Determination of sex by individual bones of the skeleton. Bone age: definition and application

In modern craniology importance has a definition of the sex and age of the studied skull or series of skulls. The need for this kind of research arises in forensic practice and in archaeological research.

Sex determination is based on the phenomena of sexual dimorphism, traced already at the level of sex chromosomes. After 7-8 years of age, when the gonads are included in the work, differences between boys and girls in the massiveness of the skeleton and other signs begin to form, which then serve to determine sex.

Differences in the structure of the male and female skeletal systems are expressed in the shape of the chest, pelvis, in the structure of the skull, etc.

The most accurate determination of sex is given by the study of the pelvic bones. The female and male pelvis differ in their functional loads and hence the differences in their structure.

In cases where there are no pelvic bones, identification is possible by tubular bones and even bone fragments. In men skeletal system more massive than in women with a pronounced relief in places where muscles are attached. It is believed that the weight and length differences of the tubular bones can more accurately determine the sex. Yes, the most long length ulna for men is 265 mm, for women - 230 mm. The mass of the fat-free and dried ulna in men varies from 41.5 to 54 g, in women - from 31.5 to 40.5 g. The largest length of the femur in men is 460 mm, in women - 390 mm, the largest circumference of the femoral head bone in men is 153 mm, in women - 134.4, the mass of dry and fat-free femur in men varies from 291 to 375 g, in women - from 209 to 270 g. The value of the cervical-diaphyseal angle of the femur in men is 135 ° , in women - 115 °.

Differences in the structure of male and female skulls have been studied in particular detail (see Fig. 22). The features by which the skulls of men and women differ are presented in Table 29.

Table 29

Morphological features skulls of men and women
(according to V.P. Alekseev, G.F. Debets, 1964)

The basis for determining age are the changes that the body undergoes in its development. It has already been noted earlier that the biological age does not coincide with the passport age (see classes No. 2-3), ahead or behind it. The differences can be 4-5 years. Orientation to biological changes in ontogeny does not allow us to distinguish some periods, for example, the neonatal period. Usually, 6 periods are distinguished based on the criteria of biological age (see Table 30):

Table 30

Age periods, determined by the skeleton

The following can be traced on bone materials: age-related variability of the bones of the skull, bones of the skeleton and teeth.

The human skull is made up of individual bones and their joints. Embryogenesis of the skull bones differs in time and tissue basis involved in the formation. The beginning of the formation of the skull refers to the second month of the prenatal period. Subsequently, the cell clusters formed around the notochord turn into a cartilaginous plate. It forms the bones of the base of the skull. Bones of the cranial vault (frontal, parietal, scales of the temporal bone, top part occipital bone) are formed on a webbed basis. The formation of the facial skull in embryogenesis occurs on the basis of gill arches.

Distinguish between the bones of the skull, which develop in close connection with the brain, and the bones of the face, which are the receptacle of the initial sections of the digestive and respiratory tubes. The occipital, sphenoid, two temporal, two parietal and frontal are associated with the development of the brain, and the ethmoid, two inferior nasal conchas, two lacrimal, two nasal bones and the vomer are associated with the development of the olfactory capsule. facial skull in ontogeny it develops on the basis of gill arches. From the first gill arch, the upper jaw and separate bones of the middle ear are formed. From the second - the hyoid bone, the styloid process of the temporal bone and the stirrup of the middle ear. Most of the bones of the skull are formed as paired separate bones, interconnected by scaly and flat sutures - thin bone processes that overlap each other.

Between the bones of the cranial vault of a newborn there are also places that are not filled with bone - fontanelles. Four fontanelles stand out - the anterior one (has a diamond shape, located between the two halves of the frontal and parietal bones), back (located between the parietal and occipital bones), sphenoid (located on the lateral surface of the skull between the frontal, parietal, temporal and sphenoid bones) and mastoid (located between the parietal, occipital and temporal bones) (see Fig. 23). The replacement of cartilage tissue with bone in the bones of the skull begins at 9-10 weeks of embryogenesis. Complete ossification occurs after birth. Reference points of biological age on the skull are sutures and fontanelles. The sphenoid and mastoid close in the first weeks after birth. The posterior fontanel is in the third month of life. A large fontanel closes by 1.5-2 years. A delay in its closure up to 3-5 years is noted with rickets.

When determining the age, it is important to pay attention to the overgrowth (obliteration) of the cranial sutures. The formation of additional bone sutures and bone islands on the skull depends on the individual characteristics of the ossification process. Due to the fact that in humans, unlike other mammals, overgrowing of sutures begins with inner surface skull, a more accurate age determination is given by an assessment of the condition of the sutures on the inner surface cranium. The accuracy of age determination by this method allows an error of up to 8 years on average. The order of overgrowing of the cranial sutures is shown in Figure 24. The results of the study are recorded in the craniological form.

Obliteration of some cranial sutures and their replacement with bone formations begins at the age of 16-18 in men, in women a little later. The suture between the basilar part of the occipital bone and the body of the sphenoid usually ossifies first. Ossification of the sutures of the cranial vault usually occurs in old age.

The degree of seam overgrowing is assessed on a five-point scale (0-4) for each site separately (see Table 31).

Table 31

Scoring of the degree of overgrowing of the sutures of the skull.

To judge the state of ossification processes, they often use the study of radiographs of the hands and distal forearms (see Table 32).

The established individual indicators in comparison with the given standards are regarded as the bone age of the child. One of the reasons for the earlier appearance of ossification points may be acceleration, and the later - retardation due to diseases (rickets, dystrophy, and others).

The early appearance of ossification points can also cause radiation background. This phenomenon has been noted by many researchers in the radiation control zones after the Chernobyl accident.

In paleoanthropological practice, it is necessary to determine the age, starting from birth. At the age of up to one year, the ossification points were determined by studying radiographs of newborns. During the first year of life, new ossification points appear in the ulna, radius, capitate, hook-shaped, femoral, tibia, tibia, cuboid bones and chest. The size of individual bones can be used to determine age up to one year.

