction is primarily an internal reaction. This means that it takes place in the head and does not involve any external activity. Some mental structure is responsible for intellectual reactions, usually called intellect. Unlike the trial and error method, during which a conditioned reflex is gradually developed, which is the correct solution, the intellectual method leads to the solution of the problem earlier, and after the solution is found, no errors are observed anymore (see Fig. 12).

Rice. 12. Qualitative comparison of the results of the intellectual and non-intelligent methods of solving the problem

Intelligence is usually described as some kind of complex mental function responsible for the ability to solve various problems. Based on general ideas about the process of solving problems, we can say that intelligence as a complex mental function includes components that allow:

Gain the experience needed to solve a problem

remember this experience

transform experience, adapt it to solve the problem (combine, process, generalize, etc.), and ultimately find a solution

Evaluate the success of the solution found

· replenish the "library of intelligent solutions".

These components of intelligence determine the variety of intellectual reactions. At the same time, any intellectual reaction can be represented as a structure of basic cognitive functions (Fig. 13):

perception of the initial data of the task,

memory (search and actualization of past experience related to the task),

Thinking (transformation of experience, finding a solution and evaluating the result).

Rice. 13 Cognitive structure of intellectual reaction.

The intellectual components listed above give only a very schematic idea of ​​the structure of intelligence. A more detailed description of this structure was once proposed by J. Gilford. In Guildford's model, intelligence is presented as a kind of computer that, with the help of a system of elementary operations, is able to process a variety of input information to obtain certain results - intellectual products (Fig. 14). The word "capable" is emphasized because in Guildford's model intelligence is considered primarily as a set of intellectual abilities.

Rice. 14 Intellect as an information processor.

Any intellectual ability is characterized by three parameters:

the type of smart operation,

The type of information being processed

the type of product received.

Guilford distinguished the following types of intellectual operations:

Perception (B) is an operation used to obtain the necessary information, experience.

Memory (P) - necessary for remembering experience.

Divergent operations (D) allow you to transform the experience gained, obtain its combinations, a variety of solutions, and come up with new ones based on it.

Convergent operations (K) are used to obtain a single solution based on logical and causal relationships.

Evaluation (O) - designed to compare the found solution with quantitative or qualitative criteria.

Each of the intellectual operations can be performed with different types of information. These types differ in the degree of abstraction of processed information messages. If you arrange the types of information in ascending order of their degree of abstraction, you get the following sequence.

Figurative information (O) is a sensory-generalized result of the direct perception of an object. The image of an object is how we can represent this object to ourselves, and how we can see or hear it in our own representation. The image is always specifically sensual, and at the same time sensually generalized, since it is the result of remembering, layering on each other and combining previous sensations.

Symbolic information (C) is some system of notation for real or ideal objects. Usually, a symbol is understood as some sign pointing to some object (group of objects), and as a rule, having one or more common features or conditional links with the designated object. For example, a mathematical symbol R indicates the set of real numbers. The sign is an abbreviation of the word "rational" (connection with the designated objects)

A sign most often has very little resemblance to the designated object, so we can say that symbolic information is more abstract than figurative information.

Conceptual (semantic) information (P) - the semantic meaning of phenomena, objects, signs. Conceptual information includes both the functional meaning of the object (why the object is needed) and the semantic content of the sign. For example, the functional meaning of a knife is “a tool for cutting”, and the semantic meaning of a mathematical sign R- all real numbers .

Behavioral information (B) is associated with both general behavioral characteristics of a person (degree of activity, emotions, motives) and behavioral characteristics of a group (role differentiation of group members, a system of relations within a group, rules, norms of behavior, an idea of ​​morality in a group)

Products of intelligent operations are those results, solutions that were obtained after performing intelligent operations. Products differ from each other both in complexity and in the type of changes that have occurred with the original information. According to Guilford's model, there are six types of products.

The unit (E) is an elementary product, a kind of atom. A unit can be one property, parameter or one object, as if having no structure, or the structure of which is not essential for an intellectual operation.

Class (K) - a set of units united in some way. The most important way of combining is generalization. This product is the result of solving problems of recognition and classification.

Attitude (O) is obtained when an intellectual operation reveals dependence, ratio, connection of some objects or characteristics.

System (C) can be simplified as a set of units (elements of the system) interconnected.

Transformation (T) - obtaining as a result of an intellectual operation any changes in the original information.

Implication (I) is associated with the transfer of properties, characteristics, structure from one object to another. A striking example of implication is the construction of an analogy.

According to Guilford's model, each triplet of parameters (the type of intellectual operation, the type of information being processed, and the product of an intellectual reaction) represents an elementary intellectual ability. The set of intellectual abilities, obtained with the help of all possible combinations of the values ​​of these three parameters, form the structure of the intellect, which is usually depicted as a labeled parallelepiped (Fig. 15). The presence of sets of developed abilities is a factor in the successful solution of various problems.

Rice. 15. The structure of intelligence (according to Guilford)

It is not difficult to calculate the number of elemental abilities. To do this, you need to multiply the number of types of operations (5), types of information (4) and types of products (6), as a result, you get 120. This number can be even more if you consider that there are several types of figurative information (visual, auditory, and etc.). Each of the abilities is indicated in the form of a triple of capital letters:

The first letter indicates the type of operation,

The second letter indicates the type of information,

The third letter indicates the type of product.

For example, BOE is the perception of figurative information, as a result of which a product is obtained - a unit. This type of intellectual abilities ensures the perception of the artistic image of the picture as an undifferentiated whole.

The Guildford model can be used to solve practical problems of developmental learning. First - to assess the level of intellectual development. Since a developed intellect presupposes the development of all intellectual abilities, in order to determine the level of development in each specific case, it is enough to determine which of the 120 abilities are developed and which are not. This is done using a system of test tasks, where each of the tasks is correlated (correlated) with a certain intellectual ability.

Secondly, when selecting learning tasks for the topic being studied. First of all, the model helps to avoid the one-sidedness error, when the teacher gives tasks of the same type that activate any one intellectual ability. For example, when memorization of single facts is set as the task of a training session (the ability of PPE). Sometimes training is generally based on memorization, repetition of what the teacher said (“reproductive method”). The other extreme is the neglect of solid and stable knowledge that appears during memorization and the predominant focus on divergent operations ("heuristic method").

The requirement for a full-fledged study of the topic should be associated with the development of a sufficiently large set of intellectual operations with information of different levels of abstraction, obtaining products of various types.

