What are pathological diseases. Big encyclopedia of oil and gas

Pregnancy is a joyful and at the same time anxious expectation of the mystery of nature, which is about to happen. All the way prenatal development the baby's mother sensitively listens to his every movement, awaits with trepidation the results of all the tests and the results of any study passed. Everyone wants to hear the same phrase from doctors: "Your child is healthy." But this is not always the case.

Exist various pathologies fetuses that are diagnosed different terms pregnancy and force parents to make a serious decision - will the baby be born or not. Painful deviations from normal process development can be congenital or acquired.

Since the causes of pathologies in the fetus can be due to genetics or external factors, congenital and acquired abnormalities differ. The first are present from the very moment of conception and are diagnosed most often on early dates, while the latter can appear in a child and be detected by doctors at any stage of pregnancy.

Congenital

Congenital, genetic pathologies of the fetus in medicine are called trisomies. This is a deviation from the norm of the chromosomes of the child, which appears on the most early stages its intrauterine development.

Pathologies due to the wrong number of chromosomes:

• Down syndrome - problems with the 21st chromosome; signs - dementia, peculiar appearance, growth retardation;
• Patau syndrome - disorders with the 13th chromosome; manifestations - multiple malformations, idiocy, multi-fingering, problems with the genitals, deafness; sick children rarely live up to 1 year;
• Edwards syndrome - pathology of the 18th chromosome; symptoms are small lower jaw and mouth, narrow and short palpebral fissures, deformed auricles; 60% of children do not live up to 3 months, only 10% reach 1 year.

Diseases dictated by the wrong number of sex chromosomes:

• Shereshevsky-Turner syndrome - the absence of an X chromosome in a girl; signs - short stature, infertility, sexual infantilism, somatic disorders;
• polysomy on the X chromosome is manifested by a slight decrease in intelligence, psychosis and schizophrenia;
• polysomy on the Y chromosome, the symptoms are similar to the previous pathology;
• Klinefelter's syndrome affects boys, signs - weakened hair growth on the body, infertility, sexual infantilism; in most cases - mental retardation.

Pathologies caused by polyploidy (the same number of chromosomes in the nucleus):

• triploidy;
• tetraploidy;
• cause - gene mutations of the fetus;
• lethal before birth.

If the causes of fetal pathology during pregnancy are genetic in nature, they can no longer be corrected, such diseases are incurable. The child will have to live with them all his life, and the parents will have to sacrifice a lot to raise him. Of course, among patients with Down syndrome, for example, there are talented, even gifted people, famous throughout the world, but you need to understand that these are units, happy exceptions to the rules.

Acquired

It also happens that an embryo can be absolutely healthy genetically, but acquires deviations in the process of its uterine development under the influence of a variety of unfavorable factors. These may be the mother’s diseases that she suffered during pregnancy, poor environmental conditions, wrong image life, etc.

Acquired pathology of the fetus during pregnancy can affect a variety of organs and systems. Among the most common are the following:

• deformation or absence (complete, partial) internal organs(most often the brain suffers) or parts of the body (limbs, for example);
• anatomical defects of the facial skeleton;
• heart defects;
• non-closure of the spinal canal;
• cerebral hypoexcitability (perinatal) manifests itself after the birth of a baby in the form of low muscle tone, lethargy, drowsiness, unwillingness to suckle, lack of crying, but this pathology is treatable;
• cerebral hyperexcitability (perinatal) is also successfully treated, symptoms - severe tension, prolonged crying, screaming;
• hypertensive-hydrocephalic syndrome is characterized by an increased volume of the head, bulging of the fontanel, disproportions between the facial and cerebral lobes of the skull, and developmental delays.

