Sensory-perceptual processes. Definition, types, properties of perceptual processes. Examples of experimental studies of the perception of space and movement

Lecture 13

Basic concepts:

Feel; lower threshold of sensation; upper threshold of sensation; discriminative threshold of sensation; sensation adaptation; sensation contrast; sensation sensitization; synesthesia; types of sensations; contact sensations; distant sensations; line of sight; visual acuity; vestibular sensations; kinesthesia; vibration sensations; perception; constancy; objectivity; integrity; generality; apperception; touch; visual perception; auditory perception; perception of space; perception of time; illusions of perception.

Feeling

The main function of the psyche is to reflect the properties of the external and inner peace as an image of this world. This happens due to several mental processes combined common name, - cognitive processes. A person realizes knowledge primarily through sensation, perception, thinking, imagination. Accompany these processes, "serve" them, attention and memory. In humans, almost the entire process of cognition occurs with the use of language and with the help of speech.

Sensation and perception represent the first level of knowledge. Their unity lies in the fact that they are “a sensual reflection of an objective reality that exists independently of consciousness, based on its impact on the senses” (Rubinshtein S.L., p. 451). Genetically, sensation is primary, but at the same time, the accuracy of sensation is determined by the influence of perception on it. So, the selection of one quality from a number of others is a generalization. However, even the sensation of any color assumes that we are aware of its place in the spectrum, its relation to other colors, and so on.

Sensations are the simplest mental process, as a result of which a person has the simplest image of the external and internal world. It is a reflection of the individual properties of objects with their direct impact on the senses. Therefore, sensation reflects, first of all, the properties of space and localization of reflected objects of reality. As an equivalent to the term "sensation" in the psychological literature, the term "sensorics" is used.

Sensations are the subject of study of two sciences - psychology and philosophy. The theory of knowledge (a special section of philosophy) is interested in the question of how adequately sensations convey information about the external world, i.e. she is concerned with the question of truth. Psychology deals with the problem of the role of sensations in the mind of an individual, although psychology does not remove the question of the truth of the picture. real world obtained through sensation. Its solution is closely related to the study of the psychophysiological characteristics of sensations, i.e. the influence of receptors, through which primary information about the world comes to us, on the mental image. So in the 19th century I. Muller put forward the idea that sensations do not depend on the nature of the stimulus acting on the sense organ, but on the organ or nerve in which the process of irritation occurs. At the same time, he relied on the facts of the paradoxical response of the sense organ, to an inadequate stimulus (when we hit, we have “the sky in the stars”). Therefore, he defined sensation as a subjective state of consciousness, which, in relation to light, is an expression of the specific energy of the retina. Yes, indeed, there are illusions, and hallucinations, and deceptions of the senses. But precisely the fact that a person distinguishes them from other, objective, adequate realities of the results of the activity of the sense organs, serves as proof that sensations are an image of the real world. The criterion for the adequacy or inadequacy of sensations is “a practice that controls the objectivity of our sensations, as a subjective image of the objective world” (Rubinshtein S.L., p. 454).

The dependence of sensations not only on the external world, but also on the peculiarities of the work of the sense organs is studied in a special section. psychological science, the so-called "psychophysics".

Psychophysiological characteristics of sensations

A person is born with a ready-made apparatus for all those types of sensations that an adult has. It has now been experimentally proven that already in the womb it begins to reflect the world at the level of feeling. Therefore, after birth, there is only an expansion of the range of sensations. The work of the physiological apparatus responsible for the transmission of one or another type of sensation has a special influence on the quality of sensation.

So the intensity of sensation is related to the threshold of sensation. There are three types of thresholds:

lower threshold (or absolute) - represents the minimum strength of the stimulus that is necessary for the occurrence of a sensation (for example, 2-3 quanta of light are enough for a visual sensation, which corresponds to the light from a burning candle located at a distance of 1 km from the observer);

upper threshold - the maximum strength of the stimulus, which still causes a feeling of this quality, without turning into pain sensation.

Distinctive threshold - the minimum change in the strength of the stimulus to which the sensation organ reacts in the form of a change in the latter (for example, the distinguishing threshold for musicians and people who do not play music has a pronounced difference in the value of the distinguishing threshold).

The second psychophysiological characteristic of sensations is adaptation. It is directly related to the change in the absolute threshold and is a change in the sensitivity of the sense organs under the influence of the action of the stimulus:

if there is a prolonged exposure to a medium-strength stimulus, then the sensation of this modality may completely disappear (this is how we stop hearing a softly ticking clock, etc.);

under the action of a weak stimulus, sensitivity increases (we begin to see some time after we entered a dimly lit room from a sunny street);

c) under the action of a strong stimulus, the sensitivity of the organ is "blunted", the sensitivity of the organ decreases (it increases the lower threshold).

The third feature of sensations is contrast. It is a change in the intensity and quality of sensations of a given type under the influence of a previous or concomitant stimulus (for example, the red color of strawberries against a green background of leaves feels more saturated than when viewed against the background of the same berries).

The fourth psychophysiological characteristic of sensation is called sensitization - an increase in sensitivity as a result of the interaction of analyzers and / or exercises (for example, there is always an improvement in pitch hearing in children involved in music).

And the last, fifth, psychophysiological characteristic is synesthesia. Synesthesia is the occurrence of a sensation in an organ that is not currently experiencing a direct impact from the external environment, a sensation under the influence of stimuli on another sense organ. It differs from all previous ones by a greater individualization of occurrence. The most common synesthesia is visual-audible.

Thus, the emergence of any sensation is associated with the physiological capabilities of the organ through which information about the properties of the inner and outer world comes.

Types of sensations

Usually, when asked what types of sensations you have, a person first of all remembers 4-5 (most often sight, hearing, smell, taste fall into this list). In fact human world sensations are much richer, which underlies the diversity of the worldview that a person owns.

Therefore, scientists divide all types of sensation into three classes: 1) exteroceptive, arising from exposure to external stimuli on receptors located on the surface of the body; 2) interoceptive (organic) sensations, signaling changes in the internal environment of the body; 3) proprioceptive (kinesthetic), reflecting the movement and relative position of the body in space.

exteroceptive sensations. They can be divided (according to Ch. Sherrington) into contact and distant ones.

Contact sensations. We will first look at tactile sensations. They are the basis for constructing images of other modalities, the foundation of human knowledge of the world. They are also called tactile, as they underlie a special type of perception - touch. With the help of tactile sensations, we reflect the mechanical properties of the surface (smooth or rough surface, soft or hard, ribbed, etc.). They talk about the nature of the interaction of the body with this surface: touch, pressure, friction, etc. Reflected by tactile sensations and that place skin surface, where interaction with the outside world takes place, therefore tactile sensations are the source of knowledge about the so-called "body schema".

Varieties of skin sensitivity are temperature and pain sensations. Temperature sensations provide thermoregulation of the body. Skin pain is associated with a violation of the integrity of the skin surface (a finger was pricked, an elbow was scratched, a heel was injured, an arm was burned with acid, etc.). The sensations are described as cutting, stabbing, etc.

In general, pain performs two functions. First, like other sensations, they convey information about the mechanical, chemical, electrical properties of objects in the surrounding world. Secondly, the pain sensation signals that the body has encountered such external stimuli that lead to the destruction of the body, or threaten this destruction.

The next block of exteroceptive sensations is associated with the assessment of the chemical properties of objects in the external world. They are often referred to as one concept of chemoreception, but they include two types of sensations: taste and smell.

The biological role of taste sensations - ensures the success of the body's food exchange with the external environment. Usually there are four main characteristics of taste sensations: sour, sweet, bitter, salty. Experimentally revealed the dependence of the intensity and quality of taste sensations on the state internal environment body (for example, increased sensitivity to sweets with increasing hunger).

Complex taste sensations, which can give a fairly complete image of the whole object, arise as a result of interaction with temperature, tactile, kinesthetic sensations. Then we have a feeling of tart, astringent, pungent, spicy, etc.

The olfactory sensations that the nasal mucosa presents to us are even more complex in their descriptive characteristics, often associated with a person's previous experience, his residence in a certain climatic zone and his cultural environment.

distant sensations. The last two types of sensations - visual and auditory - occupy a special place in human life, since with their help people not only adapt to the world around them, but use them to interact with each other, to transfer information. Auditory sensations are the basis oral speech, and visual sensations are the basis of writing.

Auditory sensations are the highest analyzer of sound waves that act on receptors remotely. Our hearing reflects tones and noises. Usually the boundaries of auditory sensations of sound intensity are determined from 10 dB to 120 dB. After 120 decibels in a person, auditory sensations turn into pain. AT recent times, due to the rapid development of technical means surrounding a person, whose sound power can be harmful to human health, the problem of the upper threshold of auditory sensations has gone beyond the narrowly professional interests of psychologists and physiologists.