Thirdly, when determining the order of the educational tasks, to implement one of the main didactic principles “from simple to complex”. The values ​​of the three parameters of intellectual abilities, located respectively on the three axes, are placed there not in a random order, but in the order corresponding to the objective laws of development. Whatever we study, always the first operations with new material begin with the perception and memorization of some single figurative representations (BOE, POE). Over time, these ideas are formed into a conceptual system (CPS). It is only necessary to explain why the behavioral type of information is the most complex. This becomes clear if we take into account that Guilford considered the performance of behavioral operations primarily in a social context (the functioning of a person in a certain social environment). The processes of socialization become fully defined when a person starts professional activity. Therefore, operations with behavioral information are the most complex.

Guildford's model is interesting not only because of its practical significance, it allows us to present the general structure of mental functions, which is the result of phylogenesis and ontogenesis. The model clearly shows that mental functions that appeared at later stages do not displace more primitive forms, but supplement the structure of the psyche with new elements.

However, this model is not without drawbacks. One of its dubious assumptions is the independence of elementary intellectual abilities. In the following sections of the manual, various types of mental functions will be discussed, which appeared precisely due to the influence of some cognitive functions on others (for example, apperception or mnemonic abilities).

Similar remarks can be made not only about the system of elementary abilities, but also about different types of behavior. The development of intellectual behavior in no way cancels behavior based on instincts or conditioned reflexes, it is only included in the general structure of behavior, while exerting a noticeable effect on some of its old substructures.

This can be seen by examining the influence of intelligence on instinctive and conditioned reflex behavior. As already mentioned, a conditioned reflex can suppress the manifestation of instinct. But with the same success the intellect can cope with instinct.

The influence of intellect on instinctive behavior, in particular, can be expressed in the mechanism of sublimation already mentioned above. Mental energy is directed not to the satisfaction of instinctive needs, but to the solution of creative tasks using divergent and convergent intellectual operations.

Often the suppression of instinctive and conditioned reflex reactions occurs under the control of such an important mental function for directed development as will. The will is finally formed at the intellectual stage of ontogeny. The main characteristic of the volitional process is the presence of a goal and the coordination of all behavior in accordance with it. An emotionally experienced image or idea can act as a goal. So sacrificing oneself for the sake of a religious or social idea of ​​service is a vivid example of the suppression of the instinct of self-preservation.

So, the process of development of behavior in ontogenesis and phylogenesis ultimately comes down to the development of intellectual behavior. Since the most important components of intellectual behavior are cognitive functions (attention, perception, memory and thinking), it is necessary to analyze the processes of development of these functions in phylogeny and ontogenesis and, on the basis of this analysis, to identify general patterns.

9. Perception as a mental function. Structure law.

Perception - this is the process of forming an internal image of an object or phenomenon from information received through the senses. Synonym for "perception" perception .

The question “what are the algorithms of human perception” is one of the fundamental problems of modern science, which is very far from being resolved. It was the search for an answer to this question that gave birth to the problem of artificial intelligence. This also includes areas such as the theory of pattern recognition, decision theory, classification and cluster analysis etc.

Consider an example: a person saw something and perceived it as a cow. As you know, in order to find something, you must first know what to look for. This means that the psyche of this person already has some set of signs of a cow - but which one? How do these features interact with each other? Are they stable or do they change over time?

In fact, these are all fundamental questions. A good illustration here is the definition given to a cow at a symposium on problems of classification and cluster analysis(USA, 1980): "We call an object a cow if this object has enough properties of a cow, and, perhaps, none of the properties is defining." Let us pay attention to the fact that this definition is both iterative and cyclical, that is, in order to make a decision according to this definition, it is necessary to constantly introduce new features into consideration and compare the result with a certain, already existing, integral image.

Such problems, of course, are also solved by technical means. However, even fairly simple tasks - rocket recognition in a relatively clear sky, voice recognition (under standardized conditions), handwriting recognition, face recognition (with severe limitations) - require a very high level of software and hardware to be solved.

On the other hand, a person can easily cope with such problems, and, as we have already seen, the computing capabilities of a person are comparable in order of magnitude to the capabilities of modern computers. Consequently , human perception is based on highly productive mechanisms and algorithms for information processing, of which only a few are known to date. primary filtering, classification and structuring, special algorithms for organizing perception, filtering at the highest levels of information processing.

primary filtration. Each species, including humans, has receptors that allow the body to receive the information that is most useful for its adaptation to the environment, i.e. Each species has its own perception of reality. For some animals, reality consists mainly of smells, for the most part unknown to us, for others, of sounds that are largely not perceived by us. In other words, already primary filtration occurs at the level of the sense organs incoming information.

Classification and structuring. The human brain has mechanisms that streamline the processes of perception. At any moment, stimuli are perceived by us in accordance with those categories of images that are gradually established after birth. Some more familiar signals are recognized automatically, almost immediately. At other times, when information is new, incomplete, or ambiguous, our brains act by putting forward hypotheses, which he checks one by one in order to accept the one that seems to him the most plausible or most acceptable. The way we classify each of us is closely related to our previous life experience.

Algorithmic procedures used in the organization of perception. They were best analyzed in the works of representatives of Gestalt psychology.

Separation of an image (picture) into a figure and a background. Our brains have an innate tendency to structure signals in such a way that anything smaller, more properly configured, or meaningful to us is perceived as a figure, and anything else as a much less structured background. The same applies to other modalities (one's own surname, pronounced in the noise of the crowd, is for a person a figure against a sound background). The picture of perception is rebuilt if another object becomes a figure in it. An example is the image "" (Fig. 8).

Rice. 8. Ruby Vase

Filling in the gaps . The brain is always trying to reduce a fragmented image into a figure with a simple and complete outline. For example, individual points located along the contour of the cross are perceived as a solid cross.

Grouping elements according to different criteria (proximity, similarity, common direction). The continuation of the conversation in the general noise of voices is possible only because we hear words spoken in the same voice and tone. At the same time, the brain experiences great difficulties when two different messages are simultaneously transmitted to it in the same voice (for example, in two ears).

Thus, from various interpretations that could be made about a series of elements, our brain most often chooses the simplest, the most complete, or the one that includes the largest number of considered principles.

Filtering at the highest levels of information processing. Although our sense organs are limited by primary filtration, they are nevertheless under continuous influence of stimuli. Therefore, the nervous system has a number of mechanisms for the secondary filtering of information.