Table 32

The timing of the appearance and localization of the nuclei of ossification of the hand in boys and girls,
determining age (according to S. A. Burov, 1972).

By the age of 3-6 years, all the bony parts of the vertebrae merge; by the age of 13-16, the coracoid process of the scapula fuses with its body. The pelvic bone, consisting up to 14-16 years of age of three separate parts - the ilium, ischium and pubis, completely fuses only by 20-22 years. By the end of puberty, that is, by the age of 16-18, the patella ossifies, as well as the cranial suture at the base of the skull, between the basilar part of the occipital bone and the body of the sphenoid. Segments of the body of the sternum grow together by the age of 16, and xiphoid process with her body - by 30. Complete ossification of the clavicle, as well as fusion of the bodies of the sacral vertebrae, occurs by the age of 20-22.

The sequence of ossification is such that in different dates the median section of the long tubular bones fuses with their upper and lower divisions. On the upper limb by the age of 18-20, ossification of all sections of the radius and bones of the hand ends. By this time, the lower and middle sections of the humerus are fused, while the increment of its upper segment is completed by the age of 20-22. On the lower limb by the age of 16-19, the lower section merges tibia with an average.

Ossification of both bones of the lower leg ends at 20-22 years. Complete increment of the upper segment of the femur to the middle occurs at 17-18 years, the lower - at 18-20 years.

The biological age of an adult individual, i.e., with a formed skeletal system, is most accurately determined by examining changes in the spongy substance of long tubular bones on their horizontal cuts or radiographs. AT practical work more often they use a method that takes into account age-related changes in the outer surface of individual bones.

Initial manifestations aging of the osteoarticular apparatus are determined by the degree of wear articular cartilage- in the articular ends, salts are first deposited (calcification), and then fibrinous and cartilaginous elements ossify. At the ends of the articular surfaces, marginal bone growths appear. Their severity is stronger, the older the age. These changes first begin in the distal interphalangeal - lower finger joints and joints of the spine. Instead of rounded outlines, marginal bone growths, sharp protrusions appear on the bases of the terminal phalanges of the hand. AT old age articular spaces are sharply narrowed. The osteoarticular apparatus in women begins to age on average 5-10 years earlier than in men.

Age-related changes in the structure of the bone also lead to the fact that after 50 years, the compact plates (outer layer) and spongy substance (inner layer) of the bone are rarefied. The bone becomes thin, porous, fragile and light, its weight decreases.

The level of ossification of the postcranial skeleton (gradual replacement of cartilage by bone) is important indicator biological age. In forensic practice, a method has been developed for determining the age of the fetus by the presence of ossification sites and by the size of the bones. However, such skeletons very rarely come into the field of view of a paleoanthropologist, in most cases they are destroyed in the soil. As an example of the preservation of the skeletal remains of a fetus, one can cite a case during excavations on the Lednice Island (Poland). A fetal skeleton was found, along with pelvic bones women. Such a find is evidence that the woman died during childbirth.

When examining a child's skull to determine the age, be sure to pay attention to the dentition. The formation, eruption and replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones are also age criteria (more details in the next lessons).

From 3 to 6 years old, in the lower part of the external auditory canal, the cartilage is replaced by a bone plate, all segments of the occipital bone are fused.

At the age of 7 to 14 years, the lateral parts of the occipital bone are completely fused with the body.

The period of eruption of the third root molar coincides with the closure of the wedge-occipital suture at the base of the skull, i.e., at 17-20 years.

Tooth loss is accompanied by atrophy of the corresponding part of the gum - the alveolar process of the jaw, and their complete prolapse leads to thinning of the edges of the jaw and a change in the angle of inclination of the lower jaw branch, at which it becomes more blunt, the chin protrudes more forward. These changes are characteristic of old age.

As a source additional information about age, you can use the nature of the structure of the bones of the skull. After fifty, the physical and biochemical properties of bones change: they become light, porous, brittle, brittle and thin, as compact plates and spongy bone are rarefied. These processes lead to a decrease in the weight of the skull.

The human skeletal system, like other organ systems, is subject to individual, sexual and geographical variability.

In osteological research direct measurement body length is impossible, therefore, empirical formulas have been developed to determine the body length from the bones of the limbs: the humerus, radius, femur and tibia. Developed tables of individual bone sizes for age groups, starting from 4 years old and up to 21 years old, are given in the work of V.P. Alekseev "Osteometry" (1966) and other works.

Determination of body length from the bones of the limbs- a problem that often arises in the study of paleoanthropological materials. There are various tables and formulas calculated empirically on cadaveric material. According to Pearson's formulas, compiled separately for male and female skeletons, the body length is equal (see Table 35).

Values ​​calculated from multiple bones are more accurate than those calculated from a single bone.

Pearson's formulas are applicable to a population of average height (165 cm for men). In the tall group, they give underestimated, and in the short group - inflated numbers.

There are other methods for determining the length of an adult from the long bones of the skeleton. They are described in more detail in the work of V.P. Alekseev "Osteometry" (1966) and other works.

Table 35

Determination of body length from individual bones of the skeleton (according to Pearson).

The study of bone remains in burials according to the rite of cremation. The possibility of obtaining information about the age and sex characteristics of people buried according to the cremation rite is significantly narrowed. There is a strong dependence on the degree of preservation of the bone material, completeness and degree of fragmentation of the burial itself. In many cases, however, there are grounds for a rough estimate of morphological characters, as well as age, sex, and body length. Numerous works by Polish scientists A. A. Malinovsky, J. Piontek, J. Strzhalko and others are devoted to the reconstruction of bone remains from cremations.

Forensic medical examination of bone remains is carried out in the departments of the Bureau of Forensic Medical Examination, entomological studies - in sanitary and epidemiological stations by entomologists and at the departments of the Faculty of Biology of the University, botanical studies - at the Department of Botany of the University, soil science studies - by soil experts of the research forensic institute.