The field of hearing is larger than the field of vision. We hear the sound from top-bottom-right-left-rear-front. Such spatial versatility of receiving a sound signal, as well as the variability, temporal inconsistency of a sound wave, could be the main reason for using sound to transmit information. The world of sounds for a person is the most polygamous in comparison with other living beings. Only a person has a fine phonemic hearing, only a person distinguishes musical sounds so subtly.

From the point of view of signal preservation and the possibility of returning to it, the palm belongs, of course, to visual sensations.

visual sensations. Of great importance in the evolution of higher animals was not direct adaptation to light, but orientation through light and color perception in objects. environment, that is, our eye senses lightness and color.

The human-visible spectrum is not large compared to the existing electromagnetic spectrum. However, in this range, a person has a unique ability to distinguish with the help of light the smallest properties of objects in the surrounding world.

The leading spatial characteristic of visual sensation is the field of view. This is the space that the fixed eye can see, that is, fixing any object or point at the moment. The boundaries of the visual field in a particular person are not congenital. Expanding the boundaries is one of the tasks of a child's development, since the field of view is one of the leading characteristics of reading speed.

The next spatial characteristic of visual sensation is visual acuity, that is, the resolution of the human eye. He can detect a bright light passing through a hole d = 3-4 microns, and see the light of a candle on a moonless night at a distance of 1.5 km.

We also have color sensitivity. Color in human life has a colossal information load. For example, when determining the quality of food, one of the leading characteristics is color. Preliminary adaptation of a person to red slows down motion sickness, and to blue speeds it up. color plays important role in the emotional realm of a person. Everyday experience and experimental studies have shown that some colors evoke positive emotions, others - negative. Green is usually referred to as calming colors, and red as exciting.

interoceptive sensations. The next large group of sensations is united by the fact that they all arise under the influence of stimuli acting from within. The internal environment of the body becomes external factor evoking a particular feeling. In part, they are similar to the previously considered sensations, i.e. provide information about the same qualities that other objects of the external world possess. It's about about tactile, temperature, pain sensations. In addition, this class of sensations includes the so-called baroception (blood pressure on the walls of blood vessels), which in worldly psychology we define the term "pressure".

proprioceptive sensations. The first in this class of sensations can be called vestibular sensations (they are also called static-dynamic). They arise in a special organ - vestibular apparatus. These sensations reflect two characteristics of the relationship between the body and space - balance and acceleration. The second is kinesthesia, or muscle-joint sensations. Their main function is to provide our body with orientation in space. By kinesthetic sensations, we judge the performance, accuracy of our movements. The source of these sensations is the working muscle.

Vibratory sensations complete the list of this group of sensations. The source of this type of sensations are periodic changes in the pressure of the air or other environment. Sometimes they are called "contact hearing", referring to the specific use of vibrational sensations by deaf-blind-mutes.

Perception

Perception is a cognitive mental process, as a result of which a person has a holistic image of an object or phenomenon of the surrounding world. Perception is already a reflection of objects in the totality of their properties and parts with a direct impact on the senses. Perception is a more complex cognitive process, in which sensation is included as component. The second component of perception is movement.

A higher level of perception as a cognitive process is also manifested in the fact that, unlike sensation, perception can proceed not only unintentionally, under the influence of objects from the outside world, but also intentionally.

As well as sensation, perception has a scientific equivalent - the term "perception".

Perceptual characteristics

Perception has such characteristics that were not characteristic of sensation at all. There are usually four characteristics:

Constancy - the range of invariance of the image of an object when changing external conditions perceptual process. For example, white paper is perceived by us as such both in daylight and in artificial light. The apparent magnitude of objects is perceived approximately the same when the distance from them changes;

Objectivity - the structural unit of perception is the image of a separate object, while for sensory this is a separate property, the quality of an object;

Integrity is the property to perceive any object as a stable systemic whole, even if some parts of this whole cannot be observed at the moment of perception (for example, we do not see reverse side books, the back wall of the cabinet, but we perceive exactly the book, namely the cabinet).

Generalization is a property of perception, which consists in the fact that a given object is perceived as a representative of a certain class of objects (flowers, windows, dogs, etc.).

A special place among the characteristics of perception is occupied by apperception, which represents the influence on the image of perception of the past experience of the perceiving subject, his socio-cultural environment, as well as thinking, the emotional state of the subject, etc. factors.

Types of perception

There are two types of perception. At the base of the first lies the sense organ that receives information. According to this classification, three types of perception are usually distinguished. These are touch, visual perception and auditory perception. The second classification is based on information that is reflected through perception. In this case, we are talking about the perception of space, the perception of time, and a special purely human form perception - the perception of a person by a person.

Touch. Touch plays a major role in mental regulation, control and correction of the working movements of the hands. Touch is one of the most important sources of our knowledge about the space and mechanical properties of objects.

This type of perception is based on tactile, temperature and kinesthetic sensations. But the organ of this specific type of perception is the hand, and the active, leading role belongs to the thumb. The hand moves over the object, allowing a person to create a complete image with sequentially incoming information about the individual features of the object. Feeling, she reproduces the shape of the object, as if creating a cast of it.

Researchers have identified two types of groping movements: small movements of the fingers that we use, stopping at the most informative points of the subject; and large movements that allow you to combine individual features of the subject, as well as performing the function of checking the assumptions that have arisen. In the future, during repeated work with a previously studied object, the process of curtailment occurs - stopping only at informative points.

Visual perception is usually defined as the process of constructing a visible image of the surrounding reality. The working organ of visual perception is the eye.

The movement of the eyes when looking at an object is spasmodic. During the stop, the process of visual perception occurs, while the movement - processing of the received information. Very often, the eye acts under the influence of a previously developed stereotype. So, having got used to “run through” the text, the reader with great difficulty copes with the task of in-depth study of the material. He omits large paragraphs of text without even noticing it, and later says with absolute sincerity that this material was not in the book. The reader of another type, on the contrary, works through each text meticulously. His eye "refuses" to jump over a line or paragraph, and the reader is drowned in details that at the moment could be omitted.

Auditory perception. Auditory perception is fundamentally different from previous species. If tactile and visual perception reflect the world of objects located in space, then auditory perception deals with a sequence of stimuli occurring in time.

Unlike animals, in humans, two factors play a decisive role in auditory perception. objective systems, which have not biological, but social origin:

phonemic (or the system of sound codes of the language);

rhythmic-melodic (or system of musical codes).

The decisive role of these factors leads to the fact that, while the animal ear sometimes has a finer sound sensitivity than the human ear, human hearing is characterized by much greater complexity, greater richness and greater mobility of sound codes.

Auditory perception, like other types of perception, is an active process that includes a motor component in its composition. But in auditory perception, the motor component is separated from the auditory system, separated into a separate system. This is singing with a voice for a musical ear and pronunciation for a speech ear.

Perception of space. The perception of space includes the perception of the distance, or distance, in which objects are located from us and from each other, the direction in which they are located, the size and shape of the object.

Perception reflects the following characteristics of space:

Relief (three-dimensionality, stereoscopicity). This turned out to be possible due to the fact that paired organs work in perception: two eyes, two hands, two ears;

The shape of the subject. Through perception, in contrast to sensation, we reflect in the object the shaping properties (angle or circle, depression or bulge);

Value (size). The perceptual image has the ability to reproduce the actual size of the object. Only in vision and touch there is a phenomenon of reproduction in the image of the natural size of an object, regardless of the size of the sensory organ that reproduces this image. Restrictions follow only from the resolution of the organ: whether the hand reaches out, whether the perceived object fits into the boundaries of the field of view;

Simultaneity. The image of a perceived object reflects its shape and size at the same time, although the sensory organ receives information gradually.

Perception of time. It is a reflection in the brain of the objective duration, speed and sequence of the phenomena of reality. A person has recently become interested in how he perceives time, while the features of the perception of objects have been studied since time immemorial. It's hard to name a reason. But the accuracy of time was of little relevance even in the 17th century. An example of this is the clock. In the Menshikov Palace in St. Petersburg, there are the best watches of the time by English masters, but they only have hour hand. Minutes were not counted in those days. Now, in so many activities and even in everyday life, a person needs to know not only seconds, but fractions of seconds.

Does a person have a “sense of time”, can it be developed? How to prepare yourself for meetings, negotiations, in order to "keep on time"? How to distribute your forces in time when you run a hundred meters? Michel Sifre, a well-known French scientist, speleologist, in his book “In the Abyss of the Earth”, describes several experiments to test whether a person has an “internal clock”, when the rhythms of the outside world cease to influence us. As a result, he and his colleagues discovered a phenomenon that they called the two-day rhythm, that is, lasting about 48 hours. Although subsequent experiments showed that some subjects maintain an almost familiar rhythm of life (within 28 hours). However, everyone noted that time is running faster than they expected.

Thus, we can say that each person has his own internal clock, which does not always coincide with the daily rhythm of the Earth, and to perceive this rhythm, a person uses additional outward signs and, accordingly, different analyzers.

The role of different analyzers in the perception of time

Kinesthetic analyzer and perception of time. Kinesthesia is related to our movements. Therefore, it is of great help to us in the perception of duration, sequence and, especially, speed. Thus, what is short is fast, and vice versa.