AT special group it is also possible to distinguish deviations from normal intrauterine development, the causes of which are very difficult to determine. This is what nature has decreed, and nothing can be done about it. These include:

• detected on different stages pregnancy pathology of the umbilical cord of the fetus: it can be too long or very short, prolapse of its loops, knots, abnormal attachment, thrombosis and cysts - all this can lead to the death of the child;
• multiple pregnancy (including Siamese twins);
• many- and;
• placental pathology: hyperplasia (it is too big weight) and hypoplasia (if its mass is less than 400 g), heart attack, chorioangioma, trophoblastic disease, placental insufficiency;
• incorrect presentation of the fetus, some doctors also call pathology.

Each of these deviations requires doctors and parents to have a special attitude towards the child they are carrying, utmost care, and most importantly, to remain calm. In order not to hear a disappointing diagnosis from a doctor, you need to try to exclude from your life all the factors that can cause acquired fetal pathologies. This is in the power of every woman who is expecting a child.

Stars with Down Syndrome. People with Down syndrome can be gifted. Among celebrities with such a congenital pathology are artist Raymond Hu, swimming champion Maria Langovaya, lawyer Paula Sage, actors Pascal Dukenne and Max Lewis, musician and composer Ronald Jenkins.

The reasons

Prevention of fetal pathologies involves the exclusion from the life of a young mother of those factors that can provoke the development of intrauterine abnormalities. The most common causes of such diseases include the following.

Heredity

If you know about the presence of genetic abnormalities in your family, even before conception, you need to undergo a series of examinations and.

Unfavourable conditions environment

Mom's work at a chemical plant, in a laboratory with toxic substances, living near large industrial enterprises or a radiation zone can lead to irreversible consequences.

Wrong way of life

External deformities of newborns are very often caused by smoking, alcoholism, drug addiction, insufficient or poor nutrition of the mother during pregnancy.

Diseases

Viral and bacterial diseases can turn into the most dangerous pathologies for the baby:

• influenza up to 12 weeks ends either in a miscarriage, or the child will be completely healthy;
• influenza after 12 weeks can lead to pathologies of the placenta;
• rubella is fraught with deafness, blindness, glaucoma and defeat skeletal system fetus;
• toxoplasmosis, transmitted through cats, provokes the development of microcephaly, meningoencephalitis, dropsy of the brain, damage to the eyes and central nervous system;
• hepatitis B: dangerous intrauterine infection fetus with this virus, as a result, 40% of children are cured, but 40% die before the age of 2 years;
• cytomegaly can be transmitted to the baby in the womb, and he runs the risk of being born blind, deaf, with cirrhosis of the liver, damage to the intestines and kidneys,.

Venereal diseases no less dangerous for intrauterine development of the fetus:

• herpes can be transmitted to a child and cause pathologies such as microcephaly, malnutrition, blindness;
• in a fetus infected with syphilis, a specific rash, damage to the skeletal system, liver, kidneys, and central nervous system are observed;
• gonorrhea leads to eye disease, conjunctivitis, generalized infection (sepsis), amnionitis or chorioamnionitis.

To avoid such dangerous consequences For the life and health of an unborn baby, parents must do everything possible to eliminate the above causes. Get away with harmful work, move away from the industrial zone, stop smoking and drinking, eat well, avoid diseases and treat them at the first symptoms. You can learn about the pathology of the fetus as early as 12 weeks, when the first examination for its presence is performed.

Lots of statistics. With alcoholism of the mother, toxicosis is found in 26%, intrauterine death of the child - in 12%, miscarriages - in 22%, difficult childbirth- in 10%, premature babies - in 34%, birth trauma- in 8%, asphyxia - in 12%, weakened newborns - in 19%.

Diagnosis and timing

Prenatal diagnosis deviations in the development of the fetus is a complex and capacious process. One of the most milestones- which is a set of examinations prescribed for pregnant women at 12, 20 and 30 weeks. As a rule, this is a blood test for the presence of biochemical serum markers. chromosomal disorders. Usually, checking the fetus for pathology includes the following activities.