The leading expert is the forensic medical expert of the Department of Medical Forensics of the Bureau of Forensic Medical Examination, who himself conducts morphometric, radiological, spectral, identification studies, appoints immunological and toxicological studies, evaluates the results of other studies and case materials, reasonably answers the questions of the investigator in the expert opinion . The main issue considered by the expert is the issue of personal identification. To do this, identify general and particular features that characterize the personality unknown person. During this examination, it is sequentially solved general issues about the species of bones or bone remains, the belonging of bones to one or more skeletons, about race, gender, age, height, group properties of human tissue, as well as private questions about the presence of individual signs (developmental anomalies, signs of diseases, injuries and their consequences) .

The reliability of the research results is due to the thoroughness, consistency and correctness of the choice of the object, as well as the methods of identification of the individual.

The examination of bone remains begins with the examination of clothing, if any has been preserved and was sent for examination according to generally accepted rules. According to the items of clothing, you can roughly decide the question of the gender of the bones. Then hair, nails and bones are studied.

The bones are laid out in the order of their location in the skeleton, in accordance with the size of the bones, the number of bones of the same name, their coincidence in places of articulation and the general condition of the remains, and then photographed (Fig. 320). This arrangement makes it possible to preliminarily establish the belonging of the bones to one or more corpses and mark the missing bones or their fragments. The issue is finally resolved after determining the sex and age of the bone remains.

Bones brought from mass graves are grouped separately for each object: skull, spine, ribs, pelvis, upper and lower limbs.

Then they describe the presence or absence of clothing and soft tissues, the color of the bone, the main dimensions, the presence of changes and damage to the bone, and articular surface, bone deformities, bone growths and calluses, the state of the preserved cartilage tissue. The soft tissues of an incompletely skeletonized corpse, before being washed in water, are sent for forensic toxicological examination in order to identify poisons or potent substances. Remaining soft tissues are separated from the bones, and the bones are dried, laid out in the order described above, the skeleton as a whole and individual bones with damage and changes are photographed.

The question of the species belonging of the bone remains is decided by the comparative anatomical method of research. In addition to it, histological, spectrographic, and, with fresh remains, immunological research methods are used for differential diagnosis. In addition, the above issue can be resolved by bone ash.

The precipitation reaction, which makes it possible to judge the species belonging of the bone remains after 40-50 years of their stay in the soil, is usually negative.

The choice of research method is determined by the degree of preservation of the bones. The belonging of the bone remains to one or more corpses is finally established after sex and age are determined. Different group differentiation of the remains indicates the origin of the bones from more than one corpse. Along with this, the same serological grouping of objects indirectly proves that they belong to the skeleton of one person.

The question of race is decided according to the typical morphological features inherent in each of the races, reflecting the shape and size of the skull, teeth, bones, torso and limbs.

There are three major races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid.

The Caucasoid skull is distinguished by a significantly protruding face in a horizontal plane (while the cheekbones seem to go backwards), sharply protruding nasal bones with a deepened root, and well-defined canine (canine) fossae.

The Mongoloid has a slight protrusion of the face in the horizontal plane, the cheekbones are turned anteriorly, the canine pits are not expressed or barely noticeable. The nose protrudes slightly and its root is not deepened. The skull is usually large with a high and broad front.

The Negroid skull is characterized by a wide, slightly protruding nose with a shallow root and forward protrusion of the jaws.

Determination of sex by bones is possible after the completion of the formation of the skeleton and is established by the structure and size of the bones. The male skeleton is heavier than the female. Its bones are thicker, articular ends, tuberosity and roughness are more pronounced on the bones of the skull, pelvis and tubular bones. Each individual bone they have more than women, the exception is female pelvis, which is larger than the male. Various bones are examined, but sex is most accurately determined by the bones of the skull and pelvis.

The male skull is different from feminine form, the nature of the structure, the absolute and relative size of the skull and its individual bones. The male skull has big sizes arch and base, greater development and angularity of outlines due to the greatest severity of tuberosities and roughness in the places of attachment of the cervical, occipital and temporal muscles, greater development of the occipital protuberance, superciliary arches and glabella (in women, the frontal and parietal tubercles are more developed), more pronounced development mastoid processes, lower jaw, as well as a posteriorly sloping forehead, a distinct nasolabial angle, lower eye sockets, often rectangular in shape with a thickened and blunt upper edge.

The dimensions of the structure of the skulls in different anthropological types, as well as within the same type, vary significantly. In this regard, skull size tables can only be used to determine the sex of the race for which they are intended. The sex of the skull can also be judged by the shape of the structure.

Sexual characteristics of the pelvis begin to differ after 10-12 years of age and become well expressed after the end of puberty. The main sexual characteristics of the pelvis in men and women are given in Table. 44.

The hyoid bone, sternum, clavicle, scapula, humerus and femur also have gender differences.

Sexual characteristics of the skeleton can change individual characteristics, congenital anomalies, painful changes bones.

The conclusion about the sex of the bones is made on the basis of the totality of all both descriptive and measuring signs of the bones submitted for examination.

To determine the age of the skull, teeth, proximal ends of the humerus and femur, as well as other bones, anthropometric, anatomical-morphological and X-ray methods research.

The age of the skull in children and adolescents is determined by the size of the skull, the condition of the sutures and the degree of development of the teeth; in adults - according to the degree of overgrowth of the sutures of the skull, the degree of wear chewing surface teeth and age-related changes structures of the bones of the skull.

The age of the bones is determined by the timing of the appearance of ossification nuclei and the onset of synostoses, the condition of the fontanelles, the size and anatomical and morphological features of the structure of the skull, the condition of the sutures, the dental system and other age-related changes.

Age is determined taking into account gender and racial characteristics.

A certain influence on the rate and intensity of age-related changes is exerted by the individual characteristics of the organism and the environment, and therefore they do not always correspond to age.