Auditory analyzer and perception of time. Hearing, more than any other system, reflects the temporal features of the acting stimulus: its prolongation in time, its rhythmic character, that is, succession. The perception of rhythm has developed in the process labor activity a person in which the rhythmic regularity of movements plays an important role. Rhythm is one of means of expression not only in art, but also in speech activity.

Skin analyzer and perception of time. The skin analyzer helps us in the perception of duration, however, more errors are noted than in the study of movement. With regard to the duration of pain, the skin analyzer gives a 100% overestimation of the time interval of pain exposure. The reason is in the peculiarities of the influence of emotions on the perception of time. A painful touch is colored with a negative emotional tone, it is overestimated, as a result, the intervals separating it from another stimulus are overestimated.

Illusions of perception

Illusions of perception are distorted perceptions real objects. They can occur in different modalities, but their greatest number is observed in the visual field. Visual illusions (optical illusion) are extremely numerous and varied.

The vast majority of illusions arise not because of the imperfection of the sense organ, but because of a false judgment about the perceived object, so we can say that deception occurs when comprehending the image. Such illusions disappear when the conditions of observation change, when comparative measurements are made, when some factors that interfere with correct perception are excluded. There are illusions that arise due to special conditions of observation (for example, observation with one eye, or with fixed axes of the eyes). They also disappear when unusual viewing conditions are removed. Finally, a number of illusions are known, due to the imperfection of the sense organ.

The most common types of illusions are:

Illusions connected, one way or another, with the peculiarities of the structure of the eye. From everyday experience we know that light objects appear larger in comparison with their equal dark (black) objects. This illusion is the result of the effect of irradiation of excitation in the retina of the eye;

Illusions due to contrast. The perceived size of the figures turns out to be dependent on the environment in which they are given. Mugs of the same size appear different, depending on the environment: the circle appears larger among small ones and smaller among large ones. Each of us was in similar situation when among small children we seemed to ourselves giants, and, having got into a group of people much taller than ourselves, we felt that we had decreased in stature;

Revaluation of vertical lines compared to horizontal lines when they are actually equal. Any distance filled with separate objects seems to be larger than the empty one. Moreover, the distance filled with transverse lines is removed more than the distance filled with longitudinal lines;

Illusions associated with the transfer of the properties of the whole figure to separate parts, which lead to erroneous visual images. This is the largest class of illusions;

Illusions due to the relationship of "figure" and "ground". Looking at the picture, we see one figure, then another. These can be stairs going up or down, or two profiles changing to a vase pattern, etc.;

Portrait illusions. Many have seen "mysterious" portraits that are always looking at us, following us, turning their eyes to where we are moving. This is due to the fact that the pupils of the eyes in the portrait are placed in the middle of the section of the eyes. Moving away, we see the whole face in the same position, and it seems to us that the portrait has turned its head and is watching us.

Sensual knowledge of the world and personality

Feelings, despite their simplicity and subordinate, auxiliary position in relation to more complex mental cognitive processes, have a significant impact not only on the features of the flow of knowledge, but also on the development of the individual as a whole. With the simultaneous absence of vision and hearing (deaf-blindness), the child cannot develop at all as a person without special assistance from those around you.

The absence of one kind of sensation also limits the possibilities of human development and the formation of him as a person. So, special studies show that people who are blind and have poor vision are often asthenic, hypochondriacal. Those who do not hear or suffer from hearing loss may be touchy, they have increased anxiety. In general, people with defects in the organs of vision and hearing, who turned out to be leading in our civilization, very often become indecisive, timid, dependent on others.

Due to the incorrect attitude of others to the possibilities of these people to know the world, they often form overvalued ideas of inferiority, combined with such qualities as adherence to principles, a high level of moral requirements in relation to themselves and others. As for violations of other types of sensations that are not related to the sphere of significance for life in society, here the range of attitudes towards such violations is wide - from complete indifference to admiration for their phenomenal features, which also affects the development of the individual. We are tolerant of our loved ones being odorless or have reduced taste sensitivity, we sympathize with those who have hypersensitivity to acceleration and motion sickness, or those who are colorblind (not distinguishing colors - usually red and green).

Considering the psychophysiological characteristics of sensations, we noted that one of them - synesthesia - has such a feature as individuality, that is, unlike other characteristics, it is not necessary for every person and can be a unique combination of sensations. Usually, visual-auditory synesthesia is noted, but it can also be visual-gustatory, and olfactory-visual, etc. Such an unusual reflection of the properties of the surrounding reality cannot but affect the personality traits.

For a large number people with synesthesia, its feature formed the basis of their professional activities. So, the composer Scriabin created musical works, each sound of which was colored for him, which formed the basis of modern color music. But he created a color-musical apparatus especially for other people, for him the sound was color anyway. While for the painter Čiurlionis colors made sounds, he painted "musical" pictures. For many perfumers, the fragrance compositions they create are linked to visual images that are often conveyed to consumers either through the title (Spring Waltz, Southern Night) or, more recently, related video clips (Old Spays with a cool sea wave). Therefore, many modern methods of influencing people are based on the characteristics of their sensorimotor organization.

Not only sensation and perception affect the development and existence of a person, there is also reverse process. First of all, it concerns the process of perception.

Perception depends not only on the characteristics of the corresponding analyzer, external conditions of perception, but also on internal conditions, which, first of all, include:

The past experience of the perceiver. The influence of the existing practical experience was tested by the Austrian psychologist I. Kohler with the help of prismatic glasses. Their prolonged wearing ceased to affect the subjects, they corrected their perception through practice;

Significance individual features perceived objects;

The professional training of the perceiver;

Features of the attitude of the individual to the process of perception. So, big number Perceptual errors are found in subjects with increased willingness to accept the opinions of others and reduced criticality.

Preferred style of analysis of the information received. In this case, select different types perception. Most often they talk about the analytical or synthetic type of perception;

Mental level of the subject. Naturally, the mental development of a person has a very serious influence on the process of perception;

emotional or physiological state subject at the moment of perception.

Security questions for topic No. 13

Define sensations as a mental process.

What kinds of sensations do you know?

General and difference of sensations and perceptions.

Types of perception.

The interaction of sensations.

Perception- this is a reflection of objects and phenomena, integral situations of the objective world in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.

Perception is based on sensations, but perception is not reduced to the sum of sensations.

Without sensation, perception is impossible. However, in addition to sensations, perception includes past human experience in the form of ideas and knowledge.

Types of perception

Depending on which analyzer plays the predominant role in perception, there are visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory perception. Unlike sensations, images of perception usually arise as a result of the work of several analyzers. Complex types of perceptions include, for example, perception of space and perception of time. Perceiving space, that is, the distance of objects from us and from each other, shape and size, a person is based both on visual sensations and on auditory, skin and motor sensations.

In the perception of time, in addition to auditory and visual sensations, motor and internal, organic sensations play an important role.

By the strength of the sound of thunder, we determine the distance separating us from the approaching thunderstorm, with the help of touch, we eyes closed We can determine the shape of an object. In people with normal vision, auditory and tactile sensations play a similar role in the perception of space. But these sensations are of primary importance for persons deprived of sight.

Under the perception of time is understood the process of reflecting the duration and sequence of events occurring in the objective world. Only very short time intervals lend themselves to direct perception. When we are talking about longer periods of time, it is more correct to speak not of perception, but of the idea of ​​time.

The surrounding reality is perceived not by certain sense organs, but by a person of a certain gender and age, with his own interests, views, personality orientation, life experience, etc. The eye, ear, hand and other sense organs only provide the process of perception, which depends on mental characteristics personality.

1. Patterns of perception

The main patterns of perception:

apperception,

verbal communication,

installation dependence, subjectivity,

principle of isomorphism.

The process of perception is not limited to isolating a certain group of sensations and combining them into a holistic image; it also involves the recognition of the image, its comparison with traces of memory, comprehension and understanding (especially when symbolic objects, signs, text, etc. are perceived).

All this requires the involvement of past experience, in connection with which it is customary to talk about a special property of consciousness - apperception, those. dependence of a clear perception of any content on past impressions and accumulated knowledge. Thanks to this connection between current and past impressions, it is possible to assimilate new sensory information, to include new images of perception in the system of human experience. Therefore, a clear and conscious perception of the surrounding world is impossible without the participation of memory and thinking.

Perception is associated with categorization, the mental process of assigning a single object or event to a certain class. In other words, any object is perceived not as a singularity and immediate given, but as a representative of a generalized class of phenomena. Moreover, the specific features of this class are automatically transferred to the perceived object. The connection of perception with categorization indicates the mediation of perceptual processes social experience personality and cultural factors.

A characteristic feature of human perception is that its images are synthesized using speech. (verbal mediation ), based on the semantic structures of natural language. Due to the verbal (verbal) designation, it becomes possible to abstract and generalize the particular properties of objects.

