Hollow human organs. Topography of the rectum. The structure of the pharyngeal wall

Gallbladder.

The gallbladder, as an anatomical organ, is located on bottom surface The liver serves as a reservoir for bile. The function of the gallbladder is to store bile and transfer it to the intestines for digestion.

In gallbladder disease, bile rises, creating a bitter taste in the mouth, vomiting, and may cause yellowing of the eyes and skin. Insomnia, intense dreams, emerging mental disorders, accompanied by fear, can indicate a violation of the function of the gallbladder. Inflammation of the gallbladder - cholecystitis.

Stomach.

The stomach is an enlarged part of the alimentary canal, located behind the esophagus before duodenum. Through the esophagus, the food processed in the oral cavity, mixed with the viscous mucus of the esophagus, enters the stomach. The stomach is an enlarged digestive tract, which has well-developed muscles and special glands, being especially important digestive organ. The stomach receives and digests food, and also passes the digested food to the small intestine. The most important enzymatic action gastric juice is protein digestion. In the stomach, food is retained depending on its consistency and chemical composition from 3 to 10 hours.

At normal functioning stomach, digested food goes down, and in case of violation, a reverse course can be observed and nausea and vomiting appear. Under certain conditions, the contents of the duodenum may also be thrown into the stomach, and more lower divisions intestines.

The most common diseases of the stomach are gastritis and peptic ulcer.

Small intestine.

The small intestine (small intestine) is the part of the intestine between the stomach and large intestine. Divided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Produced in the duodenum intestinal juice and the hormone secretin, the pancreatic duct and the bile duct open into it. The food is finally digested in the small intestine.

flows in the small intestine nutrients or liquids. The “clean” part, or nutrients, goes to the spleen, and the “cloudy” or waste part, to colon.

With the disease, digestion is disturbed, there is a loss of water and urine. In addition, unnecessary (pathological) substances are removed from the heart by the small intestine. Inflammation small intestine- enteritis.

Colon.

The large intestine (large intestine) is the anatomical part of the intestine from the small intestine to anus. It is divided into the blind, colon and rectum. The functions of the large intestine are the absorption of water, the thickening of feces and its excretion to the outside. When the disease occurs, a violation of transport and excretion (diarrhea or constipation). Inflammation of the colon - colitis.

Bladder.

The bladder is a hollow sac-shaped organ located in the lower abdomen, in the small pelvis. Functions are the accumulation of urine and its removal from the body. The average capacity is 500 cm3.

If the function is impaired, urine excretion may be weakened or control over the processes of its excretion may be lost. Inflammation Bladder- cystitis.

Interaction of hollow and dense organs.

Hollow organs carry out the transfer of nutrients and their transport. All hollow organs are periodically filled or each of them is emptied. If such free passage through them is disturbed, then a disease appears.

Their functional interaction with each other can be divided into three parts or three groups, according to three parts of the body.

Top part - lungs and heart, in charge of breathing and blood vessels, controls the activity of skin pores.

middle part- spleen and stomach, controls the digestion of food and the distribution of nutrients.

Bottom part - liver, kidneys, small intestine, large intestine and bladder The lower one is responsible for filtration, the separation of substances purified for the body and the removal of unnecessary substances and excess water from the body.

Deterioration of function in any organ increases stress and strain on other organs.

The body, working as a single organism, requires the complete interconnection of all organs and systems of the body in order to perform its functions. The whole system is complex, linking all the functions of organs and systems into a single whole with the task of maintaining constancy internal environment, or implementation homeostasis. The influence of organs on each other, or their interaction, exists both in normal condition as well as in diseases.

If we take for example digestive system, which includes teeth, mouth and oral cavity, tongue, esophagus, stomach, intestines, pancreas, liver, then disturbances in any part lead to deviations in other parts.

Sex and genitals.

Floor - a set of genetic and morphophysiological features that ensure the reproduction of organisms. The male or female sex of an organism is determined genetically by specific chromosomes. Simply put, one of the categories of living beings is a man or a woman, a male or a female.