Establishing the age of the skull is based on the study of the state of the cranial sutures. The severity of the sutures of the skull decreases with age due to their overgrowth, which begins from the inside outward both at the time of onset and at the place of occurrence. Overgrowing of seams begins between 20 and 30 years. By the age of 30-40, the temporal part of the coronal suture, the apical and posterior parts of the sagittal suture are overgrown. At 40-50 years goes by further overgrowth of the listed sutures, as well as the orbital and temporal parts of the sphenoid-frontal and sphenoid-parietal sutures. From the age of 50-55, other parts of the skull sutures also become overgrown.

Age determination can also be based on other age-related changes in the bones of the skull, detected by X-ray examination. With increasing age, there is a rarefaction of the compact and spongy substance of the bone, called osteoporosis. It sometimes causes deformation and reduction in the size of the bone. characteristic feature senile skulls is considered to be atrophy of the lower jaw.

X-ray signs can also be established during examination and microscopy of bone cuts in cases where there is no opportunity for X-ray examination.

Determination of age by teeth is based on information about the development and change of teeth, their anatomy, changes in teeth under the influence of external factors, enamel wear.

The age according to the condition of the teeth up to 20-25 years, in combination with other data, is usually established without difficulty with an accuracy of 1-3 years. After that, it is determined by the wear of tooth enamel, the degree of which depends on a number of internal and external causes with an accuracy of 5-10 years according to the condition of the roots and pulp chambers.

To address the issue of age by the wear of tooth enamel, Broca (1879) developed a scale of indicators: 0 - no wear; 1 - only the enamel is worn; 2 - erasing tubercles; 3 - erasure affected the dentin; 4 - erasure touched the dental canal; 5 - abrasion has reached the full section of the crown; 6 - complete erasure of the crown.

In accordance with this scale, the table provides information on the degree of wear of the teeth of the upper jaw, depending on age.

Changes and loss of teeth are due to the individual characteristics of the body and cannot serve as reliable indicators of age. When setting the age according to the bones of the skeleton, they proceed from the timing of the appearance of ossification nuclei, the onset of synostoses, the size of the bones, the timing of the final formation of the skeleton and involutive changes. bone tissue(osteoporosis, bone growths, changes in bone contours).

Age for other bones of the skeleton is determined by anatomical, X-ray anatomical, anthropometric and spectral studies.

The anatomical method is based on the anatomical features of bone tissue, which develop under the influence of regressive changes that appear after 25 years.

The X-ray anatomical method is used to judge the "bone age" according to the degree of development of the skeletal system, the timing of the appearance of ossification nuclei in the bones and their end sections, the appearance and fusion of sutures, the end and final ossification of the skeleton. Signs of aging begin locally and end in widespread bone loss.

Physiological aging begins earlier and most often in the lower ends of the interphalangeal joints of the hand, then in the metatarsus - phalangeal joint of the first toe and shoulder joint.

In addition, age can be determined at the ends of the humerus and femur, taking into account the appearance of the bone, the boundary of the location of the medullary canal, and the nature of the bone substance. According to the totality of such indicators, the age is determined with an accuracy of 5 years.

When determining the age of the bones, it is necessary to take into account the individual characteristics of the body and the influence environment, which do not always go parallel to the passport age, as well as pathology of ossification, manifested in a change in the rate of ossification, asymmetry of ossification, manifestations of ossification on one side and various violations of the sequence of ossification, as well as in asymmetry of ossification on the other side.

Establishment of growth by bones is based on maintaining a certain ratio of bone length to the total body length. A significant number of methods have been proposed to establish bone height, however, none of them by itself can be recommended for examination, since each of the methods is based on the study of average indicators various groups population. The expert chooses the methodology for determining the growth himself, based on the size of the examined bones and the average growth rates of the main population group, which presumably includes the bone remains and the allegedly wanted person.

Measurement of bones is carried out according to the methodology adopted in anthropology with strict adherence to the amendments recommended by the authors in the tables and calculation formulas. The most accurate results are obtained when examining the femur and tibia, as well as the entire number of bones submitted for examination.

Determination of growth is carried out both on whole long tubular bones and on their fragments. Measurements are made using an osteometric tablet. The results obtained are substituted in special tables. Height is calculated by summing the size of each bone and dividing the sum by the number of bones. In cases where several tables are used, the average value is calculated separately for each table. The calculation error can reach several centimeters.

Determining the growth of the subject by the bones and its constitutional features, not only the size of the bone, but also the severity of the relief are taken into account, pathological changes bones, acceleration.

Solving private issues, they use examination, X-ray, photographic, microscopic, spectral, comparative and other methods of laboratory research, as well as materials of the investigation file.

Inspection establishes the structural features of the bones of the skeleton and teeth, due to their shape, size, structure, developmental anomalies, consequences of injuries, diseases: infectious group(sharp and chronic lesions bones and joints), dystrophic rickets, ur disease, endocrine - acromegaly, gigantism, dwarfism and others, dysplastic - underdevelopment of bones and their redundant occurrence, tumors, bone deformities pathological etc.

X-ray examination determines the structure of the spongy substance, the contours of the vascular channels, the contours, shape, size and position of the air cavities.

Individual features of the skeleton - various deviations from the normal anatomical development of the bones, which allow the expert to direct the investigator to find and study various anatomical documentation, collect information about the character former diseases and damage and thus to carry out identification on the studied remains.

To individual characteristics of the skeleton include: congenital deformities and developmental anomalies, changes in bones due to various diseases, traces of former lifetime injuries, changes in bones caused by certain diseases and bone changes various kinds damage.

Congenital deformities and developmental anomalies are the result of malformations in the early period of intrauterine life. These include: congenital cleft palate and upper jaw (cleft palate), cervical ribs, malformations of the spine and limbs.

Anomalies of development and consequences of diseases of the skeleton and teeth are manifested in various deviations from their normal structure and location - curvature, rotation around the longitudinal axis, asymmetries, atrophy, shortening, calluses, defects, deformities and others, missing teeth, fillings, the presence of crowns, bridges, prostheses, teeth that are under treatment (temporary filling, turunda, etc.).