In the studies of a number of prominent experimental psychologists (originally G. Müller, T. Schumann, L. Lange, later - D.N. Uznadze and his followers), it was noted that perception largely depends on installations, defined as an integral state of the subject, which is not fully realized by him and at the same time implies a “peculiar tendency to certain contents of consciousness” or a preliminary readiness to perceive, feel and react to something in a certain way under the influence of past experience and motivational factors.

At the same time, one of the main patterns of perception should include its subjectivity: people perceive the same information differently, subjectively, i.e. depending on their interests, knowledge, needs, abilities, goals of activity and other subjective factors. The dependence of perception on the content of a person's mental life and on the characteristics of his personality is also associated with the fundamental concept of apperception.

According to the postulates of Gestalt psychology, perception is based on the principle of isomorphism- structural assimilation of the formed perceptual image to the perceived object.

The laws of perception (according to M. Wertheimer ).

Similarity effect.- Figures similar in some elements (color, size, shape, etc., are combined and grouped in perception).

Proximity effect.- Closely spaced pieces usually come together.

The "common fate" factor.- Figures can be united by the general nature of the changes observed in them.

The "Good Continuation" Factor.- From two intersecting or tangent lines, choose lines with less curvature.

Closing factor.- Closed figures are perceived better.

Grouping factor without a trace.- Several figures are trying to group in such a way that there is not a single separately standing figure left.

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Sensory processes

The processes of complex object perception are based on relatively elementary sensory processes flowing in our sense organs and directly related parts of the cortex, in other words, in that system of physiological apparatuses that, since the works of I.P. Pavlov, have been called analyzers.

Our sense organs, having formed in the process of long evolution, acquired a specialized structure, and each of them turned out to be adapted for reception. various kinds the motion of matter. With a quantitative change in the parameters of influences (by wavelength or number of oscillations per second), they begin to be registered by various sense organs and are perceived by us as separate types of sensations.

Several classifications of sensory processes are known..

The ancients knew the five senses, or modalities, in which we perceive the outside world. For a long time, visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory and gustatory sensations seemed to be elementary "bricks" from which, with the help of associations, the entire mental life of a person is built. In the 19th century, the list of basic sensations began to expand rapidly. To it were added sensations of the position and movement of the body in space. Vestibular sensitivity was discovered and studied, the organ of which turned out to be part of the inner ear. From tactile sensitivity, sensations of pain and temperature were isolated. In parallel with the expansion of the list of sensations, knowledge of the neurophysiological processes underlying perception deepened. As a result, other bases for classification appeared.

It is known that each analyzer consists of three parts: located on the periphery of receptors, pathways and cortical projection zones. Depending on the type of sensitivity, visual, auditory, olfactory and other types of analyzers are distinguished.

Of great importance for the classification of sensory processes is the isolation of various types of receptors. The classification of receptors depending on the energy of adequate stimuli, proposed by W. Wundt, is associated with the division of receptors into three large groups specialized for receiving mechanical, chemical or light energy. The mechanical energy of tissue deformation, stretching, compression or shear is captured mechanoreceptors. They are scattered over the surface of the body and inside it: in the skin, muscles, tendons, vessel walls, etc. Perhaps the most ancient group of receptors are chemoreceptors. Sensitivity to chemicals, however, is already present in unicellular organisms, i.e. before the advent of chemoreceptors. Chemoreception of insects is characterized by high sensitivity, some species of which are able to find a female by smell at a distance of two kilometers.

Reception of light energy is carried out with the help of photoreceptors. Sensitivity to light stimuli progressively develops in phylogenesis. Its evolution is associated with a change in the organ of vision - the eye, which develops from a simple light-sensitive plate in coelenterates to a complex compound eye of insects and a chamber eye of vertebrates.

Despite differences in structure and functions, receptors of all three groups have a number of common properties. First, they all convert the energy of the stimulus into action potentials that propagate along the sensory nerves to the central parts of the nervous system. These rhythmic discharges containing information about the stimulation parameters are also called touch code. Secondly, the receptors respond mainly to a change in the stimulus. Therefore, the maximum frequency of receptor action potentials is observed immediately after the appearance or disappearance of the stimulus. Decrease in receptor activity at prolonged action an unchanging stimulus is called receptor adaptation. Reflex regulation the work of receptors is their third common property.

Vision is involved in the sensory corrections of many movements. This function of his J. Gibson proposed to call visual kinesthesia. When the observer moves in his environment, the irritation of his visual analyzer is constantly changing. However, these changes in optical stimulation are not perceived by him as movements. visible objects, i.e. as exteroception. They perform the function of visual kinesthesia and serve to control the movements carried out.

Complex forms of object reflection are inextricably linked with active movements of the subject, and hence with proprioception. These movements perform the function in the process of perception. effector image corrections. To check the adequacy of the image, it is necessary to compare it with the reflected object. Most simple way such a comparison is an external motor perceptual action. If necessary, the image is corrected. Different levels of perceptual tasks correspond to different levels of effector corrections.

The set of hierarchical perception mechanisms capable of solving perceptual tasks of various complexity is called perceptual system. Perceptual systems are formed in the process of activity, which determines the variability of their constituent links. In the following, the five main perceptual systems will be discussed in detail:

1. Visual system implements a complex epicritical form of sensitivity. It takes part in the regulation of locomotion and objective actions. Vision plays an important role in the perception of space. This system allows you to evaluate the properties of the surface of an object, and also provides the highest forms of object perception, which are distinguished by high constancy.

2. auditory system gives information about the properties of acoustic phenomena and the position of sounding objects in space. It is involved in the coordination of articulatory movements. Finally, the auditory system is associated with the most complex types of social perceptions - the perception of speech and music.

3. musculoskeletal system consists of many subsystems. It is involved in the regulation of movements and determines the perception of the relative position of body parts. On the basis of active touch, higher forms of object perception are possible. The functioning of the musculoskeletal system is controlled by the visual system.

4. Olfactory-gustatory system makes it possible to perceive the chemical properties of various substances. In some animals, it is used for spatial orientation. However, this system plays the greatest role in the control of eating behavior.

5. vestibular system reflects the forces of gravity acting on the body and the inertial forces associated with its accelerated motion. With its help, the assessment of the position, posture, beginning and end of body movement in various directions is carried out. The vestibular system interacts with most other perceptual systems.

Perceptual systems are formed under the influence of tasks that arise in the activity of the individual. Many perceptual tasks require several perceptual systems to work together, so it is possible intermodal or transitional forms of sensitivity, occupying an intermediate position between traditional modalities.

A typical intermodal sensation is the sensation vibrations. As you know, the human auditory system does not perceive air vibrations with a frequency below twenty hertz. Lower tones are perceived by us as vibrational sensations. This is done not with the help of hearing, which is proved by the existence of vibrational sensitivity in the deaf, but mainly through the musculoskeletal system. For the sensation of vibration to occur, it is important that the irritation be transmitted by bone tissues and spread to the largest possible part of the body. It is believed that in this case the vestibular system is excited, although vibration is an inadequate stimulus for it. Vibrational sensitivity occupies an incomparably smaller place in our perception than touch or hearing. But in people who have lost their hearing, it begins to play a huge role.

The development of intermodal sensations, which make it possible to compensate for certain sensory deficiencies, emphasizes the importance that the presence of a specific perceptual task has for the development of perceptual systems. A.N. Leontiev demonstrated the possibility of forming a completely new type of sensitivity, which was called non-specific light sensitivity.

In the experiments, the task was to develop in the subjects sensitivity to color through the skin of the palm. The subject sat in front of a black screen. His hand was stuck through the hole in the screen. In turn, through a hole in the board on which the subject's hand rested, a red or green beam of light was projected onto the palm. The lamp was separated from the subject's palm by a water filter, so that the stimuli acting on the surface of the skin had exactly the same thermal characteristics and differed only in wavelength. In the first series of experiments, the subject remained passive, since he was not warned of anything. The experimenter tried to develop in him a conditioned protective reflex to irritation with red light. Stimuli were applied at different time intervals in a random order. Thirty seconds after irritating the palm with red light, the subject received an electric shock and, naturally, withdrew his palm. The green light was not accompanied by reinforcements. It turned out that even after 800-900 combinations, the subject could not learn to withdraw his hand in time.

In the second series of experiments, the subject was told that sometimes his palm would be illuminated with red, and sometimes with green light, and that if, after illuminating his hand with red light, he did not withdraw his hand, he would receive an electric shock. In other words, the subjects were conditioned to actively detect a particular stimulus. The rest of the experimental conditions were maintained. The results of this series have been amazing. Already after forty-fifty combinations, it was possible to develop a conditioned reflex to illumination of the skin with red light, so that the subject pulled his hand away immediately after illuminating his palm with red light and left it in place when illuminated with green light.

Interaction of perceptual systems mainly due to the unity of the surrounding world. Indeed, one and the same object or phenomenon has many different aspects.