Sexual organs (genitals) - human reproductive organs. The organs are represented by the gonads, genital ducts, additional formations(various glands) and copulative (aggregate) organs. In addition, the uterus, for the bearing and development of the embryo.

Male organs.

The sex gland is the testis, the duct is the vas deferens. In the testis, sex cells are formed - spermatozoa and sex hormones. The common name for the sex gland is the testicles.

The penis, an organ with a dual function, serves for the act of copulation with the release of semen, and for the excretion of urine from the bladder.

The testis (testicles) is a paired male gland located in the scrotum that produces spermatozoa and male sex hormones androgens.

The male reproductive organs are located in front of the pubic joint.

The male reproductive apparatus includes prostate(prostate), this gland is unpaired. The gland is located in the pelvis, between the bladder and the rectum. It closely adheres to the lower part of the bladder and covers the beginning urethra in the place where the ejaculatory ducts flow into it.

Having a special muscular apparatus, it is emptied during sexual intercourse and mixes its secret with the ejected sperm, participating in the male sexual function.

Women's organs.

Sex gland - ovary. This is a women's steam room. gonad(gonad) located in the pelvis on both sides of the uterus. Produces an ovum (egg), from which, as a result of fertilization, it can develop new organism the corresponding type. The gland produces hormones - estrogen and progesterone.

The oviduct is a paired duct (also called the uterine or fallopian tubes) through which a mature egg passes into the uterus.

The reproductive organ, or uterus, is a muscular sexual organ in which the development and gestation of the embryo takes place. The uterus is located between the bladder and the rectum, in the cavity of the small pelvis.

The vagina - the final section of the genital tract, is a flattened muscular tube located in the pelvis, starting immediately behind hymen and ending at the insertion of the cervix. During sexual intercourse, sperm, due to spontaneous contraction of the muscles of the vagina and pelvic floor, moves to the cervical os.

Skeleton.

The skeleton is a collection of hard tissues in the human body that give the body support and protect it from damage. mechanical damage. The skeleton protects more delicate tissues and organs from pressure and damage from other parts of the body and the external environment, it is also the site of muscle attachment and provides support during movement.

The human skeleton is made up of bones. Bones are a type connective tissue, consisting of cells and dense intercellular substance, containing salts of calcium and protein (mainly collagen) and providing its hardness and elasticity. The bone is rebuilt during a person's life: old cells are destroyed, new ones develop. In cases of fractures, the bone regenerates by cell division in the periosteum.

The skeleton, together with joints, ligaments, cartilage, and muscles attached to bones by tendons, forms the musculoskeletal system.

Joints are movable, intermittent connections of the bones of the skeleton, allowing them to move relative to each other. Auxiliary formations that allow movement - ligaments, menisci and other structures.

Ligaments are dense connective tissue strands and plates that connect the bones of the skeleton or individual organs. They are located mainly in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe joints, strengthen them, limit or direct movement in the joints.

Tendons are a dense connective tissue part of the muscle, through which it is attached to the bones, fascia.

Fascia is a connective tissue sheath that covers organs, vessels, nerves, and forms sheaths for muscles,

Musculoskeletal system.

Consider the top and lower limbs.

hands commonly referred to as free upper limbs, although when executing functional actions the concept of the arm also includes the shoulder girdle, with all its components, because it gives the arms support and significantly increases the volume, variety and strength of movements. Most important part the hand is a hand, as a grasping and holding organ. Man performs with hands various kinds movements and work, consider the main ones.

The main functions of the hands:

• Approaching the body of objects and pushing them away
• Approach and repulsion of the body from the support.
• Used to hit something.
• To increase the speed of movement and the radius of rotation of objects.
• As an organ of support and movement on the uneven bars, or moving on all fours, crawling.
• Many other universal actions.

Legs - the lower limbs of a person, serving as an organ of support and movement. The human body, when standing and moving, rests on the legs.

The main functions of the legs:

• Support function for the body.
• Spring (spring) function together with support function when jumping, running, walking, etc.
• A function that pushes and repels the body, or another object that squeezes and moves the body away from one place or another with the toes of the feet.