Sensory adaptation acts in the receptors themselves, reducing their sensitivity to repetitive or prolonged stimuli. For example, if you leave the cinema on a sunny day, you can't see anything at first, and then the picture returns to normal. At the same time, a person is the least able to adapt to pain, since pain is a signal of dangerous disturbances in the functioning of the body, and the function of his survival is directly related to it.

Filtration using the reticular formation . The reticular formation blocks the transmission of impulses that are not very important for the survival of the organism for decoding - this is the mechanism of addiction. For example, a city dweller does not feel the chemical taste of drinking water; does not hear the noise of the street, being busy with important business.

Thus, filtering through the reticular formation is one of the most useful mechanisms by which the individual can more easily notice any change or any new element in the environment and counter it if necessary. The same mechanism allows a person to solve an important task, ignoring all interference, that is, it increases the noise immunity of a person as an information processing system.

These mechanisms have been formed in the process of evolution and well provide the functions of a person at the level of an individual. But they often become harmful at the level of interpersonal relationships relatively young in evolution. Thus, often in another person we see what we expect to see, and not what is actually there; especially this is enhanced by emotional coloring. Thus, mutual misunderstanding between people has a deep nature, and it can and should be counteracted only consciously, without expecting that "everything will work out by itself."

10. Biologically based perception. Changing its role in phylogenesis.

In the early stages of phylogenesis, some animals have receptors that perceive several types of stimuli at once.

Directions of specialization (appearance of special types of receptors, increase in their sensitivity) are associated primarily with the need to survive in a particular habitat under certain conditions.

In ontogenesis, functional differentiation of receptors occurs and the role of the sense organs changes in the process of child growth. In the early stages of ontogenesis, touch and sensation play an important role.

Consider the structure of the visual apparatus of a frog and a cat.

At the ganglion level, the frog performs special processing functions, the essence of which is detection (selection from the image):

• borders,
• moving rounded edge (insect detectors),
• moving border,
• dimming.

The strength of the excitation depends on the speed of movement. This type of detector allows the frog to detect movement in a certain range of speeds (eg food - insects).

The apparatus for the primary processing of visual stimuli in the frog is specialized; it almost immediately produces a ready-made solution to the problem of recognizing objects that are important for its life.

In a cat, the visual field of receptors is, as it were, divided into elements. In each of these elements, excitation is processed due to special synaptic connections. Part of the synaptic connections that receive signals from the peripheral ring of the visual element when exposed to light give inhibition (weakening) of the signal, and the rest of the synapses associated with the central circle of the visual element, on the contrary, excite (amplify the signal).

If the zone of inhibition is illuminated, and the zone of excitation remains in the shade, the element produces braking, which is the greater, the more the zone of inhibition is illuminated. If light falls on both the excitation zone and the inhibition zone, the excitation of the element becomes greater than in the previous case. It will be maximum at full illumination of the excitation zone and minimum illumination of the inhibition zone. Thus, it is obvious that the elements of the cat's visual field react to the light difference, that is, they are contrast detectors.

The contrast detector is clearly not enough to recognize the object, this requires additional processing. But this processing in a cat is no longer carried out at the stage of primary processing, but at a later stage associated with the work of the central nervous system.

Primary (biological) perception uses some algorithm stored at the genetic level to process information. We can say that this type of perception is an undifferentiated mental function because it includes genetic memory and thinking (information processing).

Specialized methods of preliminary processing of sensory information are inferior to more general methods that are insufficient for recognition and require further processing of information. The specified organization of perception allows the organism to successfully interact with various and even unknown objects, adequately respond to them, thereby providing a better adaptation mechanism. Comparison of the stages of primary processing of a cat and a frog shows a decrease in the role of primary information processing.

The role of perception in phylogeny and ontogenesis is declining, just as the role of instinctive behavior is declining.

Just as the first stage of behavior - instinctive behavior is biologically determined, so the first type of perception in ontogenesis and phylogenesis is closely related to the biological, hereditary structure of the body's sensory apparatus, that is, to the structure of its nervous system.

The sensory apparatus provides for the reception of information from the external environment and the formation of what is usually called sensation. Let us consider the general trends in the development of this apparatus in phylogeny and ontogenesis. As already mentioned, the sensory apparatus appears at that stage of phylogenesis, when the nervous system is formed in organisms, specialized cells appear that are responsible for receiving an external stimulus signal - receptors and cells that process the received information - neurons.

The first direction of development that should be indicated is the development of the receptor system. Their sets provide the primary reception of information (visual, auditory, tactile) from the stimulus and the emergence of a sensation. Based on the general law of development, it can be assumed that functional differentiation of the receptor system is observed in phylogenesis.

Indeed, in the early stages of phylogenesis, there were receptors that received several types of signals. Many species of jellyfish, for example, have receptors that can respond to several types of stimuli: they are sensitive to light, to gravity, and to sound vibrations.

Subsequently, there was a transition from receptors of an undifferentiated type to specialized groups responsible for individual sensations. Directions of specialization (appearance of special types of receptors, increase in their sensitivity) are associated primarily with the need to survive in a particular habitat under certain conditions. In each species of animals, one or another dominant (main) information channel of perception has been formed in phylogenesis. Many species of birds, for example, have the best developed eyesight, as it is used to find food. Dogs have the best developed sense of smell, snakes - the perception of a thermal field, etc.

In ontogenesis, one can see a similar picture of the development of the sensory apparatus. There is a functional differentiation of receptors and the role of the sense organs in the process of child growth is changing. Consider the change in the role of the sense organs, which can be tracked during the first year of life. The main role in the sensations of the baby is played by touch and taste, since the main task is to find the mother's breast and nutrition. In the future, the visual apparatus and the motor systems accompanying this development begin to actively develop. During the first month and a half of life, pupil accommodation (a mechanism for focusing) and the ability to coordinate eye movement appear, thanks to which the child can examine parts of an object, look from one object to another and track moving objects. From 3-4 months, the child is able to recognize familiar faces. In the future, thinking and memory begin to play an ever greater role in the development of perception.

From the development of the sensory apparatus, let us now proceed to consider the development of the next link in the mechanism of perception - the development of the primary processing of information. Primary processing is carried out at the “hardware” level, that is, due to the special structure of the neuron system and the special type of neurons themselves associated with the receptor system. The structure of the primary processing system is inherited, therefore, the method of this processing is a biological factor.

In order to identify trends in the development of the primary processing apparatus in phylogenesis, let us consider the change in the principles of functioning of this apparatus during the transition from an animal at a lower stage of development - a frog to an animal with a more highly organized nervous system - a cat.

Natural are such conditioned reflexes that are formed on the properties of unconditioned stimuli - smell, color, shape, etc.