There are numerous facts that testify to the deep connections of various perceptual systems. This is about synesthesia - the emergence of a sensation of a certain modality under the influence of a stimulus of a completely different modality. The phenomenon of synesthesia can occur both in an explicit and implicit form. In an explicit form, according to a number of studies, synesthesia is observed in approximately 50% of children and 15% of adults. Very bright synesthesias were, for example, in the composer A.N. Scriabin, who experienced each sound colored in one color or another and even wrote symphonies of color. It can be argued that in an implicit form, synesthesia occurs in everyone.

Perception (perception) - this is a holistic reflection of objects, situations and events that occurs with the direct impact of adequate physical stimuli on the senses.

All theories are divided into 2 groups: 1. Objectively oriented. 2. Subjectively oriented. These approaches differ on two main criteria- 1. according to the degree of participation of the subject and object of the surrounding world as the main determinant of the perception process. The main role in perception belongs to objects that act on the senses. There are subjective determinants: needs, emotions, attitudes, cognitive process, motivation. The influence of human attitudes on perception. Bodalev's example: 2 groups of subjects. They were shown a portrait of the same person, some were told that he was a criminal and asked to describe, others - that he was a hero. The offender was described as massive, a beast; hero - a strong-willed face, lips compressed, proud. Gregory: Astronomers' perception of the planet Saturn. First, as a ball with halos. Then surrounds the ring: as I understood, I immediately saw it. People's knowledge of the structure of Saturn affects the perception of this planet. 2. They differ in the main content of the process of perception. Perception is a direct sensory reflection of the surrounding world. Reflection indicates the existence of a certain correspondence between the objective properties of external influences and the subjective properties of their images. The process of presenting the subject's knowledge about the surrounding world goes into the process of its perception. The image of perception is always meaningful.

Allport singled out 6 Perceptual Image Properties(perceptual image):

1. Touch quality. Impact on receptors leads to various subjective effects: intensity, duration in time, extension in space.

2. Configuration. Images are not reduced to sensory qualities, but represent integral structures: figures + background. E. Rubin described 4 characteristics of how to see the background and the figure: 1) the figure as a thing, an object, the background is amorphous. 2) the figure as acting in front of the background, the background behind the figure. 3) the contour common to the figure and the background is perceived as belonging to the figure. 4) figures as a clearer localization in space compared to the background.

3. Constancy. The property of a perceptual image to maintain the relative constancy of its characteristics when the conditions for perceiving the same objects change.

4. Reference system. Subjects have a system that measures the quantification of their images (larger, smaller; colder, warmer)

5. Objectivity. There are 2 aspects: 1) the images of the subject are correlated with his knowledge about them. 2) the images contain the knowledge of the subject about the meanings of phenomena.

6. Installation. Different people on the same stimuli can perceive the world in different ways.

2 groups of motion perception: 1) visual - displacement of retinal images of objects along the surface of the retina. 2) muscular (motor) - eye - head. Evidence 1: Helmholtz's experiment: displacement of the eyeball - the surrounding world of movement. Evidence 2: create a consistent image in the subjects - close your eyes and move your eyeball - a consistent image moves. The problem of perception of a stable visible world: why the surrounding world is perceived as stationary at a time when movement is observed.

Sherrington's theory(afferent theory): essence: the central nervous system assumes the existence of a certain structure, which is designated as a comparison unit, here comes afferent information about the displacement of the image of the retina of objects on the surface of the retina, information about the movement performed by the observed. This theory has been modified Helmholtz: efferent theory.

In the central nervous system there is a block of comparisons, which receives afferent information about the displacement of the image of the retina of objects along the surface of the retina. From the movement of the observed, efferent information comes, which is a copy of the effector commands that come from the corresponding nerve centers. Mann experiment: fixation of the eyeball. Illusions: strictoscopic movement (film illusion). Autoscopic movement (illusion of wandering lights). Induced movement of an object/observer (moon against the background of clouds; in a train when a train is moving nearby). Waterfall effect.

Perception constancy theories. Types of constancy: perception of size, shape, speed, depth. To measure the constancy of perception, 2 stimuli are used: 1) reference - a stimulus of constancy, which measures this object with unchanged parameters. 2) variable - a set of objects that differ from each other in some one parameter. Always presented under the same perceptual conditions. We give instructions: choose such a variable stimulus that it is perceived as the same as the reference one. Based on the results, we calculate the coefficient of constancy. 2 Notable theories: 1) nuclear-context theory by E. Boring(Perception constancy is the result of the interaction of two variables, one of which is called nuclear and the other context. Nuclear variable is a certain characteristic of the retinal image of an object, the constancy of which is measured. Context variable is a variable containing objective information about the conditions under which this object is presented.) . A. Holway: as an experiment, the constancy of size perception is the result of the interaction of nuclear and context variables. Context variable - signs of perception of absoluteness and remoteness. The first condition is the usual observation. All indications of remoteness and depth perception are included. The second condition is monocular observation. All binocular signs are excluded. The third condition is monocular observation through an artificial pupil - the subject sees the situation through a small hole on the screen. The fourth condition is the corridor of twilight. The result of the experiment: in the second condition, the result was close to 100%, but somewhat lower. It leads to a change in the constancy of perception. 2) theory of perceptual images by V. Ittelson: constancy of perception is a function of two variables (the result of the interaction of two variables, one of which is nuclear, the other is contextual). The content context variable will be different. This is biased information about the condition of perception, in which not an object is presented, but a subject. Illusion of the moon: Eimert's law, which established a relationship between the apparent size of the last image and the apparent distance.

Lecture plan:

1. Feeling.

2. Perception.

Basic concepts: sensation, analyzer, sensitivity, intensity, modality, space-time structure, perception, apperception

1. Sensory-perceptual phenomena arise in the process of material interaction of the physical world with the subject as a direct reflection. The interaction of the sense organs with these objects is the first and indispensable condition for the emergence and development of sensory-perceptual processes. In the primary sensory-perceptual image, the object is reflected in those of its properties that are manifested in such an interaction. A person perceives an object in the place in which it is located, and at the moment in which it acts on the senses.

Feeling- this is the process of primary processing of information at the level of individual properties of objects and phenomena . This level of information processing is called sensory. At this level, there is no holistic view of the phenomenon that caused the sensation. Sensation is only the primary material of the mental image.

The vital role of sensations is to timely and quickly bring to the central nervous system information about the state of the external and internal environment, the presence of biologically significant factors in it.

Sensation occurs as a reaction of the nervous system to a particular stimulus. The physiological basis of sensations is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. The analyzer is an anatomical and physiological apparatus specialized for receiving the effects of certain stimuli from the external and internal environment and processing them into sensations. The analyzer consists of three parts: peripheral department(receptor); sensory nerves; analyzer center. For a sensation to arise, the work of the entire analyzer as a whole is necessary.

There are several classifications of sensations. A.R. Luria believes that the classification of sensations can be carried out according to two main principles - according to the principle of modality and genetic (according to the principle of the complexity of sensations).

By modality, types of sensations are distinguished: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, tactile. In addition, submodal sensations are also highlighted, such as sensations of color, space, etc.

Genetic classification allows us to distinguish two types of sensitivity: 1) protopathic (more primitive, less differentiated and localized), which includes organic feelings (hunger, thirst, etc.); 2) epicritical (more subtly differentiating), which includes the main human senses. Epicritical sensitivity is genetically younger and controls protopathic sensitivity.

In addition, there is an anatomical classification - based on the properties of the stimuli that cause sensations and the receptors that these stimuli act on. According to this classification, there are: exteroceptive sensations that occur when external stimuli are exposed to external receptors on the surface of the body, interoreceptive sensations that have receptors in the internal organs and tissues of the body and reflect the state of the internal organs; proprioceptive - receptors are located in the muscles and ligaments. They provide information about the movement and position of the body in space.

Properties of sensations(L.M. Wecker):

· Spatio-temporal structure, including 3 elements: localization (direct reproduction of the location of the stimulus in external space), display of the duration of the impact of the information source on the sense organ, display of movement;

Intensity - a quantitative energy characteristic, determined by the strength of the acting stimulus and the functional state of the receptor;

Quality (modality) - specificity determined by the physical or physico-chemical characteristics of those stimuli that are adequate for a given analyzer. Such specific modal characteristics for visual sensation are hue, lightness, saturation; for auditory - pitch, timbre, loudness; tactile - hardness, smoothness, roughness, etc. In all kinds of sensations, modal characteristics are organically interconnected with spatio-temporal characteristics.

Not every irritation causes a sensation. For a sensation to arise, the stimulus must reach a certain magnitude. The minimum value of the stimulus at which a sensation first occurs is called lower absolute threshold Feel. Stimuli that do not reach it lie below the threshold of sensation. The value of the lower absolute threshold characterizes the absolute sensitivity of the sense organs. The weaker the stimuli that cause sensations (i.e., the lower the absolute threshold value), the higher the absolute sensitivity of the sense organs. Different analyzers have different sensitivities. The absolute sensitivity of the analyzer is limited not only by the lower, but also by the upper threshold of sensation. Upper absolute threshold sensations is called the maximum strength of the stimulus, at which there is still an adequate sensation to the acting stimulus. A further increase in the strength of stimuli acting on our receptors causes a painful sensation (super-loud sound, blinding brightness). The value of the absolute thresholds, both lower and upper, varies depending on various conditions: the age of the person, the functional state of the receptor, the strength and duration of the stimulation, etc.