Changes in the bones in some diseases leave persistent and clearly pronounced changes shape and structure of the bone. Lead to bone changes: rickets, tuberculosis, syphilis, osteomyelitis, bone tumors, diseases nervous system(cerebral spastic paralysis, poliomyelitis), glands internal secretion(acromegaly, pituitary dwarf growth, etc.).

During the inspection of a skeletonized corpse, the investigator may have questions that are indirectly related to identification, such as: what tool caused the damage, the age of the damage, the lifetime or postmortem damage.

On the determination of growth by the bones of the skeleton of an adult / V.I. Prozorovsky: Methodical letter. - M.: 1958.

The issues of determining the growth of human bones are not covered enough in the forensic literature, and therefore, in the production of such examinations in practice, significant difficulties arise.

The definition of growth by the bones of the skeleton is based on the fact that there are certain regular correlations between the sizes of long tubular bones and the height of a person. Based on these ratios, it is possible to determine the height of a person by the size of individual, mainly long tubular bones.

From Forens Ru: to facilitate calculations, you can use the program we created "Determining the height of an adult by the length of the long tubular bones of the skeleton"

The calculations use:

1. Betz's table (1887) for determining height by the average relative size of individual bones of the skeleton (as a percentage of growth).
2. Table Manuvrier (Manouvrier, 1892) to determine the growth of long tubular bones (from 153.0 cm to 183.9 cm for men and from 140.0 to 171.5 cm for women).
3. Rollet's table (Rollet, 1888). If the length of the bone does not fall within the range of values ​​in the table, then the following are used:
   - Rollet's method (Rollet, 1888) for determining height by the average relative size of individual bones of the skeleton (as a percentage of growth);
   - Rollet's method (Rollet, 1888) for determining growth by coefficient.
4. Telkkä table (Telkkä, 1950) for determining height by long tubular bones of persons above average height (from 167.0 to 169.9 cm for men and from 156.0 to 158.9 cm for women)
5. Formulas of Trotter and Glezer (Trotter, Glezer, 1958) for determining the height of men - Americans of European, African, Asian and Mexican descent and formulas (1952) for determining the height of women - Americans of European and African descent by long tubular bones.
6. Pearson's method (Pearson, 1899) for 163.9 cm and below for men and 152.9 cm and below for women.
7. Calculation formulas of Dupertuis and Hadden (Dupertuis, Hadden, 1951) for determining height by long tubular bones of tall people (from 170.0 cm and above - for men and from 160.0 cm and above - for women).
8. General calculation formulas of Dupertuis and Hadden (Dupertuis, Hadden) for determining the growth of long tubular bones.
9. Formulas of Lorke, Münzner and Walter (Lorke, Münzner, Walter, 1953) for determining the growth of long tubular bones.
10. Bunak formula (1961)

St. Petersburg State Medical University

named after academician I.P. Pavlova

Department of Forensic Medicine and Law

"Personal Identification by Bone Remains"

Completed:

Checked:

St. Petersburg

Introduction 3

Basic concepts 4

Species identification 6

Determination of anthropometric features 9

Age determination 9

Sex diagnostics 13

Definition of race 14

Craniofascial Personal Identification 15

Conclusion 18

References 19

Introduction

In connection with the daily increasing requirements of forensic and investigative practice, there is a need for a detailed study of the bones of the human and animal skeleton, the development and attraction of new methods for a comprehensive and successful examination of a skeletonized corpse.

The formulation and implementation of these tasks attracted the attention of a significant number of forensic doctors. The studies undertaken by them in this direction required a thorough study of the bones of the system at various periods of a person's life, subsequent analysis, generalization of the results of the study and the development of objective criteria for evaluating the data obtained.

The specificity, diversity and complexity of the issues developed and already developed in relation to the forensic medical examination of bone remains, the subsequent registration and implementation of the research results for practice, were the basis for raising the issue of creating a new independent section "Forensic Osteology" in domestic forensic medicine. Unlike general osteology, forensic osteology considers only issues that are directly related to the examination of a skeletonized corpse, more precisely, to forensic identification of a person by bone remains (including teeth).

In accordance with the foregoing, the main questions of the forensic medical examination of a skeletonized corpse are given below in the accepted sequence of their solution, with a brief reminder of certain points that usually escape the expert's field of vision.

Establishment of species affiliation of bone remains.

In this case, it is decided - the bone remains belong to the skeleton of a person or animal. In addition to the comparative anatomical method, for the purposes of differential diagnosis, spectrographic, histological, and, with fresh objects, serological research methods can be involved. The question of the belonging of the bone remains to a person or an animal can be decided on the basis of bone ash.

One or more skeletons belong to the bone remains submitted for examination.

At the first stage of the examination, the conclusion about the number of skeletons to which the objects of study belong is based only approximately, in accordance with the size of the bones, the number of bones of the same name, the coincidence in places of joints and the general condition of the remains. In the final form, this issue is resolved after the establishment of the sex and age of the bone remains.

Establishment of racial, gender, age characteristics of bone remains, as well as human growth, to whose skeleton they belonged.

Before solving the above questions, first of all, it is necessary to make sure that bones or their fragments belong to one or more human skeletons. Indicative, the conclusion is usually based on the anatomical and morphological features of the structure of the bones, their size, the nature of the articulation, on the articular surfaces. In the final, age, gender and individual characteristics are also taken into account. With fresh remains, the solution of this issue (especially when it comes to small fragments) can be indirectly assisted by a serological study for group affiliation, scientific data on establishing the racial characteristics of bone remains, except for the skull and teeth, are still limited.

Establishing the timing of the burial of bone remains.

It requires a thorough analysis not only of the conditions in which the bones were at the time of their discovery, but also of those in which they could be before they were at the scene.

Personal identification, i.e., the establishment of a specific person who owned the bone remains.

It is based on the features that individualize the object of examination, with the obligatory use of medical documentation data, photographs, radiographs and other materials.