All these functions combine and become more complex, in combination with each other and I can perform complex exercises.

Leather.

Skin is the outer covering of the body. Protects the human body from external influences, participates in touch, metabolism, excretion, thermoregulation. In an adult, it occupies an area of ​​​​1.5-2 square meters. m. cells of the outer layer of the skin are updated in 20 days. Derivatives of the skin are hair and nails.

Hair - horn formations skin covering almost its entire surface, the red border of the lips, the skin of the palms and soles, etc. are free from them.

Nails - additional skin formation, which is an elastic horny plate, covers the anterior part of the dorsal surface of the terminal phalanx of the fingers and toes.

The functional purpose of nails is to protect the soft tissues of the fingertips from various external influences, mainly from mechanical damage.

Blood.

Blood is a liquid tissue that circulates in the human circulatory system. Circulatory system a person is a set of vessels and cavities through which blood circulates, this system is closed (blood moves only through the vessels).

Blood is made up of plasma and shaped elements: erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets, etc. Red color of blood from hemoglobin contained in erythrocytes. Blood is characterized by a relatively constant chemical composition and an active reaction (pH).

blood plasma - liquid part blood, clear slightly yellowish-green liquid. The volume of plasma is about 55% of the volume of all blood. Plasma transports substances necessary for the existence of body cells, as well as the removal of cellular waste products.

The function of blood is the transfer of oxygen, nutrients to organs and tissues, and metabolic products (waste substances) to the excretory organs. She is involved in the regulation water-salt metabolism and acid-base balance in the body and maintenance constant temperature body. She performed protective functions organism, as it contains antibodies, antitoxins and lysines, as well as the ability of leukocytes to absorb microorganisms and foreign bodies.

In the human body, the average amount of blood is 5.2 liters for men and 3.9 liters for women.

Lymph.

Lymph is a colorless liquid formed from blood plasma by filtration into interstitial spaces and from there into the lymphatic system. Contains a small amount of proteins and various cells mainly lymphocytes. Provides exchange between blood and body tissues. In the human body, it is 1-2 liters.

Lymph circulates through lymphatic system, which is a collection of vessels, nodes and lymphoid tissue. The main functions of the system are to conduct lymph and protect the body. The lymph nodes of the system are oval organs (to the touch like balls), located along the lymphatic vessels. They produce antibodies and lymphocytes, trap and neutralize bacteria, toxins.

Endocrine system.

The endocrine system includes glands internal secretion or endocrine glands. Endocrine glands do not have excretory ducts and secrete the substances they produce, called hormones, directly into the blood and lymph.

The glands include: pituitary gland, adrenal glands, parathyroid glands, gonads (their intrasecretory elements), pancreatic islets. endocrine functions possess thymus and epiphysis.

Nervous system.

The nervous system is a collection of nerve cells and their processes, differentiated in the form of clusters of cells that form central or peripheral nodes or trunks, connected via pathways with motor mechanisms and glands, as well as with various receptors in all organs of the body.

The nervous system is the main regulator of the relationship between the body and constantly changing factors such as internal functions and body parts as well as environmental factors.

Control system. Central nervous system (CNS).

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain, spinal cord and nerve-riddled spine.

Brain - the anterior (higher) section of the central nervous system, located in the cranial cavity, is the material substrate of the nervous higher activity. Along with the endocrine system regulates all vital functions organism and functions aimed at adapting to external conditions life.

Spinal cord - department of the CNS located in spinal canal, participates in the implementation of most reflexes. The most complex reflex reactions of the spinal cord are controlled by the brain.

The spinal cord is inseparable from the brain, it is its continuation. Everything in the human body is interconnected. The brain is made up of nervous tissue: gray matter (cluster of mostly nerve cells) and white matter(accumulation of mainly nerve fibers).

Reciprocity of the central nervous system and internal organs.

AT common cases all deviations, accompanied by pain, distract the attention of a person, or keep nervous system in constant tension, if the pain is severe.