Blood tests

I trimester (double test):

• free β-subunit (its concentration) hCG;
• PAPP-A: plasma protein A.

II trimester (triple test for fetal pathology):

• either total hCG is detected, or, as in the first trimester, a free β-subunit of hCG;
• α-fetoprotein (AFP protein);
• free estriol (unconjugated).

An obligatory addition to blood tests is ultrasound. Evaluation of results is always complex. However, a blood test for fetal pathology, coupled even with ultrasound, cannot give a 100% guarantee, therefore, if abnormalities are suspected, invasive methods diagnostics: chorionbiopsy and cordocentesis.

Chorionic biopsy

This is the receipt of chorion tissue for the detection and prevention of chromosomal diseases, the carriage of chromosomal abnormalities and monogenic diseases. Produced in the form of a puncture of the uterus, which can be carried out through abdominal wall, vagina, or cervix with special forceps or a suction catheter.

Those parents who want to know how to determine the pathology of the fetus in the early stages can use this analysis, since its main advantage is that diagnostics are performed already at 9-12 weeks, as well as quick results (2-3 days). Indications for carrying out:

• age over 35;
• the presence of a child with congenital congenital defect development), monogenic, chromosomal diseases;
• heredity of chromosomal abnormality, gene mutation;
• at 10-14 weeks of pregnancy, according to echography, the thickness of the collar space is more than 3 mm.

This analysis for fetal pathology is quite painful and can provoke bleeding, but with experienced medical staff everything goes without complications.

Cordocentesis

This is a method of obtaining cord (cord) blood of a child for research. It is usually performed in parallel with amniocentesis (analysis of amniotic fluid). Available up to 18 weeks.

Under infiltration anesthesia a needle is punctured through the abdominal anterior wall and pumped out of the umbilical cord vessel required amount blood. Such examination of the fetus for pathology can reveal chromosomal and hereditary diseases, Rhesus conflict, hemolytic disease.

ultrasound

One of the most accurate and reliable diagnostics - ultrasound procedure. Many parents are concerned about which fetal pathologies can be detected during pregnancy on ultrasound, and which ones can remain, as they say, “behind the scenes”.

Ultrasound at 12 weeks reveals:

• CNS defects (anencephaly);
• absence of the peritoneal anterior wall (gastroschisis);
• pathology of the spine in the fetus;
• umbilical hernia (omphalocele);
• absence of limbs;
• Down syndrome.

At week 20, almost all visible pathologies of the fetus on ultrasound can be diagnosed. This is due to the fact that most of the internal organs and systems of the baby are already well formed.

At week 30, an ultrasound examination can only confirm or refute the data obtained by other methods (using a blood test, cordocentesis, chorionbiopsy).

Now - about what fetal pathologies are not detected by ultrasound:

• blindness;
• mental retardation;
• deafness
• minor organ defects in the fetus - obstruction of the liver ducts, defects in the cardiac septa;
• genetic diseases: Duchenne myopathy, cystic fibrosis, phenylketonuria;
• fetal chromosomal pathologies - Edwards, Patau, Turner syndrome.

However, the last group of these deviations does not elude doctors, as they are helped by a pregnant woman's blood test for fetal pathology and other diagnostic methods.

A young mother cannot herself feel any symptoms that something is wrong with her baby. Only a set of diagnostic measures at different stages of pregnancy can reveal deviations. Thus, signs of fetal pathology in the early stages, detected by ultrasound, should be visually noticeable. These are external deviations in its development: the shape of the skull, the ratio of sizes, features skin folds and etc.

Unfortunately, there are cases when a child is born with pathologies not detected prenatally. This happens either due to the inexperience and unprofessionalism of the medical staff, or due to a malfunction or dilapidation of the ultrasound equipment.

Data. Thanks to ultrasound, up to 80% of congenital pathologies in the fetus are detected in time, of which 40% of pregnancies are terminated due to severe, disabling or life-incompatible defects.