We have already given the example of a child who has never tasted a lemon. Such a child does not show any food reaction to the sight, smell and shape of a lemon. However, it is enough for him to try a lemon, as already its appearance, smell, shape cause salivation. This is because a natural conditional for these properties of lemon has formed. Such natural conditioned reflexes are formed not only to the properties of the unconditioned stimulus, but also to other stimuli that always accompany this unconditioned time.stimulus. Artificial conditioned reflexes are distinguished from natural conditioned reflexes. This is the name of conditioned reflexes that are formed to stimuli that are not associated with the unconditioned and are not its property.

EXCITATION AND INHIBITION IN THE BRAIN CORTEX

Two interrelated processes - excitation and inhibition, continuously proceed in the cerebral cortex and determine its activity. The formation of a conditioned reflex is also associated with the interaction of these two processes. Studying the phenomena of inhibition in the cerebral cortex, IP Pavlov divided them into two types: external and internal. Let us consider these two types of inhibition in the cortex.

As we already know, the development of a conditioned reflex occurredwalks in special conditions - in special isolated chambers, where sounds and other irritants do not enter. If, during the development of a conditioned reflex, a new stimulus begins to act on the dog, for example, noise, strong light, a sharp call, etc., the conditioned one does not form, and the old, already formed conditioned one weakens or completely disappears. The conditioned reflex is inhibited due to the appearance of another focus of excitation in the cerebral cortex. IP Pavlov called such inhibition, caused by an additional stimulus, the action of which causes another reflex act, external inhibition. This type of inhibition can also occur in other parts of the nervous system. IP Pavlov also gave this type of inhibition the name of unconditional inhibition.

Unconditional inhibition is possible not only as a result of the appearance of a second focus of excitation. It can also occur with a significant increase in the strength or duration of the action of the conditioned stimulus. In this case, the conditioned reflex sharply weakens or completely disappears. I. P. Pavlov called such inhibition transcendental. Since this type of inhibition can occur not only in the cortex, but also in other parts of the central nervous system, it was classified as unconditioned inhibition.

Another type of inhibition, characteristic only of the higher parts of the central nervous system and of great importance, is internal inhibition. IP Pavlov also called this type of inhibition conditional inhibition. The condition that determines the occurrence of internal inhibition is the non-reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus by the unconditioned one.

There are several types of internal inhibition arising from different conditions of non-reinforcement of a conditioned stimulus by an unconditioned one.

Consider some types of internal inhibition.

In the formation of a conditioned reflex, a prerequisite is the reinforcement of the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned one. If, after the conditioned reflex has been developed, call it several times and not understrengthened by an unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned reflex gradually weakens and finally disappears. For example, if a dog with otherbut worked out conditionalsalivation reflex to the bell several times to cause salivation only with a bell and never reinforce with an unconditioned stimulus, that is, do not give food, salivation will gradually decrease, and finally stop. IP Pavlov called such a gradual disappearance of the conditioned reflex the extinction of the conditioned reflex. The extinction of the conditioned reflex is one of the types of internal inhibition.

Some time after extinction, the conditioned reflex can be restored either without reinforcement or after a single application of the unconditioned stimulus. Thus, during extinction, internal inhibition occurs due to the fact that the conditioned stimulus is repeated several times without reinforcement by the unconditioned stimulus.

Another type of internal inhibition is differentiation. This type of internal inhibition consists in the fact that the conditioned reflex activity of the animal manifests itself only in the presence of one specific stimulus and does not manifest itself even in the presence of a stimulus very close to it. This is achieved by the fact that one of the stimuli is reinforced, and the other, close to it, is not reinforced. As a result, a conditioned reflex reaction occurs to a reinforced stimulus and is absent to an unreinforced one. So, for example, if you develop a conditioned reflex in a dogbut discharges at 100 metronome beats per minute, initially close to 100 frequencies will also cause salivation. In the future, when 100 metronome beats are reinforced with food and other frequencies are not reinforced, it can be achieved that salivation in a dog occurs at 100 metronome beats, and is absent at 96 beats.

The process of internal inhibition is of great importance in the life of the organism.

In view of the fact that conditioned reflexes are formed in the course of life on the basis of individual experience, the ability to differentiate, i.e., to distinguish various close stimuli from each other, acquires exceptionally great importance in the life of the organism. An animal living in difficult environmental conditions, with a large number of similar external stimuli, will be able to exist under the condition of fine differentiation, i.e., distinguishing one stimulus from another. For example, an animal that cannot distinguish (differentiate) a rustle made by a weak prey animal from a rustle made by a strong enemy animal is doomed to a quick death.

Expedient behavior of a dog is possible only under the condition of interaction between exteroceptive and interoceptive analyzers. The motor analyzer plays a leading role: excitations from all other analyzers go to it and a certain behavior arises, aimed at achieving an adaptive result.
Natural and artificial reflex.
Conditioned reflexes are divided into natural and artificial reflexes. In the first case, their signals are the natural properties of unconditioned stimuli: the type and smell of food, various light and sound factors that accompany these stimuli in natural conditions. For example, the sight and smell of meat triggers a defensive reflex. Conditioned reflexes are developed quickly (only one or two exercises are required) and are held firmly. In the second case, conditioned reflexes produced by a combination of two completely different stimuli are called artificial: a reflex developed to a command, reinforced by food and mechanical action.

According to the ratio of the action of conditioned and unconditioned excitation, for example, there are distinguished and trace conditioned reflexes.

Temporary interaction between indifferent and unconditioned stimuli during the development of various types of conditioned reflexes

If shortly after the onset of the action of an indifferent agent, an unconditioned stimulus joins it, then a cash, coinciding or short-delayed cash conditioned reflex is formed with a time ratio of 2-4 seconds.

Many researchers believe that the group of trace conditioned reflexes should include a conditioned reflex for time, which is developed if the animal is fed after a certain period of time, because this reflex was developed on the traces of a previous food irritation. At the same time, the present irritation in the form of a certain level of blood chemistry that has arisen after a given period of time is also important. A conditioned reflex for time can also be developed to such available stimuli as daily changes in the external environment (factors associated with the change of day and night) and in the internal environment of the body (daily periodicity of physiological processes). In addition, many periodic phenomena in the body (respiration, heartbeat and secretory periodicals of the digestive tract, etc.) can be a "landmark" of the body in its "count" of time, i.e., conditional signals of the corresponding behavior.