Heart. When the function of the heart is normal, then the person is in a clear mind, has sound thinking. When a person's thinking is associated with excitement, sadness, fear, normal work hearts.

Liver. If liver function is not in order, this can lead to various changes in the psyche. This can manifest itself in depression combined with mild excitability, irritability, insomnia. When the human psyche is affected by sadness, anger, disturbances in the liver appear.

Only two more influential organs are indicated here, but any deviations in the work, health, functioning of all organs, all stresses have a reciprocal effect between the central nervous system and all organs, endocrine system etc.

Body care.

Consider some issues and hygiene and general rules, allowing you to keep your body in order, contributing to the preservation of health.

Facial care.

Since the face is constantly in sight, they take care of it constantly. Let me remind you of a few basic rules that do not require costs, they just need to be remembered and applied. These rules are simple.

After washing your face, do not dry your face with a towel in the direction from the eyes to the chin, as this accelerates the appearance of deep wrinkles from the nose to the lips.

Squint your eyes as little as possible, as this causes wrinkles around the eyes. Wrinkles around the eyes can and should be lightly tapped with your fingertips so that they do not become deep.

The more mobile the face, the sooner wrinkles appear on it. Do not make grimaces that distort your naturalness, express your opinion in words without straining your facial muscles - the calmer you are, the better for the central nervous system and for the face and general health.

Remember that rapid weight loss can increase the number of wrinkles on your face, if you want to improve your figure, do it gradually, avoiding sudden transitions to diets and starvation. For more information about diets and fasting, see the nutrition section.

To prevent the formation of wrinkles on the neck and a double chin, it is better to sleep on a low pillow and make sure that the shoulder does not lie on the edge of the pillow, but below it.

Shallow wrinkles on the forehead can be massaged every day in the direction from the middle of the forehead to the temples.

healthy look gives the skin a light tan. If you use sunbathing reasonable, it is useful. Do not rush, start sunbathing gradually, starting from 15-20 minutes, you will have time to sunbathe. Burns and overheating should be avoided, it's easier than treating later.

All cosmetics, including soap, choose your own shampoos. Do not rush to choose, start the selection with the most simple means are often more effective than the more expensive ones.

Hair care.

Wash your head warm water as hot water promotes hair loss. Hot water can be used in the treatment normal conditions enough warm water. How many times you need to wash your hair, determine for yourself, especially if you use special means to strengthen the hair or scalp.

Quite often, the appearance of dandruff on the head, if it is small, then at first you can get rid of it - wash your hair once a week tar soap. To get rid of dandruff, a selection of soaps or shampoos can help.

From hair loss helps to wash your hair with nettle infusion. If hair falls out from a lack of silicon, in this case you need to eat raw vegetables and fruits with skin, since silicon is found mainly in the skin.

Hand care.

Sometimes at work or improper care behind the hands, burrs form around the nails. In such cases, it is necessary to gently move the skin adhering to the nail daily to avoid inflammatory processes when it breaks. Carefully cut off the burrs with nail scissors.

Fingernails and toenails should not be cut too short. If your fingernails break, they can be strengthened. To do this, mix a quarter cup of salad oil and half a cup of vinegar and dip your fingertips into this mixture for 5-10 minutes for several days, until the nails get stronger.

If your hands are very cold in winter, then in the morning before going outside, and also in the evening, rub glycerin with water dry. When your hands are constantly cold, you can lower them to your shoulders for a minute every day in a very cold water then wipe dry.

Hardened hands, the skin on the elbows and knees softens the rubbing of heated olive oil, or white Vaseline.

Feet care.

Feet should be washed daily. For their simultaneous hardening, they can be washed in the evening cold water and then wipe or rub dry.

Good for feet and walking barefoot, use these features, including walking at home. For hardening, you can walk barefoot on wet stones, wet grass, fresh fallen snow. When hardening, you need to remember that walks should be done with normal temperature body, if you are cold, you first need to warm up.