Signs that individualize the personality of the bones of the skeleton and teeth can be divided into two groups.

The first includes signs that arise in the process of development of each biological species, including humans. The combination of these features creates the uniqueness of both the individual as a whole and its individual systems and organs. The uniqueness of an object, its identity only with itself, is known to underlie the identification of objects and phenomena surrounding a person, including identification of a person by bone remains.

In accordance with this, the task of an expert in the study of a skeletonized corpse includes not only the establishment of general data characterizing the species, race, sex and age, as well as the height of the person to whose skeleton they belonged, but also the identification of particular signs, i.e. features the structure of the bones of the skeleton and teeth, due to their shape, size, structure and a number of other properties.

These features are manifested in each specific individual only in their inherent combinations, correlations of qualitative and quantitative indicators, creating in a complex the individuality of the object, on the basis of which the process of identification of the individual is built.

The second group of signs that individualize to some extent the personality of a person includes a number of diseases (and their consequences) of the osteoarticular apparatus and teeth, of endo- and exogenous origin.

Depending on the etiology and symptoms, diseases of the skeletal system are divided into: traumatic, infectious (inflammatory), dystrophic and dysplastic.

Of the numerous bone pathologies included in each group, from the point of view of personal identification, only those that can be objects of forensic medical examination are important. These diseases most often include: from the traumatic group - fractures, from the infectious - acute and chronic lesions of bones and joints; from dystrophic - rickets, uro disease, diseases caused by disorders of the endocrine glands (acromegaly, gigantism, nanism, and some others); from dysplastic - partial underdevelopment of bones or their excessive formation, tumors, pathological bone deformities, etc.

As for the dental apparatus, for the tasks of personal identification, it is not so much diseases as such that play a role, but various kinds of anomalies in the development of the jaws and teeth, as well as the results of odontological and dental treatment.

Species Establishment

Establishment of species affiliation by a comparative anatomical method. The need to establish the species affiliation of bone fragments arises both in cases of mechanical violation of the integrity of the bones or as a result of sharp putrefactive changes, and when they are burned.

Anatomical and morphological features of the bones are preserved regardless of the conditions of burning and the degree of heat. However, one should use the comparative anatomical method very carefully, since there is a similarity of many human bones with the bones of animals. This is especially true of bones with the phenomena of shrinkage, deformation and destruction.

The following sections of bones or whole bones are best preserved: a) the skull - the glabella region with fragments of the superciliary arches, the region of the external and internal occipital protrusions with the slope and fragments of the lateral parts, the pyramid of the temporal bone with the mastoid process and fragments of scales, the body of the main bone with the region of the Turkish saddles, the body of the zygomatic bone with fragments of processes, parts of the upper and lower jaws, especially with fragments of the alveolar processes and the roots of the teeth sometimes remaining in the alveoli, auditory ossicles;

b) spinal column - anterior, posterior arches or tank masses with fragments of the arches of the first cervical vertebra, as well as the body and odontoid process of the second cervical vertebra; from the remaining vertebrae of the cervical, thoracic and lumbar spine, arches with preserved spinous transverse processes are important, from the sacrum - the base with one or both lateral parts and sacral pelvic openings;

c) flat bones - in the shoulder blades, the lateral angle with the articular area of ​​the fragment of the coracoid process carries diagnostic information; in the pelvic bones, the area of ​​the articular cavity is of the greatest value for research;

d) long tubular bones - the upper and lower epiphyses, as well as significant in size (at least one third) fragments of the diaphysis, are of great diagnostic value;

e) short tubular bones - in many cases they are deformed, but not destroyed, the distal phalanges are best preserved. The patellas, the bones of the tarsus of the foot are well preserved.

Microscopic methods of species differentiation of bones. Species differentiation of fragments of a compact substance is carried out on transverse sections and sections-blocks. With gray heating of the bone, all types and forms of primary and secondary osteons are clearly distinguishable. A person has a larger diameter of osteons and their channels, a variety of forms of osteons, their multiple rearrangements, complete replacement of coarse fibrous bone tissue and primary osteons by secondary ones in adults are characteristic. Studying the longitudinal sections of teeth burned to a gray heat, it can be established that the pattern of Schreger stripes is preserved in the enamel, the nature of the location and width of which is different in humans and animals.

It is necessary to decide whether the bone remains belong to a person or an animal in a complex, taking into account the above diagnostic signs.

Diagnosis of bone species according to emission spectral analysis. According to the content of macro- and microelements of spongy bones, it is possible to establish whether they belong to a person or an animal.

Preparation of objects for research. Each object is first released mechanically (with a chrome-plated new scalpel) from muscle and cartilage tissue and bone marrow. Placed in sterile (washed with distilled water and calcined in a muffle furnace at a temperature of 800 °) porcelain crucibles and poured with distilled water to free from blood. Water is changed until it becomes colorless. After that, the water is drained and the objects (in the same crucibles) are placed in an oven (65°) for drying to a constant weight (4-5 days). Ashing is carried out in a muffle furnace in quartz crucibles at a temperature of 380-420°C for 4 hours. The samples are ground in an agate mortar to a powdery state.

Ashing (up to constant weight) of bone fragments from fires and heating centers is a prerequisite only for black heat. Samples are removed with hollow diamond drills with a diameter of 5-7 mm, having previously cleaned the surface layers of the bone with a scalpel. Ash residues do not require any additional processing.

Preliminary analysis of the data obtained, a qualitative feature that distinguishes the bone tissue of cows and deer from human bone tissue is the presence of barium. In humans (rabbit, dog and pig) it is not detected by emission spectral analysis. Thus, the presence of barium reliably excludes the belonging of the studied bone fragments to humans.

In humans, as well as in some groups of animals, lead and aluminum are extremely rare in the bone substance, and in the rabbit they are not found at all. In other words, the detection of lead and aluminum in the studied objects reliably indicates the absence of rabbit bones. At the same time, the use of such ratios of macro- and microelements as lead, aluminum or barium in diagnostic models is difficult.