At-risk groups

There is a group of women who come under the closest attention of geneticists, since the risk of developing abnormalities is very high. They have in without fail blood is taken for fetal pathology and other diagnostic measures are taken at different stages of pregnancy. These are the following cases:

• age over 35;
• if the family already has a child with a pathology;
• previous miscarriages, stillbirths, miscarriages;
• heredity (if one of the parents has Down syndrome);
• long-term use of strong medications during pregnancy;
• the effect of radiation on the mother's body.

If a woman falls into a risk group, she is given a detailed consultation on how to find out if the fetus has pathologies, and prescribe all the necessary measures for this. The main purpose of such screenings is to find out if the child can be helped and whether such a pregnancy should be left until delivery.

Attention: radiation! If a young mother has been exposed to radiation, she must be sure to inform the doctor about it, since it is for this reason that babies are most often born with irreversible and incorrigible external deformities.

Forecasts

Further development of events largely depends on how long fetal pathologies are detected (the sooner the better) and what kind of deviation was diagnosed. The doctor can only advise, but the decision is made by the parents themselves.

If the genetic mutation is strong and entails the inevitable death of the child (intrauterine or in the first year of life), abortion is suggested. If external deformities are few, modern plastic surgery works wonders, and the child in the future may look the same as other children. Each case is too individual and unique, therefore it requires a special approach.

If pathologies of fetal development have been identified, parents should first of all listen to the opinion of doctors. If the deviations are too serious and will make the baby's life unbearable in the future, and at the same time the young couple has every chance to conceive next time healthy child, physicians suggest termination of pregnancy. Each case is unique and requires an individual approach.

The right decision can be made by weighing all the pros and cons. Do not panic or despair: this will only aggravate the situation. modern medicine works wonders, and you need to rely entirely on the professional opinion of an experienced, knowledgeable doctor in this matter.

From normal state or development process.

• ru (med.)
• It should be noted that the word pathology» also denote any deviation from the norm.
• A daub in the middle of a cycle is pathology, quite common in many women of all ages.
• Severity pathology fetal development may be different.

Synonyms for pathology

• • disease

Hyponyms for pathology

• • echopathology

Hypernyms for pathology

• • violation
  • deviation

The content of the article

PATHOLOGY, a branch of medicine that studies the nature and causes of diseases, as well as the structural and functional changes they cause. Research in the field of pathology is carried out within almost all medical disciplines, but primarily pathological anatomy, including pathomorphology, and pathological physiology. Pathology is usually divided into general and particular. General pathology examines the underlying processes, disease-causing and determining its development; the subject of private pathology is the study of individual diseases. It should be noted that the word "pathology" also refers to any deviation from the norm.

HISTORICAL OUTLINE

Ancient ideas about the disease.

Man has undoubtedly thought about the nature of disease since ancient times. However, not only in primitive society, but also in the developed ancient civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Persia, illness remained a mysterious event that evoked a religious attitude. The scientific approach to the problem was first reflected in the works of the school of Hippocrates (4th century BC). Scientists Ancient Greece and Rome left many great descriptions external signs diseases and injuries, and such descriptions themselves first arose within the framework of scientific pathology; however, without opening the corpses, of course, it was impossible to move forward. The ancient authors admitted the existence of four liquids (blood, phlegm, yellow and black bile), four elements (air, water, fire and earth) and four qualities (heat, cold, moisture and dryness), which were all interconnected. So, blood was considered warm and moist, like air; phlegm - cold and wet, like water; yellow bile - warm and dry like fire; and black bile is cold and dry as earth. The right combination fluids throughout the body and its individual parts ensured health; wrong - gave rise to a corresponding disease.

The rise of pathological anatomy.