A characteristic feature of modern psychophysical concepts is the increasing attention to non-sensory factors of sensations. It turns out that the perception of stimuli, even the simplest signals, depends not only on the actual sensory system(acuity of hearing, vision, etc.), but also from processes more high level: decision-making, states in which a person is located, detecting or distinguishing stimuli; the individual characteristics of this person, etc. For example, the solution of a sensory task by a person is influenced by the characteristics of his temperament, namely, such properties as extroversion and neuroticism. Cognitive style also acts as a significant factor in the effectiveness of solving sensory problems. Cognitive style is a set of stable formal-dynamic properties of a person that determine the individual characteristics of solving cognitive problems.

2. Perception- reflection in the consciousness of integral complexes of properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at a given moment on the senses. At the same time, images are formed with which attention, memory, thinking, emotions operate. Images guide and regulate all forms of human expedient activity, because they reflect the main properties of the object.

The perception of whole objects or situations is not a simple summation of individual sensations. The process of perception requires the selection of the main leading features from the whole complex of influencing features (color, shape, tactile properties, weight, taste, etc.) with simultaneous distraction (abstraction) from non-essential ones. The main essential features of the subject are compared with previous knowledge about the subject. If the previous knowledge about the subject coincides with the incoming information, the recognition of the subject occurs and its perception occurs.

The properties of perception include objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness of perception and apperception.

Objectivity of perception expressed in the act of objectification, i.e. relation of objects to objects of the external world. Objectness is formed on the basis of motor processes that provide contact with the object itself.

Integrity. Perception gives a holistic image of an object, phenomenon. It is formed on the basis of a generalization of the individual qualities of an object, obtained in the form of various sensations. The components of sensation are so strongly interconnected that a single complex image of an object arises even when only individual properties or individual parts of the object (velvet, marble) directly affect a person. These impressions arise as a conditioned reflex due to the connection formed between visual and tactile stimuli.

The integrity of perception is also related to its structure . Perception is not a simple sum of our momentary sensations (feelings at any particular moment in time). We perceive a generalized structure of sensations that is formed over time.

Property constancy perception consists in the ability of the analyzer system to perceive surrounding objects as relatively constant even when external conditions of perception change. To the greatest extent, constancy is observed in the visual perception of the color, size and shape of objects. Without the constancy of perception, a person would not be able to navigate in an infinitely diverse and changeable world.

Meaningfulness of perception. Perception in humans is closely related to thinking. Consciously perceiving an object means mentally naming it, i.e. attribute to a specific group, class, generalize it into a word. Perception is not determined simply by a set of stimuli affecting the senses; perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning.

Apperception. In perception, the characteristics of a person’s personality always affect, since they perceive not the eye and ear, but a specific living person. Dependence of perception on content mental life person, from the characteristics of his personality, is called apperception. During perception, traces of past experience are activated - a person puts forward hypotheses about the object's belonging to one category or another. Therefore, the same object can be perceived differently. different people. The content of perception is determined both by the task set before a person and by the motives of his activity; attitudes, emotions that can change the content of perception are involved in its process.

The described properties are not inherent in a person from birth, they gradually develop in life experience. Perception with age retains its qualitative patterns unchanged and undergoes only quantitative changes.

The classification of perception, as well as sensations, is based on differences in the analyzers involved in perception. In accordance with which analyzer plays the predominant role in perception, there are visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory perceptions.

The basis of another type of classification of perception are the forms of existence of matter: space, time and motion. In accordance with this classification, space perception, time perception and motion perception are distinguished.

Lecture 2. Memory

Lecture plan:

1. General view about memory.

2. Classification of types of memory.

3. Rational methods of memorization.

Basic concepts: memory, memorization, preservation, reproduction, forgetting, instant memory, short-term memory, working memory, long-term memory, mnemonics

1. The impressions that a person receives from the surrounding world leave a certain trace, are preserved, consolidated, and, if necessary, reproduced. Memory underlies human abilities, is a condition for learning, acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities. It makes it possible to maintain expedient behavior for long periods of time and predict the future. Memory pushes the limits of perception of temporal and spatial characteristics of objects. In memory, information is not only stored, but also continuously transformed, ordered, generalized, i.e. it is active and can lead to a change in attitudes and motives, thereby influencing the planned behavior. Impossible without memory normal functioning neither society nor individual. All living beings have memory, but it reaches the highest level of development in humans. Memory forms the individuality and uniqueness of a person.

Memory is the process of capturing, preserving and reproducing traces of past experience. Memory as a process performs the following functions: remembering, storing, reproducing and forgetting information.

memorization- the process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired.

Playback- the process of memory, as a result of which the content of the psyche fixed to the wound is actualized by extracting it from long-term memory and transferring it to operational memory. In the process of reproduction, they distinguish: recognition, actual reproduction, recall. Memories occupy a special place.

Preservation material is determined by the degree of its participation in the activities of the individual. Preservation is selective. Stably significant material, related by its content to the needs of a person, with the goals of his activity, is forgotten more slowly.

Forgetting is a useful phenomenon. It is associated with the action of many factors: the significance of information for achieving actual life goals, the effect of negative induction, memorization of a large amount of material, motivation, etc. G. Ebbinghaus established that forgetting occurs according to the hyperbolic law, i.e. information is most quickly forgotten immediately after memorization, in the first hours and minutes. He also established that the intensity of forgetting depends, in particular, on the type of information: meaningless material is forgotten faster, and a meaningful story that is remembered in a rational way is slower.

In modern psychology, there is no unified and complete theory of memory: memory is studied at different levels - from behavioral to molecular. T.N. Grechenko notes that "memory" itself exists only at a phenomenal level, because it arises as an integral quality of brain activity.

2. There are several classifications of types of memory:

1. According to the time of storing information, instantaneous, short-term, operational, long-term and genetic memory will be distinguished.

Instant or iconic memory - associated with the retention of accurate and complete picture just perceived by the senses, without any processing of the information received. This memory is an image, its duration is 0.1-0.5 seconds.

short term memory is a memory in which the storage of material is limited to a certain, as a rule, a small period of time. In short-term memory, not a complete, but only a generalized image of the perceived, its most essential elements, is stored. This memory works without a preliminary setting for memorization, but with a setting for subsequent reproduction. From instant memory to short-term memory, only that information gets that is realized and combined with the actual interests of the needs of a person, attracts him increased attention. Keeping information in short-term memory always requires maintaining continuous attention to the memorized material. The average amount of short-term memory is very limited and amounts to 5-9 units of information. This volume is individual, it characterizes the natural memory of a person and tends to persist throughout a person's life. (People with well developed short term memory quickly remember, but just as quickly and forget the information received). Associated with the limitation of the amount of short-term memory is such a property as replacement. It manifests itself in the fact that when an individually stable volume of a person's short-term memory is overflowed, the information that enters it again partially displaces the information already stored there. Subjectively, this can manifest itself, for example, in an involuntary switching of a person's attention from memorization to something else. Short-term memory plays an important role in human life. Thanks to it, the most significant amount of information is processed, unnecessary information is eliminated, and as a result, long-term memory is not overloaded with unnecessary information. Long-term memory cannot function properly without short-term memory. Only what was once in short-term memory can penetrate into the latter and be deposited for a long time. In other words, short-term memory acts as a kind of filter that passes the necessary information into long-term memory, while simultaneously implementing strict selection in it. Short-term memory has an acoustic form. To maintain information in short-term memory, it is necessary to maintain activity aimed at memorization, without diverting attention to another type of activity, complex mental work.

long-term memory is designed for a long period of information storage. Long-term memory is practically unlimited in volume, but limited in the possibility of arbitrary recall of the information stored in it. In addition, in order for information to get into the storage of long-term memory, it is necessary that certain work be done on it even while it is in short-term memory. Transferring information from short-term to long-term memory causes difficulties, because in order to do this, it is necessary to comprehend and structure information in a certain way, to link new information with those already stored in long-term memory. Long-term memory has a semantic organization. In many life situations, the processes of short-term and long-term memory work almost in parallel. For example, when a person sets himself the task of remembering something that obviously exceeds the capabilities of his short-term memory, he often resorts to the method of semantic grouping of material, which facilitates memorization; and grouping involves the use of long-term memory. Two factors increase the likelihood of successful recall: the correct organization of the memorized information and the provision during its reproduction of such psychological conditions that are identical to those in which the corresponding material was memorized.

RAM- occupies an intermediate position between long-term and short-term memory. It is designed to preserve the material for a predetermined period (the period is determined by the task and is designed only for solving this task).

genetic memory- memory, in which information is stored in the genotype, is transmitted and reproduced by inheritance. Genetic memory is the only one that we cannot influence through training and education.