Establishment of species affiliation but ash remains. The developed methods and techniques of forensic examination of ash make it possible to establish the fact of the burning of a corpse, its species, weight and, in some cases, age: an adult, a newborn child.

The ashes received by the expert institution are initially examined, the contents of each package are weighed, among the ashes there are separate pieces resembling appearance charred bones are removed and, if they have morphological features, are examined by a comparative analytical method. If the particles of bone tissue are not visually detected, then ultraviolet irradiation of the ash is carried out in a darkened room. Bone fragments may give a bluish or grayish-brown glow. Luminescent grains are taken from the ash for further research.

After visual and microscopic selection, the particles remaining in the sieve are subjected to X-ray diffraction. Methods of emission, X-ray diffraction and IR-spectral analysis have been developed to differentiate "cadaver ash - fuel ash". As a differential feature, trisubstituted calcium phosphate contained in the fuel ash is used.

With significant damage and fragmentation, it is advisable to use molecular genetic and immunological methods of species diagnostics. In this case, species-specific genes or proteins are identified.

The state of bone tissue, the degree of decomposition of soft tissues is established to determine the age of burial.

Determination of anthropometric features. Body length (height) and constitutional type must be determined during an external examination of an unknown corpse. At the same time, they use measurement techniques developed in anthropology.

In the study of skeletonized corpses, the body length is determined according to osteometric studies. Each bone in the process of development maintains a certain ratio with the total length of the body. The most informative measurement of long tubular bones; in children, there is also a correlation between the size of short tubular bones and height. Methods for determining growth according to these measurements are presented in the form of tables, diagnostic coefficients and calculation formulas.

Forensic Somatology- a new direction in personal identification. This is a set of methods for studying the sizes of various segments of the human body to determine its lifetime characteristics, including the sizes of clothing, shoes, headgear, which allows us to talk about their belonging to specific individuals. There are also methods that allow you to determine the sex, age, length of the human body according to the measurement of parts of the skeleton and even fragments of individual bones.

Age determination

You can determine the age of children and adolescents by measuring their height and chest circumference (and for girls, also the size of the pelvis), according to craniometric data, as well as by detecting ossification centers and the degree of synostosis on x-rays.

Synostosis - the fusion of the epiphyses with the diaphysis and the cessation of growth. In different bones, this process occurs at different times, and its completion usually coincides with the end of puberty (16-18 years). Age determination is based on patterns of synostosis. for example, in the proximal epiphysis of the femur, it occurs earlier than in the distal; it is also determined by the presence or absence of the epiphyseal plate - the zone of cartilage that separates the bone tissue of the metaphysis and epiphysis and is clearly visible on radiographs and on the cut of the bone.

Teething in children occurs in a certain order, which makes it possible to determine their age with an accuracy of several months. Additionally, it is possible to examine radiographically the stages of development of unerupted teeth.

Estimating the age of decomposed and skeletal remains requires special research methods.

Diagnosis of age by the degree of obliteration of the sutures of the skull. To determine the age, the skull must be opened. The process of overgrowing of the cranial sutures starts from the inner surface of the skull and proceeds outwards. Closing of the sutures begins between 20 and 30 years of age, first in the coronal and sagittal sutures; the occipital suture overgrows last.

There are no significant ethnoterritorial and racial differences in the dynamics of skull suture closure, but there are gender differences, so when it is impossible to reliably determine the gender of the skull, systems of equations are used for both male and female populations, and the results are averaged.

Diagnosis of age by craniometric parameters and the degree of involution of the skull. Brain and facial departments skulls tend to increase with age, especially in width. Indices of the height of the face and lower jaw, on the contrary, decrease, regardless of the degree of tooth loss (apparently, this effect is explained by acceleration). In addition, with age, atrophy of the alveolar processes of the jaws, thinning of the bones of the skull develop, their porosity increases, bone growths appear along the edges of the joints and at the points of muscle attachment.

Diagnosis of age by bone microstructure. Throughout life, the structure of the bone tissue of an individual is continuously rebuilt under the influence of changing mechanical loads, mineral metabolism in the body, and due to the regeneration of bone tissue due to the wear of its structural elements. Traces of repeated cycles of restructuring are preserved in the microstructure of the bones; the degree of change depends on the number of these cycles in the studied anatomical region. This dependence is the basis for the method of quantitative study of the histological signs of age-related changes and the determination of age by the severity of these signs. Signs of age-related restructuring of bones are common to all peoples of the world and almost do not depend on the conditions of burial and the degree of destruction of the bone; the microstructure of bone tissue has no significant gender differences. However, a necessary condition is the determination of the anatomical localization of the studied bone fragment.

Currently, an automated method is used to determine the age of a person according to the quantitative histological examination of the bone tissue of the III rib from the transition zone of bone tissue to cartilage, the diaphysis and the lower epiphysis of the tibia. For measurements, a computer image analysis system is used, including a microscope, a video camera, a digital video signal encoding board, and a computer with programs that allow determining the number of bone tissue microstructures in the field of view, their linear dimensions and area. A set of parameters of histological preparations of bone tissue is measured. When determining the age of a person, multivariate regression equations are used, developed as a result of a statistical analysis of quantitative data describing the bone tissue of individuals with a reliably known age.

In children and adolescents, in the process of growth, the thickness of the trabeculae of spongy bone tissue, the internal general plates of the diaphysis of long tubular bones and the cortical layer of the rib, as well as the density of osteons in the latter, increase, which is explained by the predominance of osteogenesis over osteoresorption. Children are characterized by thin, but numerous bone beams. At the age of 18-50 years, the skeletal system is basically formed, therefore, the most significant changes are the structures, the restructuring of which is associated with adaptation to changes in mechanical load and mineral metabolism (osteons, Haversian canals, internal and external general plates of the diaphysis of long tubular bones). Intensive osteogenesis continues only in the rib, which is reflected in the dynamics of its parameters. The four layers of costal cartilage (resting, proliferating, maturing, and fragmented cartilage) clearly differentiate up to an average of 30 years, after which they practically cease to differ, and all cartilage acquires the structure of a resting cartilage. After 50 years, the dynamics of parameters reflecting the predominance of osteoresorption comes to the fore: the density of osteons with a rebuilt central section in the diaphysis of long tubular bones increases, the thickness of the cortical layer of the rib and the density of osteocytes in it gradually decrease. In addition, in this group, due to the increase in the number of remodeling cycles, the total density of osteons in the diaphysis of long tubular bones continues to increase.