The theory of four fluids triumphed until the end of the Middle Ages, when, with the general awakening of interest in the physical world, characteristic of the Renaissance, the main method of research was the opening and dissection of corpses. Vesalius (1514–1564), famed mainly for studies and drawings normal structure body, was also interested in many deviations from the norm, and such scientists as J. Fernel from Amiens and M. Donatus from Mantua put their descriptions of posthumous changes in the 16th century. the beginning of modern structural concepts in the field of pathological anatomy. Numerous autopsies carried out over the next two centuries throughout Europe, and the increasing accuracy of scientists' observations, made it possible to obtain a lot of pathological anatomical information, to which little was subsequently added. Among the anatomists of that time, W. Harvey (1578–1657), who became famous for the discovery of blood circulation, stood out; K. Tulp from Amsterdam (1593–1674), who was immortalized by Rembrandt with a painting Anatomy Lesson by Dr. Tulp; and J. Morgagni (1682–1771), an outstanding anatomist of the Padua school.

The role of Virchow.

Throughout the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century. many energetic and distinguished researchers filled in the gaps and added new features to the study of disease. However, there was no new concept, nor a general idea that would be the basis for further advancement, until R. Virchow's work was published in 1858 Cellular pathology. Generations of scientists have already used a microscope, and the botanist M. Schleiden (1804–1881) and the anatomist T. Schwann (1810–1882) managed to publish their doctrine of the cell as the structural basis of all living things, but the Virchow postulate “ every cell from a cell”, meaning that only the cells themselves are those living formations that reproduce each other, and they all arise from other cells, sounded like something completely new. Virchow criticized the existing mystical ideas about the nature of diseases and showed that the disease is also a manifestation of life, which proceeds, however, in conditions of impaired vital activity of the organism. The scientist applied his concept to the explanation of the processes of inflammation, tumor growth and almost all other areas of pathology, truly revolutionizing the minds of pathologists.

Infectious pathology.

MODERN PATHOLOGY

Methods of general pathology.

Like other natural sciences, pathology uses two methods: descriptive and experimental. Only their combination allows us to understand the phenomenon of the disease. Modern pathology based on openings. Post-mortem examination of internal organs, identification of those structural changes in them that accompany many diseases, make it possible to understand the disease itself. Knowledge of anatomical abnormalities alone may be sufficient to explain the mechanism functional disorders manifested by objective signs and subjective symptoms of the disease. However, in order to finally solve the problem, it is often necessary to reproduce similar diseases in animal experiments, especially since such an approach makes it possible to more accurately determine the cause of the disease. If deviations from the norm, found in organs or tissues as a result of disease or damage, can be reproduced with the help of influences that presumably play a causal role, then we can conclude that these factors are the cause of these changes. The importance of a combined observational-experimental approach to finding out the cause of a disease is well illustrated by the history of the study of tuberculosis. This disease has various manifestations and affects various organs; as a result, despite the fact that many authors, based on posthumous studies, have compiled excellent descriptions of her various forms, for a long time it was not possible to understand that all these forms reflect the general process and are caused by the same reason. The unity of the various changes characteristic of tuberculosis was established thanks to the use of a microscope and the Virchow concept of cellular pathology. R. Koch (1843–1910) made major step forward, finding the constant presence of tubercle bacillus in the affected tissues. Then he supplemented this observation with an experiment: he isolated a microbe from tissues, separated it from other microorganisms, and introduced it into an animal susceptible to tuberculosis. In the foci of this artificially induced disease, the same stick was again found. The need for such a sequence of actions to confirm the cause infectious disease called Koch's postulates.

private pathology.

The task of general pathology is to identify the main patterns of pathological processes through observation and experimentation. Particular pathology uses the knowledge thus obtained to establish accurate diagnosis in each individual case. The pathologist (pathologist, pathomorphologist) registers visible changes tissues and organs and examines them under a microscope to identify morphological (histological) changes. This is how tissues removed during surgical operation, as well as tissues of deceased people.