To keep your feet healthy, do not wear shoes on high heels, avoid uncomfortable shoes, remember that health is always beautiful, try to save it if possible. Feet must be kept in comfortable shoes, dry and socks and tights are preferably non-synthetic, especially those that come into contact with the skin. In warm weather in summer, there is no need to wear tights, as it is unnatural, just like walking in mittens in summer.

III. Internal organs

1. General principles of the structure of parenchymal and hollow organs. Basic concepts of organ topography: holotopy, dermotopy, skeletopy, syntopy.

Internal organs or entrails(viscera, spldnchna), are located in the head and neck, in the chest, abdominal and pelvic cavities. The viscera are involved in the metabolic functions of the body, its supply with nutrients and energy substances and the excretion of metabolic products.

In accordance with development, features of topography, anatomy, and functions, the insides are divided according to belonging to various systems and apparatuses of organs. There are digestive and respiratory systems, as well as urinary and genital, which are combined into the genitourinary apparatus. The organs of the digestive system are located in the head, neck, chest and abdominal cavities and pelvic cavity. Respiratory organs are located in the head and neck area, chest cavity, urinary organs - in the abdominal and pelvic cavities. In the chest cavity, next to the respiratory and digestive organs, there is the heart - the most important hemodynamic organ, in the abdominal cavity - the spleen (an organ of the immune system). A special position is occupied by the endocrine glands (endocrine glands) located in various areas of the body.

According to their structure, internal organs are divided into parenchymal and hollow (tubular).

Parenchymal organs formed by the parenchyma, the working tissue, which performs the specialized functions of the organ, and the connective tissue stroma, which forms the capsule and connective tissue layers (trabeculae) extending from it. Str o m and performs supporting, trophic functions, contains blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves. Parenchymal organs include the pancreas, liver, kidneys, lungs, etc.

hollow organs characterized by the presence of a lumen, have the form of tubes of various diameters. Despite differences in shape and name, hollow internal organs have similar structural features of their walls. In the walls of tubular organs, the following layers-shells are distinguished: the mucous membrane located on the side of the lumen of the organ, the submucosa, the shell). Some tubular organs (trachea, bronchi) have cartilage (cartilaginous skeleton) in their walls.

When characterizing an anatomical object, first of all, its position is noted in relation to the human body as a whole and to parts and areas of the body ( holotopy). To do this, they use such concepts as the ratio of the organ to the median sagittal plane (the organ is located to the left or right of it), to the horizontal (upper or lower floor of the abdominal cavity) or frontal (closer to the front surface of the body or to the back) plane.

Skeletotopia- another important characteristic of the position of the anatomical object. For example, you can describe the upper border of the liver in relation to the ribs and intercostal spaces, the position of the pancreas in relation to the lumbar vertebrae.

syntopia- topographic relation of the organ to neighboring anatomical formations.

2. General principles of development of the digestive system.

The laying of the digestive system is carried out at the early stages of embryogenesis. On the 7-8th day, in the process of development of a fertilized ovum from the endoderm, in the form of a tube, the primary intestine begins to form, which on the 12th day differentiates into two parts: intraembryonic (future digestive tract) and extraembryonic - the yolk sac. On the early stages formation, the primary intestine is isolated by the oropharyngeal and cloacal membranes, however, already at the 3rd week of intrauterine development, the oropharyngeal membrane melts, and at the 3rd month - the cloacal membrane. Violation of the process of membrane melting leads to developmental anomalies. From the 4th week of embryonic development, the sections of the digestive tract are formed:

derivatives of the foregut - pharynx, esophagus, stomachs, part of the duodenum with the laying of the pancreas and liver;

derivatives of the midgut - the distal part (located farther from the oral membrane) of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum;

derivatives hindgut all parts of the large intestine.

The pancreas is laid from the outgrowths of the anterior intestine. In addition to the glandular parenchyma, pancreatic islets are formed from epithelial strands. At the 8th week of embryonic development, valfa cells are chemically determined by glucagon, and by the 12th week, insulin is detected in beta cells. The activity of both types of pancreatic islet cells increases between the 18th and 20th weeks of gestation.