2. According to the nature of mental activity prevailing in activity: motor, emotional, figurative, verbal-logical.

motor memory- this is the memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, the reproduction of various movements. Motor memory is involved in the formation of human motor skills and abilities. The great importance of this memory lies in the fact that it serves as the basis for the formation of various practical and labor skills.

emotional memory is a memory of experiences. It is involved in the work of all types of memory, but is especially manifested in human relations. The strength of material memorization is directly based on emotional memory: what causes strong emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him stronger and for a longer period.

figurative memory- memory for ideas, pictures of nature and life, smells, tastes, sounds.

Verbal-logical memory- memory for the meaning of events, the logic of the proof.

3. By the nature of the goals of the activity: arbitrary and involuntary memory. This classification is based on the presence or absence of a mnemonic goal (for the learning process, for accuracy, storage time). The presence of a mnemonic orientation is crucial for productive, effective memorization.

3. Mechanical learning, "cramming" are not very effective. Therefore, the most important condition for effective memorization is the use of rational memorization techniques, which include logical comprehension, systematization of the material, drawing up a basic outline, plan, breaking the material into parts, establishing links between these parts.

On learning efficiency positive influence shows interest, emotional involvement of a person in the material being memorized. Important factors for successful memorization are also: setting for long-term memorization and alternation of different in content, dissimilar activities, because thereby reducing the effect of retroactive braking. It manifests itself in the fact that the activity that follows immediately after memorization has an inhibitory effect, while the percentage of information reproduced decreases compared to cases when after memorization followed rest or activity that is different, opposite in content and nature from memorization.

The effectiveness of memorization is influenced by the amount of information (the percentage of memorized is inversely proportional to the amount of information presented). To facilitate memorization and increase the amount of memorized information, they often resort to the use of special techniques. These include: establishing an association between the material being memorized and the elements of the situation; environment (“placement of information in space”); creating images when memorizing words; transcoding (when memorizing numbers, words, formulas); formation of semantic phrases from initial letters memorized information; rhythmization, etc.

Another factor that affects memory is motivation. To firmly remember new information, you must want to remember it.

Lecture 3. Thinking

Lecture plan:

1. General idea of ​​thinking.

2. Thinking as an activity.

3. Types of thinking.

Basic concepts: thinking, generalization, problem situation, task, analysis, synthesis, abstraction, classification, comparison,

Thinking is an integrative mental process in which many other processes participate as components. Thinking is the highest cognitive process. It is the creation of new knowledge active form creative reflection and human transformation of reality. Thinking generates such a result, which neither in reality itself, nor in the subject at a given moment of time does not exist. Thinking can also be understood as the acquisition of new knowledge, the creative transformation of a person's ideas. Thinking is a complex process; numerous mental structures and processes are involved in it. In practice, thinking as a separate mental process does not exist; it is invisibly present in all other cognitive processes. Thinking is the movement of ideas, revealing the essence of things. Its result is not an image, but some thought, an idea.

"Thinking - mediated - based on the disclosure of connections, relationships, mediations - and generalized knowledge of objective reality" (S.L. Rubinshtein). Thinking arises on the basis of practical activity from direct knowledge and goes beyond its limits. It reflects being not only in the form of separate things, phenomena and their properties, but also determines the connections that exist between them, which are not given to a person in the very perception. The result of thinking is the allocation in the reality surrounding us of relations of various levels of complexity. The transfer of the selected attitude to new situations determines understanding, and the breadth of this transfer characterizes the depth of this understanding.

Thinking is inextricably linked with language, with linguistic symbols. “The main idea that leads to the solution of a problem is a well-rotated word” (D. Poya).

Difference thinking from others mental processes is that it is almost always associated with the presence of a problem situation, a task that needs to be solved, and active change conditions under which this task is set. Under problem situation usually understood special kind intellectual tasks having the following characteristics: goal (orienting basis for solving problems); the conditions under which this goal is set; the need to achieve a goal; insufficiency of standard means of solution arising directly from the conditions. There is no problem situation where there is no lack of information and dissatisfaction of needs.

The problem situation determines the phase character of mental processes. Several phases of thought processes have been established:

· problem occurs: the subject is aware that the amount of his knowledge is insufficient to achieve the intended goal;

· problem situation analysis : the subject analyzes the information contained in the problem situation and the structure of the goal that he wants to achieve (analysis of the differences between what is given and what should be achieved);

· generating hypotheses about how to achieve the intended goal (productive phase of thinking): the subject produces new information in the form of hypotheses, solution methods, etc.;

· hypothesis testing: control, evaluation and verification of the proposed hypotheses and solution methods.

2. Thinking- this is a special kind of theoretical and practical activity, involving a system of actions and operations included in it of an orienting-research, transformative and educational nature.

Thinking operations include:

analysis (singling out in the object of one or another of its aspects, elements, properties, connections, relations);

Synthesis (combining the components selected by analysis into a whole);

abstraction (singling out any side or aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as independent);

generalization (singling out the general from a multitude of particular phenomena);

comparison;

classification

To increase the productivity of mental activity, you can use the ability to manage such stages of thinking as:

· formulation of the problem;

creation of optimal motivation;

regulation of the direction of involuntary associations;

maximum inclusion of both figurative and symbolic components;

use of the advantages of conceptual thinking;

Reduction of excessive criticality in evaluating the result.

Mental activity is motivated by motives, which are not only the conditions for its deployment, but also factors influencing its productivity. The content of the motive can be very diverse, ranging from vital necessity and ending with the desire for intellectual pleasure. However, if the task is defined self-interest, it is much stronger and longer motivates to overcome the difficulties of the solution than imposed from the outside.

If a person does not have the desire and ability to organize his mental activity, he usually does not reach a high level of development of thinking even under the most favorable inclinations and good conditions. Sustainable motivation creates invaluable advantages, because it allows a person who has encountered difficulties in solving a problem to switch his activity to other tasks from time to time, without losing sight of the first one. Such a switch acts as preventive measure, protecting a person from overwork, and as a way of temporarily focusing attention on side (relative to the first task) properties of the situation, among which the way out of the impasse is sometimes hidden.

The strength of the motive plays a significant role: weak motivation does not provide sufficient development of the thought process, and, conversely, if it is too strong, it violates the use of the results obtained in solving other problems - the solution is not transposed.

Maintaining optimal motivation is facilitated by a gradual increase in the complexity of tasks that are feasible for this person. As he moves from success to success, he builds his confidence and ability to overcome ever-greater obstacles. Emotional overexcitation can lead to the appearance of another negative moment in the thought process - tendencies to stereotyping. Although the performance of simple tasks may improve, but the performance of complex ones always worsens. In this sense, the situation of competition is not conducive to solving complex mental problems.

3. Types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative, verbal-logical.

Visual Action Thinking: its peculiarity lies in the fact that the process of thinking itself is a practical transformational activity carried out by a person with real objects. The main condition for solving a mental problem is the correct actions with the appropriate objects.

Visual-figurative thinking: characterized by reliance on representations and images, with its help the whole variety of various actual characteristics of the object is most fully recreated. Its peculiarity is the establishment of unusual, incredible combinations of objects and their properties.

Verbal-logical thinking: characterized by the use of concepts, logical constructions, functions on the basis of language tools.

Distinguish between theoretical and practical thinking. The difference between theoretical and practical types of thinking, according to B.M. Teplov, consists in the fact that they are connected with practice in different ways. The work of practical thinking is mainly aimed at solving particular specific problems, while the work of theoretical thinking is mainly aimed at finding general patterns. Practical thinking is associated with setting goals, developing plans, projects, and is often deployed under time pressure, which can make it more difficult than theoretical thinking.

Thinking is also distinguished: logical (analytical) and intuitive, realistic and autistic (associated with escape from reality into inner experiences), involuntary and arbitrary.

Another type of thinking is creative thinking. Features of creative thinking (J. Gilford):

· originality, non-triviality, unusualness of the ideas expressed, a pronounced desire for intellectual novelty. A creative person almost always and everywhere strives to find his own solution, different from others.

semantic flexibility, i.e. the ability to see an object from a new angle of view, to discover its new use, to expand the functional application in practice.

· figurative adaptive flexibility, i.е. the ability to change the perception of an object in such a way as to see its new sides, hidden from observation.

· Semantic spontaneous flexibility, ie. the ability to produce a variety of ideas in an uncertain situation, in particular one that does not contain guidelines for these purposes.

In its formation, thinking goes through two stages: pre-conceptual and conceptual.

Lecture 4. Attention

Lecture plan:

1. General idea of ​​attention.

2. Characteristics of attention.

Basic concepts: attention, focus, concentration, selectivity, distribution, concentration,

1. Attention - orientation and concentration of human mental activity. At the same time, direction refers to the selective nature of activity, and concentration means deepening into this activity.