Pathology(Greek pathos suffering, disease + logos teaching) - the science of the patterns of occurrence, course and outcome of diseases, based on the factual material of various medical and biological disciplines. Each of these disciplines captures one or another side of human diseases: pathological anatomy and histology study morphological changes in organs and tissues, biochemistry - violation of vital processes at the molecular level, pathological physiology - mechanisms functional disorders, genetics - the causes of hereditary diseases, microbiology and virology - the relationship of the body with pathogens of infectious diseases, etc. Based on the combination of all these data, ideas were formed about the most general patterns of the course of pathological processes, i.e. the doctrine of the disease was formed. The term "pathology" is also used to refer to disease states.

The doctrine of the disease has gone through several stages in its development. Until the middle of the 19th century. it was believed that the basis of the disease is an abnormal state of the body's fluids (humoral pathology); later, in connection with the concept of cellular pathology created by the German pathologist R. Virchow, which considers the cell as the material substrate of the disease, and the disease itself as the sum of lesions of many individual cells, the main attention in the development of the disease began to be paid to changes developing in cells and intercellular substance . An important role in the development of P. was played by the doctrine of the reactivity of the body, its relationship with pathogens of infectious diseases, the mechanisms of immunity to them, etc. In the second half of the 20th century. special meaning in P.'s development biochemistry, genetics, immunology, cytology acquired.

It is customary to distinguish between general and particular pathology. General pathology studies the most general patterns of pathological processes that underlie the disease, regardless of the cause that caused it, the individual characteristics of the organism, specific environmental conditions, etc. Based on the synthesis of particular manifestations of various diseases, general pathology gives an idea of ​​typical pathological processes (dystrophy, regeneration, etc.), forms an abstract idea of ​​the disease as a set of the most important phenomena that are necessarily present in any form of the disease and make up its essence.

Private pathology studies specific diseases, for example, peptic ulcer stomach, various infectious diseases, etc., the causes of their occurrence, features of a and morphological manifestations, clinical picture, develops methods for their diagnosis, treatment and prevention.

The features of the course of diseases associated with a person's age are studied by age-related P. The need to study human diseases in connection with the characteristics of the environment in various regions of the globe has led to the development of regional and geographical pathology. With the advent of electron microscopy, histochemistry, autoradiography, immunochemistry, etc. fast development molecular P., studying biochemical processes in their organic connection with cell membranes,

Pathology (Greek pathos - suffering, illness, logos - teaching) is a branch of medicine that studies disease processes and conditions in a living organism. Pathology as academic discipline is based on the synthesis of two sciences: pathological anatomy, which studies changes in the structure of organs and tissues caused by disease processes, and pathological physiology, which studies dysfunctions of organs and the body as a whole in diseases. In other words, pathology is the anatomy and physiology of a diseased organism.

Pathology is divided into general and particular. General studies typical pathological processes at all levels (from the whole organism to the cellular and molecular). Private (Nosology) - studies specific diseases, as a science about the causes, development mechanisms, manifestations, complications and outcomes of individual diseases

BIOPSY (Greek bios - life and opsis vision) - in vivo taking of tissue for diagnostic purposes

experiments on warm-blooded animals to study morphological changes in organs and tissues during the course of the disease.

clinical observation and studies of a sick person, since animal experiments cannot provide sufficient information about human diseases.

Disease. Concept. Classification DISEASE - a violation of the vital activity of the body under the influence of extreme stimuli external and internal environment, characterized by a decrease in adaptability with simultaneous mobilization defensive forces organism. ETIOLOGY - the doctrine of the causes and conditions of the onset of the disease. Causes are exogenous (biological, physical, chemical, mechanical) and endogenous (heredity). According to the etiological principle, diseases are divided into infectious and non-infectious. By organ systems - diseases respiratory system and so on

Pathogenesis. Diagnosis. Symptom. - the mechanism of occurrence, development and outcome of the disease. The disease always has a main etiological reason, the pathological process has many causes Diagnosis - the definition of the disease based on the study of the patient. Complaints allow assessing subjective symptoms, examination reveals objective symptoms. Laboratory and instrumental research confirm provisional diagnosis