After the birth of a child, the growth and development of the gastrointestinal tract continues. In children under 4 years of age, the ascending colon is longer than the descending colon.

Hollow (tubular) organs have multilayered walls.

They distinguish

• mucous,
• muscular
• outer shell.

mucous membrane, tunica mucosa, covers all inner surface hollow organs digestive, respiratory and urogenital systems The outer cover of the body passes into the mucous membrane at the openings of the mouth, nose, anus, urethra and vagina.

The mucous membrane is covered with epithelium, under which connective tissue and muscle plates lie. The transport of contents is facilitated by the secretion of mucus by glands located in the mucous membrane.

The mucous membrane carries out mechanical and chemical protection organs from damaging effects. It plays an important role in the biological defense of the body.

In the mucous membrane there are accumulations of lymphoid tissue in the form of lymphatic follicles and more complex tonsils. These entities are included in immune system organism.

The most important function mucous membrane is the absorption of nutrients and fluids.

The mucous membrane is located on the submucosa, telasubmucosa, which consists of loose connective tissue and allows the mucosa to move.

In the submucosa are the main branches of blood vessels that feed the walls of the hollow organ, lymphatic networks and nerve plexuses.

Muscular membrane, tunica muscularis, forms middle part walls of a hollow organ

Most viscera, with the exception of primary departments digestive and respiratory systems, it is built from smooth muscle tissue, which differs from the striated tissue of skeletal muscles in the structure of its cells, and from a functional point of view, has automatism, contracts involuntarily and more slowly.

In most hollow organs, the muscular membrane has an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer.

It is established that circular and longitudinal beams have a spiral direction. In the circular layer, the spirals are steep, and in the longitudinal layer, the smooth muscle bundles are curved in the form of very gentle spirals.

If the inner circular layer of the digestive tube contracts, it narrows and somewhat lengthens in this place, and where the longitudinal muscles contract, it shortens and expands slightly. Coordinated contractions of the layers ensure the promotion of the content through a particular tubular system.

In certain places, circular muscle cells are concentrated, forming sphincters that can close the lumen of the organ. Sphincters play a role in regulating the movement of contents from one organ to another (for example, the pyloric sphincter of the stomach) or removing it to the outside (sphincters of the anus, urethra).

outer shell in hollow organs it has a twofold structure. In some, it consists of loose connective tissue - the adventitial membrane, tunica adventitia, in others it has the character of a serous membrane, tunica serosa.

Parenchymal organs

Testicle is a parenchymal lobular organ

Deferent tract- paired parenchymal organ

Bulbourethral (Cooper's) glands . These are parenchymal lobular organs.

The principle of the structure of parenchymal organs

The structure of parenchymal organs:

• - a large number of parenchyma, which forms the basis of the body.
• - Compact and in most cases large organs
• - The shape is rounded-elongated and somewhat flattened.
• - They have a gate. Through these gates enter the organ blood vessels, nerves, nerve fibers, and exit excretory ducts. Still at the gate The lymph nodes(names of nodes from the organ: for example, hepatic lymph nodes).
• - All covered serosa, which grows with outer surface and gives them moisture and slipperiness.

Unlike the stroma, which is formed from connective tissue, the parenchyma can be represented different types tissues: hematopoietic (for example, spleen), epithelial (liver, kidneys), nerve cells (ganglions) and etc.

So, today we will talk about what hollow organs are.

And, although at first glance this question will seem very simple to many, I dare to assure you that the structure of hollow organs is not as simple as it may seem to many!

In the last article, we already talked about the fact that all organs of the human body are divided into two large groups: and the organs are hollow. The difference between these two groups lies in the features of their internal structure.

Amazing, isn't it? There are a lot of organs in our body. And they are all so different from each other! And yet, looking at them internal structure, they can be divided into only two groups!

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What are hollow organs?

Hollow organs, unlike parenchymal ones, are a kind of cavity, limited from the rest of the space by a wall.

Imagine branched bronchial tree and, for example, gallbladder. How different are these organs from each other!

And, nevertheless, they are united in one group, since they have common features internal structure. Which?