Attention refers to cross-cutting mental phenomena, therefore it is considered as a process (or from the side of any mental process), as a state (a state of concentration) and as a property of a person (mindfulness).

Attention is a necessary prerequisite for the emergence and development of human thinking and will, a factor in activating the processes of perception and memory. Attention provides the best reflection of some objects and phenomena of reality while distracting from others. It is impossible to explain human activity only by mechanistic causes, denying the activity of consciousness. Attention expresses our activity in different ways. The activity of attention follows from the activity of the personality.

Attention has no specific product. Its result is the improvement of every activity to which it joins.

attention functions. Attention activates the necessary and inhibits the currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes; promotes purposeful, organized selection of incoming information; provides a long-term focus of activity on the same object.

Directivity and selectivity of cognitive processes are connected with attention. Their setting directly depends on what at a given moment of time seems to be the most important for the organism, for the realization of the interests of the individual. Attention determines the accuracy and detail of perception, the strength and selectivity of memory, the direction and productivity of mental activity - i.e. the quality and results of the functioning of all cognitive activity. For perceptual processes, attention is a kind of amplifier that allows you to distinguish the details of images. For human memory attention acts as a factor capable of retaining the necessary information in the short term and random access memory, as a prerequisite for the transfer of memorized material to the storage of long-term memory. For thinking, attention acts as an obligatory factor in the correct understanding and solution of the problem.

In the system of interpersonal relations, attention contributes to better mutual understanding, adaptation of people to each other, prevention and timely resolution of interpersonal conflicts. Behind attention are always the interests and needs, attitudes and orientation of the individual. They cause a change in attitude towards the object. The choice of motive and decision-making depends on what the person's attention is directed to. Attention is necessary condition rapid development of skills, especially on initial stage their productions. Attention affects the purposefulness of activities, perseverance and perseverance in overcoming difficulties. Particular attention is paid to creative work requiring exceptional clarity of consciousness.

Classification of types of attention carried out depending on the levels of mental regulation. Allocate: involuntary, arbitrary, post-voluntary attention.

involuntary attention arises independently of the conscious intentions of the subject, without any volitional effort on his part, without prior intention. The occurrence is determined by physical, psycho-physiological and mental factors. The main function of involuntary attention is to quickly and correctly orientate in constantly changing environmental conditions; in the selection of those objects that at the moment can have the greatest meaning in life.

Arbitrary attention- a type of attention in which the focus and concentration of mental activity are associated with a consciously set goal. In voluntary attention, the activity of the personality is manifested. The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of the course of mental processes. The most important condition for maintaining voluntary attention is the correct organization of activities. To a large extent, voluntary attention is facilitated by the awareness of the need to perform this activity, the understanding of its significance, the desire to achieve the best results, the connection of what is being done with the interests of a person.

Post-voluntary attention It is characterized by the fact that the conscious performance of a task is accompanied by the absorption of the personality by this activity and does not require volitional efforts. Post-voluntary attention is characterized by long-term high concentration, intense and fruitful mental activity, high productivity of all types of labor.

2. The complex dynamics of a person's mental life is expressed in the basic properties of attention. The main properties of attention include stability, selectivity, concentration, distribution, switching, distractibility and attention span.

attention span- the number of objects that can be clearly perceived in a relatively short period of time (the amount of information on which the subject's consciousness can focus in order to operate with this information). The amount of attention depends on the properties of the perceived objects themselves, as well as on the task and nature of the activity of the person who perceives them. Experimental studies have led to the conclusion that the amount of attention is limited to six elements. With a further increase in the number of elements, their structuring occurs. Arbitrary regulation of the volume of attention with disparate stimuli is limited. With the semantic organization of stimuli, it is much higher.

Selectivity of attention– selection of only some of them from a set of signals. The limited scope of attention requires the subject to constantly highlight any objects that are in the sensory-perceptual field, and unselected objects are used by him as a background. The quantitative parameter of selectivity of attention is the speed of selection of a stimulus from a variety of others. The qualitative parameter is the degree of compliance of the selection results with the source material (accuracy). The success of attention is a complex characteristic, including quantitative (speed) and qualitative (accuracy) parameters of selectivity.

Sustainability of attention- the ability of the subject not to deviate from the direction of mental activity and maintain focus on the object of attention. This is a characteristic of attention over time. attention span has special meaning to achieve success in any activity, it characterizes the depth, duration, intensity of a person's mental activity. It is stability that distinguishes people who are passionately passionate about their work, who are able to disconnect from numerous side stimuli for the sake of the main thing. The stability of attention depends on a number of conditions: the degree of difficulty of the material and familiarity with it, its comprehensibility, the subject's attitude towards it, as well as individual personality traits.

Concentration of attention- the ability of the subject to maintain focus on the object of attention in the presence of interference. It is characterized by the clarity and distinctness of the reflection in the mind of what the subject perceives.

Distribution of attention- the ability of the subject to direct and focus attention on several independent variables at the same time. The possibility of distribution depends on a number of conditions. The more complex the combined activities, the more difficult it is to distribute attention. The main condition for the successful distribution of attention is the automation of at least one of the activities performed. The ability to distribute attention is formed in the process of mastering the activity through exercise and accumulation of relevant skills.

Switching attention- shifting focus and concentration of attention from one object to another or from one type of activity to another. Switching attention means the ability to quickly navigate in a complex changing situation. Ease of switching different people is different and depends on a number of conditions (first of all, the relationship between previous and subsequent activities and the attitude of the subject to each of them). How more interesting activity, the easier it is to switch to it and vice versa. Switchability is one of the well-trained qualities. Switching attention, if it occurs on an involuntary basis, may indicate its instability, but such instability is not always a reason to consider it as a negative quality. It often contributes to the temporary rest of the body, the analyzer, the preservation and restoration of the working capacity of the nervous system and the body as a whole. Two multidirectional processes are functionally connected with the switching of attention: inclusion and distraction of attention. The first is characterized by how a person switches attention to something and completely focuses on it; the second - by how the process of distraction is carried out.

Distraction (distraction) of attention is the involuntary movement of attention from one object to another. It arises under the action of extraneous stimuli on a person engaged in some activity at that moment. Distractibility can be external and internal. External distractibility occurs under the influence of external stimuli; while voluntary attention becomes involuntary. The most distracting are objects or phenomena that appear suddenly and act with varying force and frequency. In response to these stimuli, a hard-to-extinguish orienting reflex appears in a person. Internal distractibility of attention arises under the influence of strong feelings, extraneous emotions, due to a lack of interest and a sense of responsibility for the business that a person is currently busy with.

Similar information.

Perception, or perception, is the process of reflection of objects or phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. There are different types of perception depending on which analyzer (sense organ) plays the leading role in it - visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory, gustatory.

Depending on the form of existence of matter, there is a distinction between the perception of space, direction, size (where, in turn, the perception of form, remoteness, depth, perspective, etc.) and the perception of time are distinguished. Perception is also divided depending on the degree of complexity, the deployment of its process itself: simultaneous (“one-time”, instantaneous) and successive (relatively divided into micro-stages), as well as according to the degree of awareness - voluntary and involuntary perception. Perception has a number of basic properties: objectivity, integrity, structure, meaningfulness, selectivity, constancy, dependence on a person's past experience (apperceptiveness), limited volume. The process of perception includes a number of successive stages (phases of perception): detection, discrimination, identification, categorization, recognition, identification. All these types, properties, phases, patterns are preserved in management activities, providing an adequate and meaningful, substantive and structured reflection of external information. They form the mechanisms for the formation of the manager's sensory experience. So, for example, the property of selectivity of perception, which ensures the selection of

230 CHAPTER 15. PERCEPTIVE PROCESSES IN MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES

the most essential features of the external situation. Equally significant is the property of structurality, which allows one to perceive situations in a holistic (panoramic), but at the same time, internally ordered manner.

The property of apperception provides a constant "linking" of perceived information with professional and personal experience, as well as its "decoding" - decoding.

Individual-style differences in perception also play a certain role in managerial activity. There are two main styles - analytical and synthetic and two additional - analytical-synthetic and emotional. "Synthetics" are characterized by a tendency to a generalized reflection of phenomena and to the definition of their general, basic meaning. For "analysts", on the contrary, a tendency to highlight parts, details, details is characteristic. The analytical-synthetic type is characterized by a combination of these features, however, with lesser expression of both. The emotional type is characterized by an increased sensual reaction to the situation, which, as a rule, interferes with its adequate perception. Undoubtedly, the third, analytical-synthetic, type of perception is the best for management activities; the first two are less effective; the fourth acts as a contraindication to leadership. Finally, among the general characteristics of perception, it is necessary to note such an important individual feature like observation. This is a generalizing characteristic of perception, a derivative of all its other features. It consists in a selective, arbitrary, meaningful and linked to an assessment based on past experience by fixing the important and most significant features of the situation. In relation to managerial activity, it is customary to talk not just about observation, but about “sophisticated observation-technique” (B.M. Teplov) as an important quality of a leader.