Periods of disease development 1. Latent or latent (incubation during infection) period. From minutes to years. 2. Prodromal (the interval between the first common symptoms disease and the full development of the disease). From hours to several days. 3. The period of full development of the disease (peak) with the appearance characteristic symptoms. From days to years. 4. Period of outcomes: Complete recovery or incomplete (long-term remission) - favorable options. Adverse: complications, relapse, transition to chronic form and death 5. Period residual effects(rickets). Not required.

The nature of the course of the disease The most acute form- up to 4 days Acute - from 5 to 14 days Subacute - from 15 to 40 days Chronic 0 t 40 days before death Treatment (therapy) is always complex. Outpatient, inpatient and sanatorium. Compliance with the regimen and diet. Features of care depending on the disease. Drug: etiological, pathogenetic and symptomatic

Death is the irreversible cessation of the life of an organism. Occurs over 4 periods: Predagonal (agonia - struggle). Sharp deterioration work of the heart and vascular tone, shortness of breath, confusion. It goes on for several hours. Agonal period. There is no pulse. Loss of consciousness. pathological breathing. Not pupillary reflex. Seizures. A couple of minutes. clinical death. Heart failure. Cessation of breathing. Pupils dilate. Reversible. But not longer than 7 - 8 minutes. biological death. cadaveric spots. Rigor mortis (2-3 hours). Cooling to ambient temperature. Organs for transplantation: heart - 20 minutes. Kidney - 120 min.

Alteration (damage) - Changes in the structure and functions of cells, intercellular substance tissues and organs under the influence of damaging influences. Damaging factors cause changes in metabolism, which leads to dysfunction of damaged cells, organs and tissues. Alteration is a typical pathological process, which, in addition to negative impact, activates protective and restorative reactions. At the tissue level, three types of alteration are distinguished: Dystrophy Atrophy Necrosis

Dystrophy (eating disorder) - pathological process, metabolic disorders lead to the accumulation of altered metabolic products that cause damage to cells and intercellular substance, which, as the process develops, is accompanied by a deterioration in the functions of the organ. Dystrophies can be reversible and irreversible, hereditary and acquired Causes: congenital disorders operation of enzyme systems Transport disorders nutrients Disorder neurohumoral regulation work

Classification of dystrophies By type of impaired metabolism: Protein Fat Carbohydrate Mineral Location: Cellular (parenchymal) Intercellular (mesenchymal) Mixed By prevalence: Local

Intracellular (parenchymal) Protein: Etiology - (hypoxia, infections, intoxication) 1. granular, when grains of denatured protein appear in the cells of the heart, liver, kidneys, visible under a microscope. The organ externally looks enlarged, dull "cloudy swelling". Reversible!

3. Hydropic (dropsy) - appear in the cells of the cavity with cytoplasmic fluid. Often with viral infections

4. Horny dystrophy Expressed in excess accumulation horny substance. Or the appearance in places where the processes of keratinization are normally absent. Causes - a) malformations of the skin - ichthyosis (fish scales) b) chronic inflammation

Carbohydrate dystrophy - accumulation of glycogen where it should not be (kidneys in diabetes)

Mesenchymal (intercellular) to dystrophy Protein: 1. Mucoid swelling. Reversible. Collagen filaments thicken due to water (rheumatism on early stage)

3. Hyalinosis - the intercellular space is filled with a smooth, shiny (like hyaline cartilage) pathological protein. Often in the valves of the heart, kidneys, blood vessels with hypertension

Mixed - in violation of the exchange uric acid(gout), hemoglobin (bruising to brown soaking of the organ) and bilirubin (jaundice)