Signs of a hollow organ

• All hollow organs have a cavity inside them.
• The cavity is bounded by a wall consisting of several layers of cells.
• The wall of almost all hollow organs has four layers

Four layers of wall:

• internal - slime layer
• submucosa
• muscle layer
• outer serous or connective tissue layer or adventitia

mucous membrane

Covers the wall of a hollow organ from the inside, that is, it faces the cavity.

Its structure is different various organs, but almost always it also consists of several layers of cells.

The mucous membrane has a layer of superficial protective cells. This is the so-called epithelium, which serves as a barrier between the external environment and the rest of the cell layers. It protects the body from damage by a variety of harmful agents.

Under the layer of epithelial cells is a layer of loose fibrous connective tissue. It is also called the lamina propria. Vessels pass through here nerve endings. Tiny glands can also be located here, releasing their specific secret into the organ cavity.

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Even deeper, under its own plate, is located thin layer muscle cells - the so-called muscular plate of the mucous membrane. It is these muscle cells, contracting and relaxing, that collect the mucous membrane into folds or, conversely, make it smoother.

Submucosa

Under the mucous membrane is the next layer. It is named very simply and accurately - the submucosa. Vessels, nerve endings and tiny glands are also located here.

muscle layer

Next is a layer of muscle cells or the muscular membrane of a hollow organ. This membrane is made up of smooth muscle cells. They can be arranged in two or three layers. One of the layers has a longitudinal orientation of the muscle cells. The second is circular. And the third - oblique orientation.

Each layer of muscle is designed to perform a specific job.

For example, muscle fibers located longitudinally relative to the cavity of the organ provide the movement of the contents of the cavity. Circular muscle fibers, contracting, block the movement of the contents in the opposite direction. And these same circular muscle fibers form the so-called sphincters (valves). Valves, opening and closing at the right time, regulate the movement of the contents of the cavity.

anatomy exam

When studying the interiors, attention is paid to their external and internal structure and topography. The viscera include organs that have different structure. The most typical are hollow, or tubular, organs (eg, esophagus, stomach, intestines).

Hollow (tubular) organs have multilayered walls. They secrete mucous, muscular and outer membranes.

The mucous membrane covers the entire inner surface of the hollow organs of the digestive, respiratory and genitourinary systems. The outer cover of the body passes into the mucous membrane at the openings of the mouth, nose, anus, urethra and vagina. The mucous membrane is covered with epithelium, under which connective tissue and muscle plates lie. The transport of contents is facilitated by the secretion of mucus by glands located in the mucous membrane.

The mucous membrane provides mechanical and chemical protection of organs from damaging effects. It plays an important role in the biological defense of the body. In the mucous membrane there are accumulations of lymphoid tissue in the form of lymphatic follicles and more complex tonsils. These formations are part of the body's immune system. The most important function of the mucous membrane is the absorption of nutrients and fluids. The mucous membrane secretes the secrets of the glands and some metabolic products.

The muscular membrane forms the middle part of the wall of a hollow organ. In most viscera, with the exception of the initial sections of the digestive and respiratory systems, it is built of smooth muscle tissue, which differs from the striated tissue of skeletal muscles in the structure of its cells, and from a functional point of view, it contracts involuntarily and more slowly. In most hollow organs, the muscular membrane has an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer. In the circular layer, the spirals are steep, and in the longitudinal layer, the smooth muscle bundles are curved in the form of very gentle spirals. If the inner circular layer of the digestive tube contracts, it narrows and somewhat lengthens in this place, and where the longitudinal muscles contract, it shortens and expands slightly. Coordinated contractions of the layers ensure the promotion of the content through a particular tubular system. In certain places, circular muscle cells are concentrated, forming sphincters that can close the lumen of the organ. Sphincters play a role in regulating the movement of contents from one organ to another (for example, the pyloric sphincter of the stomach) or removing it to the outside (sphincters of the anus, urethra).

The outer shell of hollow organs has a twofold structure. In some, it consists of loose connective tissue - the adventitial membrane, in others it has the character of a serous membrane.