The basis of the temporal connection between indifferent stimuli is an unconditional orienting reaction. So it turned out that mechanical irritation of the skin of the hind paw by the kayak causes a strong orienting reflex in the animal: the dog turns its head and looks at the hind paw (the sound of this kayak acting in front of this kayak did not cause this reaction). After some time, it was noticed that this orienting reaction already occurs during the action of the sound, i.e., the sound becomes its signal (Scheme 6.6).

Temporary connections between indifferent stimuli, as well as secondary conditioned reflexes, if they are not associated with any unconditioned stimulus, are unstable. They fade away as quickly as the unconditioned orienting reflex on the basis of which they are formed.

Conditioned reflexes are complex adaptive reactions of the body, carried out by the higher parts of the central nervous system by forming a temporary connection between the signal stimulus and the unconditional reflex act that reinforces this stimulus. Based on the analysis of the patterns of formation of conditioned reflexes, the school created the doctrine of higher nervous activity (see). Unlike unconditioned reflexes (see), which ensure the adaptation of the body to the constant influences of the external environment, conditioned reflexes enable the body to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Conditioned reflexes are formed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes, which requires the coincidence in time of some stimulus from the external environment (conditioned stimulus) with the implementation of one or another unconditioned reflex. The conditioned stimulus becomes a signal of a dangerous or favorable situation, enabling the body to respond with an adaptive reaction.

Conditioned reflexes are unstable and are acquired in the process of individual development of the organism. Conditioned reflexes are divided into natural and artificial. The first ones arise in response to natural stimuli in the natural conditions of existence: the puppy, which received meat for the first time, sniffs it for a long time and timidly eats it, and this act of eating is accompanied. In the future, only the sight and smell of meat causes the puppy to lick and excrete. Artificial conditioned reflexes are developed in an experimental setting, when the conditioned stimulus for the animal is an impact that is not related to unconditioned reactions in the natural habitat of animals (for example, flashing light, the sound of a metronome, sound clicks).

Conditioned reflexes are divided into food, defensive, sexual, indicative, depending on the unconditioned reaction that reinforces the conditioned stimulus. Conditioned reflexes can be named depending on the recorded response of the body: motor, secretory, vegetative, excretory, and can also be designated by the type of conditioned stimulus - light, sound, etc.

For the development of conditioned reflexes in an experiment, a number of conditions are necessary: ​​1) the conditioned stimulus must always precede the unconditioned stimulus in time; 2) the conditioned stimulus should not be strong so as not to cause its own reaction of the organism; 3) as a conditional stimulus is taken, usually found in the surrounding conditions of the habitat of a given animal or person; 4) the animal or person must be healthy, vigorous and have sufficient motivation (see).

There are also conditioned reflexes of various orders. When a conditioned stimulus is reinforced with an unconditioned stimulus, a first-order conditioned reflex is developed. If some stimulus is reinforced by a conditioned stimulus, to which a conditioned reflex has already been developed, then a second-order conditioned reflex is developed to the first stimulus. Conditioned reflexes of higher orders are developed with difficulty, which depends on the level of organization of a living organism.

In a dog, it is possible to develop conditioned reflexes up to 5-6 orders, in a monkey - up to 10-12 orders, in a person - up to 50-100 orders.

The works of IP Pavlov and his students established that the leading role in the mechanism of the emergence of conditioned reflexes belongs to the formation of a functional connection between the centers of excitation from conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. An important role was assigned to the cerebral cortex, where the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli, creating foci of excitation, began to interact with each other, creating temporary connections. Later, using electrophysiological research methods, it was found that the interaction between conditioned and unconditioned excitations can first occur at the level of the subcortical structures of the brain, and at the level of the cerebral cortex, the formation of an integral conditioned reflex activity is carried out.

However, the cerebral cortex always keeps the activity of subcortical formations under control.

Studies of the activity of single neurons of the central nervous system by the microelectrode method showed that both conditioned and unconditioned excitations (sensory-biological convergence) come to one neuron. It is especially pronounced in the neurons of the cerebral cortex. These data made it necessary to abandon the idea of ​​the presence of foci of conditioned and unconditioned excitation in the cerebral cortex and create the theory of convergent closure of the conditioned reflex. According to this theory, a temporary connection between conditioned and unconditioned excitation arises in the form of a chain of biochemical reactions in the protoplasm of the nerve cell of the cerebral cortex.

Modern ideas about conditioned reflexes have been significantly expanded and deepened due to the study of the higher nervous activity of animals in the conditions of their free natural behavior. It has been established that the environment, along with the time factor, plays an important role in the behavior of the animal. Any stimulus from the external environment can become conditional, allowing the body to adapt to environmental conditions. As a result of the formation of conditioned reflexes, the body reacts some time before exposure to an unconditioned stimulus. Consequently, conditioned reflexes contribute to the successful finding of food by animals, help to avoid danger in advance and most perfectly navigate in the changing conditions of existence.

CONDITIONAL REFLEXES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The main elementary act of higher nervous activity is the formation of a conditioned reflex.

There are countless conditioned reflexes. Subject to the appropriate rules, any perceived stimulus can be made a stimulus that triggers a conditioned reflex (signal), and any activity of the body can be its basis (reinforcement). According to the type of signals and reinforcements, as well as the relationship between them, different classifications of conditioned reflexes have been created. As for the study of the physiological mechanism of temporary connections, researchers have a lot of work to do here.

The classification of conditioned reflexes was determined according to the following particular features: 1) the circumstances of formation, 2) the type of signal, 3) the composition of the signal, 4) the type of reinforcement, 5) the relationship in time of the conditioned stimulus and reinforcement.

General signs of conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflex a) is an individual higher adaptation to changing conditions of life; b) carried out by the higher parts of the central nervous system; c) is acquired through temporary neural connections and is lost if the environmental conditions that caused it have changed; d) is a warning signal reaction.

So, a conditioned reflex is an adaptive activity carried out by the higher parts of the central nervous system through the formation of temporary connections between the signal stimulation and the signaled reaction.

Natural and artificial conditioned reflexes. Depending on the nature of the signal stimulus, conditioned reflexes are divided into natural and artificial.

Conditioned reflexes are called natural, which are formed in response to the influence of agents that are natural signs of a signaled unconditioned irritation.

An example of a natural conditioned food reflex is the salivation of a dog to the smell of meat. This reflex inevitably develops naturally over the course of a dog's life.

Conditioned reflexes are called artificial, which are formed in response to the influence of agents that are not natural signs of signaled unconditioned irritation. An example of an artificial conditioned reflex is the salivation of a dog to a sound, a metronome. In life, this sound has nothing to do with food. The experimenter artificially made it a food intake signal.