Atrophy is a lifetime decrease in the size of cells, organs and tissues with a decrease or cessation of their functions. Hypoplasia - Congenital underdevelopment of an organ and a decrease in its function. Agenesia - complete congenital absence of an organ Aplasia - an organ looks like an early germ without a typical structure Metaplasia - the transition of one type of tissue to another, related to it, under adverse conditions

With atrophy, cells decrease in size due to the compaction of the cytoplasm, and then the nucleus. Some of the cells may disappear. Particularly severely damaged cells of the parenchyma of organs, as they are more sensitive to metabolic disorders and oxygen starvation than cells connective tissue. Sometimes, along with atrophy of the parenchyma, the stroma grows, and the connective tissue replaces the atrophied parenchyma. In this case, the body can even increase in size. Such an increase in the body due to the connective tissue is called false hypertrophy. As a rule, an atrophied organ looks reduced in volume, compacted due to the growth of the stroma, so its surface becomes fine-grained. Atrophy can be physiological and pathological. Physiological atrophy is observed throughout a person's life.

Physiological atrophy after birth, the umbilical arteries, ductus arteriosus atrophy, after reaching puberty - thymus, after the cessation of lactation - mammary glands, gonads - in old age. Pathological atrophy (local and general): Local 1. from inactivity 2. from prolonged squeezing
Necrosis (from nekros - dead) - death in a living organism of an organ, its tissue or group of cells with complete cessation vital activity. The necrotic process goes through 4 stages: 1. paranecrosis - similar to necrotic, but reversible processes 2. necrobiosis - irreversible dystrophic changes with a predominance of catabolic reactions over anabolic 3. cell death 4. autolysis - decomposition of a dead substrate.

When classifying the forms of necrosis, the cause that caused the necrosis, the mechanism of development, and clinical and morphological features are taken into account. Classification of necrosis: Due to necrosis 1. Traumatic necrosis - direct action on tissue physical and chemical factors. 2. Toxic necrosis - the effect on tissues of bacterial and non-bacterial toxins bacterial origin. (Curdled necrosis with special infections) 3. Trophoneurotic necrosis occurs when there is a violation of the nervous tissue trophism (bedsores). 4. Allergic necrosis occurs in a sensitized organism and is an expression of a hypersensitivity reaction immediate type. 5. Vascular necrosis, or heart attack, occurs when blood flow in the arteries is disturbed or stopped as a result of thrombosis, embolism, or prolonged spasm.

According to clinical and morphological features: Coagulation (dry) necrosis is characterized by the fact that the dead areas that occur with it are dry, dense, gray-yellow in color. It develops in tissues rich in proteins and poor in fluid. Colliquation (wet) necrosis is characterized by the fusion of dead tissue. It is observed in tissues relatively poor in proteins and rich in fluid. Gangrene (Greek - fire) - special form necrosis, is distinguished by the black color of necrotic tissues due to the conversion of blood pigments to iron sulfide. It can also be dry and wet, as well as anaerobic, or gas, and in the form of bedsores - necrosis of superficial parts of the body (skin, soft tissues) subjected to pressure. Sequester - a section of dead tissue that is not subject to autolysis and is freely located among living tissues (necrotic bone fragment in osteomyelitis - inflammation bone marrow). A heart attack (Latin - to fill) is a vascular (ischemic) necrosis, a consequence and an extreme expression of ischemia. heart attack is the most frequent view necrosis (infarction of the heart, lungs, kidneys, spleen, etc.)

Outcomes of necrosis The outcome of necrosis can be favorable and unfavorable. Favorable: organization - scar formation - encapsulation - capsule formation around the necrosis zone - calcification (petrification) - ossification (bone formation) - cyst - cavity formation in the focus of necrosis With the so-called favorable outcome of necrosis, its consequences are very significant if it occurs in vital important organs(a cyst in the brain, a scar in the myocardium, etc.).

Unfavorable outcomes of necrosis - purulent fusion of the focus of necrosis leads to sepsis - “local death” - necrosis of a vital organ