Nature develops natural conditioned reflexes from generation to generation in all animals according to their way of life. As a result, natural conditioned reflexes are more easily formed, more likely to be strengthened and more durable than artificial ones.

Exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive conditioned reflexes. Conditioned reflexes to external stimuli are called exteroceptive, to stimuli from internal organs - interoceptive, to stimuli of the musculoskeletal system - proprioceptive.

Exteroceptive reflexes are divided into reflexes caused by distant (acting at a distance) and contact (acting by direct contact) stimuli. Further, they are divided into groups according to the main types of sensory perception; visual, auditory, etc.

Interoceptive conditioned reflexes can also be grouped according to organs and systems that are sources of signaling: gastric, intestinal, cardiac, vascular, pulmonary, renal, uterine, etc. A special position is occupied by the so-called time reflex. It manifests itself in various vital functions of the body, for example, in the daily periodicity of metabolic functions, in the release of gastric juice at the onset of dinner time, in the ability to wake up at the appointed hour. Apparently, the body "counts time" mainly by interoceptive signals. The subjective experience of interoceptive reflexes does not have the figurative objectivity of exteroceptive ones. It gives only vague feelings that make up the overall well-being, which is reflected in mood and performance.

Proprioceptive conditioned reflexes underlie all motor skills. They begin to develop from the first flapping of the wings of the chick, from the first steps of the child. Associated with them is the mastery of all types of locomotion. The coherence and accuracy of movement depends on them. The proprioceptive reflexes of the hand and the vocal apparatus in humans are being used in a completely new way in connection with labor and speech. The subjective "experience" of proprioceptive reflexes consists mainly in the "muscular feeling" of the position of the body in space and its members relative to each other. At the same time, for example, signals from the accommodative and oculomotor muscles have a visual nature of perception: they provide information about the distance of the object under consideration and its movements; signals from the muscles of the hand and fingers make it possible to assess the shape of objects. With the help of proprioceptive signaling, a person reproduces the events taking place around him with his movements.

Conditioned reflexes to simple and complex stimuli. A conditioned reflex can be developed to any one of the listed extero-, intero-, or proprioceptive stimuli, for example, to turning on a light or to a simple sound. But in real life this rarely happens. More often, a complex of several stimuli becomes a signal, for example, smell, warmth, soft fur of a mother cat become an irritant of a conditioned sucking reflex for a kitten. Accordingly, conditioned reflexes are divided into simple and complex, or complex, stimuli.

Natural signals always consist of many components, in other words, they are complex stimuli. Conditioned reflexes are formed to such signals that are more complex and variable than to simple signals. In a complex signal, each of its components has a different physiological strength and corresponds to the effect caused by each stimulus.

Simultaneous complex stimuli consist of several components acting simultaneously. Conditioned reflexes to successive complexes of stimuli are formed if individual stimuli follow each other in a certain sequence (such a signal is reinforced by food). Numerous studies have established that as a result of a more or less prolonged training of a conditioned reflex to a complex stimulus, a fusion occurs, a synthesis of the individual components of the complex into a single stimulus. So, with repeated use of a sequential complex of stimuli, consisting of four sounds, they merge into a single stimulus. As a result, each of the four sounds loses its signal value, i.e. applied alone does not cause a conditioned response.

Conditioned reflexes to a chain of stimuli. If indifferent stimuli, from which a complex signal is formed, act sequentially, i.e. do not coincide with each other, and the unconditioned reinforcement joins the last of them, then a conditioned reflex to a chain of stimuli can be formed on such a signal. The signal value of an individual member of the chain turns out to be the greater, the closer it is to the reinforcement, i.e. to the end of the chain. The formation of conditioned reflexes to a chain of stimuli underlies the development of various so-called motor skills by reinforcing random or forced movements. For example, after saying “Give me a paw!” to a dog, we “raise” its paw ourselves, “rewarding” the dog with a piece of biscuit. Soon the dog, having heard these words, “gives a paw” on its own. An analysis of the mechanism of formation of this type of reflex showed that at first a temporary connection is formed between the three foci of excitation: auditory, motor and food centers. Then the sequence of action of the chain members is fixed. Finally, the position of its main members of the “give paw” sound signal, proprioceptive (limb movement) and natural food (feeding) is clarified.

An important concept in the physiology of higher nervous activity is integrity in conditioned reflex activity. It manifests itself primarily in systemicity, stereotypy, "settings" and "switching" of reactions according to the signals of the situation. As a result, animal behavior is determined not by single signals, but by the entire holistic picture of the environment. Conditioned reflex activity covers many aspects of the present and connects it with the experience of the past, and this, in turn, leads to a subtle adaptation to future events.

The real stimuli that the organism deals with form a dynamic stereotype of stimuli. The existing stereotype of stimuli directs the formation of new reflexes in a certain direction. For example, when assimilating new objects of hunting, the predator uses the most reliable hunting techniques already familiar to him. The stereotype allows you to adequately respond, despite some changes in the environment. So, for example, having developed a stereotype of driving a car, you can drive a car, slightly varying the control depending on the nature of the road surface, and at the same time talk with a passenger sitting next to you. An analysis of human activity shows that each of us continuously forms an innumerable number of household, work, sports and other stereotypes throughout our lives. In particular, this is manifested in the appearance of appetite at certain times of the day, the stereotypical performance of work or sports movements, etc. As we age, stereotypes become stronger and harder to change. Alteration of the prevailing stereotypes is always a great difficulty.

Conditioned reflex setting. The formation of successive complexes from situational and main conditioned stimuli in the form of a chain with far-spaced links is the physiological mechanism of the so-called conditioned reflex tuning. The very name “setting” indicates that we are not talking about the performance of some kind of activity, but only about the state of readiness for this activity caused by the mechanism of temporary connection.

Conditioned reflex switching. The formation of complexes of different signal values ​​from the same basic signals with the addition of different environmental stimuli is a physiological mechanism of conditioned reflex switching. When considering the physiological mechanisms of a conditioned reflex of any complexity, it should be borne in mind that the process of developing even the most elementary temporal connection is associated with the formation of a conditioned reflex to the experimental situation. Now it is obvious that during the development of any conditioned reflex, several types of temporary connections are formed - a situational reflex (the type of a given experimental chamber, smells, lighting, etc.), a reflex for time, a reflex for a given stimulus, etc. Each conditioned reaction consists of a number of somatic and vegetative ingredients.

To understand the physiological mechanism of situational conditioned reflexes, E.A. Asratyan introduced the concept of "conditioned reflex switching". It consists in the fact that the same stimulus can become a conditioned signal for various conditioned reactions. So, for example, a beep in one experimental chamber can be a signal of a food reaction, and in another chamber it can be a signal of a defensive reflex. The same signal in the first half of the day can serve as a defensive conditioned stimulus, and in the second half as a food signal. Obviously, in both examples, the conditioned signal is not the signal in itself, but a complex of stimuli consisting of the given signal and the entire environment of the experiment. While maintaining the experimental environment, any sound or other stimuli can be used, which, like the experimental environment, can serve, according to the terminology of E.A. Hasratyan, switches.

Conditioned reflexes of the nth order. The dog has developed a strong food conditioned reflex, for example, to turn on a light bulb. If, after 10-15 seconds, after an indifferent agent, for example, a sound, the inclusion of a light bulb (a conditioned stimulus of a previously developed food conditioned reflex) is applied without subsequent unconditional reinforcement, then a conditioned connection is formed between the foci of excitation caused by the actions of sound and light. Reactions developed in this way are called a 2nd order conditioned reflex.

Let's take another example. The dog developed a strong salivary reflex to the metronome. Then they began to show her a black square, but instead of feeding, they presented the sound of a metronome, to which a conditioned reflex had previously been developed. After several combinations of these stimuli without food reinforcement, a second-order conditioned reflex was formed, i.e. the black square began to induce salivation, although it was never presented by itself in combination with food. Conditioned reflexes of the 2nd order in dogs, as a rule, are unstable and soon disappear. Usually they manage to develop conditioned reflexes no higher than the 3rd order. Conditioned reflexes of the nth order are formed more easily with a general increase in the excitability of the cerebral cortex. For example, in children with increased excitability, conditioned reflexes up to the 6th order are quite easily developed, while in balanced healthy children - usually not higher than the 3rd order. In healthy adults, conditioned reflexes up to the 20th order are easily developed, but they are also unstable.

imitative conditioned reflexes. These reflexes are especially easily developed in animals leading a group lifestyle. For example, if a conditioned reflex (for example, food) is developed in one monkey from the herd in front of the whole herd, then this conditioned reflex is also formed in other members (L.G. Voronin). Imitative reflexes as one of the types of adaptive reactions of animals are widespread in nature. In its simplest form, this reflex is found in the form of a following reflex. For example, schooling fish follow their relatives or even fish silhouettes. Another example was given by Charles Darwin. It is well known that crows do not let a person with a gun or any long object in their hands come close. It is quite obvious that this “saving fear” (according to Charles Darwin) developed mainly not as a result of personal experience with a person, but due to the imitation of the behavior of individuals of the same species or even other species. For example, the call of a jay serves as a danger signal for many forest animals.

Of great importance is imitation in the ontogeny of the behavior of primates, including humans. For example, "blind" imitation in children gradually turns into purely human abilities.

According to their physiological mechanism, imitative conditioned reflexes are obviously similar to conditioned reflexes of the nth order. This is easily seen in the example of the development of a conditioned motor food reflex. The spectator monkey perceives the conditioned stimulus and, although it does not receive food reinforcement, it also perceives natural conditioned stimuli accompanying food intake (type of food, its smell, etc.). So, on the basis of a natural conditioned reflex, a new conditioned reflex is developed. And if we take into account that natural conditioned reflexes, due to their inextricable and long-term connection with unconditioned reflex activity, are very strong, it becomes clear why conditioned reflex reactions are formed on their basis so easily and quickly.

Associations. Associations are formed when indifferent stimuli are combined without reinforcement. For the first time, such conditioned relationships were studied in dogs in the laboratory of I.P. Pavlova. In the experiments, combinations of tone and light were made without food reinforcement. Already after 20 combinations, the first signs of the formation of a temporary connection between these stimuli appeared: under the action of light, the dog turned to the sound source (which was inactive at that time), and when the tone sounded, it looked at the light bulb (which was not lit), as if waiting for it to be turned on. Studies have shown that a temporary connection between indifferent stimuli (exteroceptive) is formed in mammals after 10-40 combinations, and between stimuli of the same modality it is formed faster than to signals of different modality.

Conditioned reflexes on attitude. These conditioned reflexes are developed not for absolute, but for relative signs of stimuli. For example, if an animal is simultaneously presented with a small and a large triangle, and only a small triangle is reinforced with food, then, according to the rules for the formation of a conditioned reflex, a positive conditioned reflex is formed on the small triangle, and a negative conditioned reflex (differentiation) on the large triangle. If now a new pair of triangles is presented, in which the small triangle is equal in absolute size to the large triangle, then the animal “from the spot” will manifest a conditioned food reflex to the smaller triangle in this pair.

Let's take another example. The dolphins were able to learn to choose the middle one from three presented objects, since in preliminary experiments they received reinforcement (fish) only when they chose the middle one. It is important that the animals caught the “average object” sign under conditions when, in each new experiment, they presented different objects (balls, cylinders, etc.) and in different parts of space in order to avoid the formation of a conditioned reflex “to the place”.

The biological significance of the conditioned reflex to an attitude, as well as the temporal connection between indifferent stimuli, as a reflex of the nth order, is that if the agents that cause them subsequently coincide with the unconditioned reflex, then they immediately (“from the spot”) become conditioned reflexes - there is a "transfer" of the developed conditioned reflex to a similar situation. There is every reason to believe that the reflex to attitude, the temporal connection between indifferent stimuli, as well as conditioned reflexes of a higher order, underlie the physiological mechanism of such phenomena as "transfer of experience", "foresight", "insight", etc., arising, as it were, without the preliminary development of a conditioned reflex.

chain conditioned reflex. The possibility of obtaining a conditioned reflex to a chain of stimuli depends on the phylogenetic level of development of the nervous system of a given animal species. So, in monkeys (macaques, baboons, capuchins), after 40-200 applications of a chain stimulus, its components, tested separately, in most cases do not cause a conditioned reflex. In lower vertebrates (fish, reptiles), even after 700 - 1300 applications of the chain of stimuli, its components retain their signal value. In these animals, a conditioned reflex to a chain of stimuli is developed quite easily, but a complex stimulus does not become a single one: each of its components retains its signal value.

There are four methods of formation of chain conditioned reflexes in animals. The first way is to combine single exteroceptive stimuli of single motor reactions into a chain. The second way is to build up the chain of movements from the reinforced end. For example, first an animal (pigeon, rat, etc.) is trained to peck (press) the first shelf in the experimental chamber by a prearranged signal (turning on a light bulb). Then, after letting a sufficiently hungry animal into the chamber, the conditioned signal is not given, forcing the animal to perform search reactions. The bait is placed on the second shelf. As soon as the animal touches the second shelf, the lamp is immediately turned on (conditional signal), and after pecking (pressing) the second shelf, the animal receives food reinforcement.

As a result of several such combinations, the pecking (pressing) of the second shelf is fixed in the animal. After that, another exteroceptive signal is introduced - the bell is turned on, preceding the pecking (pressing) of the second shelf. Thus, a two-membered, three-membered, etc. is formed. chain of motion. In contrast to this method, in the third method of forming a chain of motor reflexes, new movements and stimuli are "wedged" in a similar way, but between the last link in the chain and reinforcement. Finally, in the fourth way of forming a chain of movements, the animal is not restricted in its movements, but only those chains that are “correct” are reinforced. It turned out that under such conditions, for example, the monkeys quickly learned to perform the necessary chain of movements, and all unnecessary actions gradually disappeared from them.

In animals, chains of movements are developed with varying degrees of difficulty, depending on the phylogenetic level of development of the nervous system. In turtles, for example, for a long time with great difficulty it is possible to develop a very unstable three-term chain of movements, in pigeons it is possible to form a fairly strong chain of 8-9 movements, and in mammals - from an even larger number of movements. It was concluded that there is a dependence of the rate of formation of individual links and the entire chain of movements as a whole on the level of phylogenesis of the animal.

Automation of conditioned reflexes. Very many conditioned reflexes in animals and humans are automated after prolonged training, becoming, as it were, independent of other manifestations of higher nervous activity. Automation tends to evolve gradually. Initially, it can be expressed in the fact that individual movements are ahead of the corresponding signals. Then there comes a period when the chain of movements is completely carried out in response to the first, "starting" component of the chain of stimuli. At first glance at the result of training a conditioned reflex, one may get the impression that at first the reflex is “attached” to something that controls it, and then after a long exercise it becomes independent to some extent.

Conditioned reflexes developed with different correspondence in time of the signal and reinforcement. By the way the signal is located in time relative to the reinforcing reaction, there are present and trace conditioned reflexes.

Conditioned reflexes are called cash, in the development of which reinforcement is used during the action of a signal stimulus. Available reflexes are divided depending on the term of reinforcement attachment into coinciding, delayed and delayed. A coinciding reflex is produced when, immediately after the signal is turned on, a reinforcement is attached to it.

A delayed reflex is developed in cases where a reinforcing reaction is added only after a certain time has elapsed (up to 30 s). This is the most common way to develop conditioned reflexes, although it requires more combinations than the coincidence method.

A delayed reflex is developed when a reinforcing reaction is attached after a long isolated action of the signal. Typically, such an isolated action lasts 1-3 minutes. This method of developing a conditioned reflex is even more difficult than both of the previous ones.

Trace reflexes are called conditioned reflexes, during the development of which a reinforcing reaction is presented only some time after the signal is turned off. In this case, the reflex is developed on a trace from the action of a signal stimulus; short intervals (15-20 s) or long intervals (1-5 min) are used. The formation of a conditioned reflex according to the trace method requires the greatest number of combinations. On the other hand, trace conditioned reflexes provide very complex acts of adaptive behavior in animals. An example would be hunting for lurking prey.

Conditions for the development of temporary links. Combination of signal stimulus with reinforcement. This condition for the development of temporary connections was revealed from the very first experiments with salivary conditioned reflexes. The footsteps of an attendant carrying food only produced "psychic salivation" when they were combined with food.

This is not contradicted by the formation of trace conditioned reflexes. Reinforcement is combined in this case with a trace of excitation of nerve cells from a previously turned on and already turned off signal. But if the reinforcement begins to get ahead of the indifferent stimulus, then the conditioned reflex can be worked out with great difficulty, only by taking a number of special measures.

Indifference of the signal stimulus. The agent chosen as the conditioned stimulus of the food reflex must not in itself have anything to do with food. He must be indifferent, i.e. indifferent, for the salivary glands. The signal stimulus should not cause a significant orienting reaction that interferes with the formation of a conditioned reflex. However, each new stimulus causes an orienting reaction. Therefore, in order to lose its novelty, it must be applied repeatedly. Only after the orienting reaction is practically extinguished or reduced to an insignificant value, the formation of a conditioned reflex begins.

The predominance of the strength of excitation caused by reinforcement. The combination of the click of a metronome and feeding the dog leads to a quick and easy formation of a conditioned salivary reflex to this sound. But if you try to combine the deafening sound of a mechanical rattle with food, then such a reflex is extremely difficult to form. For the development of a temporary connection, the ratio of signal strength and reinforcing reaction is of great importance. In order for a temporary connection to form between them, the focus of excitation created by the latter must be stronger than the focus of excitation created by the conditioned stimulus, i.e. there must be a dominant. Only then will the excitation spread from the focus of the indifferent stimulus to the focus of excitation from the reinforcing reflex.

The need for significant intensity of arousal. A conditioned reflex is a warning reaction to a signal about upcoming significant events. But if the stimulus that they want to make a signal turns out to be an event even more significant than those that follow it, then this stimulus itself causes the corresponding reaction of the organism.

Absence of extraneous stimuli. Each extraneous irritation, for example, an unexpected noise, causes an orienting reaction.

Normal functioning of the nervous system. A full-fledged closing function is possible provided that the higher parts of the nervous system are in a normal working condition. The performance of the nerve cells of the brain is sharply reduced with insufficient nutrition, with the action of toxic substances, for example, bacterial toxins in diseases, etc. Therefore, general health is an important condition for the normal functioning of the higher parts of the brain. Everyone knows how this condition affects the mental work of a person.

The state of the organism has a significant influence on the formation of conditioned reflexes. So, physical and mental work, nutritional conditions, hormone activity, the action of pharmacological substances, breathing at elevated or reduced pressure, mechanical overload and ionizing radiation, depending on the intensity and timing of exposure, can modify, enhance or weaken conditioned reflex activity up to its complete suppression.

The study of the final, behavioral manifestations of higher nervous activity has significantly outstripped the study of its internal mechanisms. Until now, both the structural foundations of the temporal connection and its physiological nature have not yet been sufficiently studied. Different views are expressed on this issue, but the issue has not yet been resolved. However, at the current level of research it is becoming more and more certain that, along with the structural, it is necessary to take into account the neurochemical organization of the brain.