Diagnosis of age according to X-ray examination of bone tissue. First of all, the degree of degenerative changes in bones and joints is assessed. Up to 30 years, visible boundaries between the segments of the sternum remain, then their synostosis occurs, and the boundaries of the segments are no longer determined. Progressive ossification of the anterior ends of the ribs in the area of ​​the costal cartilages correlates with real age with an accuracy of 5-8 years. The details of the edge of the surface of the pubic symphysis also make it possible to determine the age with an accuracy of 5 years, especially in men.

Age-related changes in the skeleton of the hand begin to appear quite early - about 25 years. The leading criteria for aging are osteophytes (apiostoses - bone growths at the ends of the distal phalanges, as well as nodes at the bases of the phalanges), osteoporosis and narrowing of the gap of the interphalangeal joints. First of all, signs of age-related transformation in the form of apiostoses appear on the distal phalanges of the hand. In the next 10 years, new signs are formed - narrowing of the joint spaces and growth on the diaphysis of the middle phalanges. Age markers in the range of 40-50 years - the appearance of nodes on the articular sites and an increase in the number of growths on the diaphysis of the proximal phalanges. At the age of 50-60 there is a significant, almost spasmodic accumulation of all age-related changes.

To improve the accuracy of the assessment of biological age in multiple regression equations, densitometric studies are used - the determination of the optical density of radiographs of the hand.

Diagnosis of age by physical properties bone tissue.

IR spectroscopy allows you to determine the age of the bone substance. For this, in addition to the ratio of macro- and microelements of bone tissue, it is necessary to measure the density and hardness of bones.

Diagnosis of age by the condition of the teeth

There are 2 signs by which one can judge the indisputable belonging of the examined tooth to a person under 20 years of age: 1) graininess of dentin at the apex of the tooth (multiple fragmentation of dentin; by the age of 20 they become single); 2) the absence of changes in the pulp with severe caries (at the age of over 20 years, petrification and fibrosis are noted).

To determine the age, the most informative study upper canine, least - the first upper premolar. Incisors wear out faster than molars. The teeth of the upper jaw are of greater diagnostic value than the lower. In addition to the position of the tooth, gender, race, occlusion, dental pathology, and dental interventions that have taken place should be taken into account when assessing its age-related changes. Erasing of teeth can begin as early as 13 years of age. From the age of 21 to 30 years, the formation of teeth continues - the volume of dentin increases (the erasure of the crown during this period is compensated by the continued development of teeth), up to 50 years there is a gradual decrease in the volume of cavities due to the deposition of secondary dentin, after 50 years the condition of the teeth again relatively stabilizes due to loss of some of them and reduce the load on the rest. With age, the degree of periodontal dystrophy increases. On non-decalcified sections of teeth, foci of resorption of tooth roots begin to be detected (first in the form of gaps in the cement, then in the dentin). Over the years, the number of rings in the cement of the teeth naturally increases, which is also used to determine age. In addition to microscopic examination of thin sections of teeth, x-ray images are magnified with the measurement of volumetric indicators of various structures and their optical density. Deformation and decrease in the volume of the pulp cavity and its horns, deformations of its surface and root canal, root hypercementosis, wedge-shaped depressions at the neck of the tooth, petrification of the pulp, zones of dentin demineralization, racemose restructuring of the dentin of the root apex are most associated with age.

Sex diagnostics

Sex diagnostics by osteometric signs. Determination of sex by bones is possible only after the completion of the formation of the skeleton. Use the data obtained by measuring the bones - the skull, long bones and pelvis. For example, the diameter of the head of the humerus, equal to 47 mm or more, indicates that it belongs to a man, a diameter of 43 mm or less indicates that it belongs to a woman. The maximum diameter of the head of the radius in a woman is 21 mm or less, in a man - 24 mm or more. In men, the vertical diameter of the femoral head is 45 mm or more, in women it is 43 mm or less.

Sex diagnostics by craniometric signs. The size of the skull may not correspond to the sex due to endocrine and chromosomal diseases that cause low or high growth. In addition, the craniometric diagnosis of sex is more reliable if the race and racial type of the subject are known, since some signs depend on both gender and race.

Diagnosis of sex by cranioscopic signs. Sexual dimorphism of various cranioscopic characters (secondary sexual characteristics of the skull relief) is not the same. A list of 40 features is proposed. However, their minimum number, at which a reliable sex determination is possible, is 11 for men and 9 for women. Each sign allows only 2 evaluation options - presence or absence. In the absence of appropriate bone structures or difficulty in determining the sign, it is not taken into account.

The greatest sexual dimorphism is inherent in such features as the shape of the glabella (in men it is arcuate-convex, in women it is flattened), the shape of the superciliary arches (in men it is convex, common, in women the protrusion is little or absent). Men are also characterized by a deep root of the nasal bones, a tubercle on the facial surface of the zygomatic bone, and tuberosity of the edge of the corners of the lower jaw. Their occiput protrudes sharply, the forehead is sloping, the crown is round, the mastoid process is massive, the lower jaw is heavy and large, with a vertical direction of its ascending branches, the orbits are low, rectangular. In women, the occiput is poorly developed, the frontal tubercles are pronounced, the forehead is vertical, the crown is flat, the mastoid process is small, the lower jaw is small, with inclined ascending branches, the orbits are high, rounded. Sex diagnostics according to odontological features is carried out according to a special formula based on the measurement of the anteroposterior and mesiodistal dimensions of each tooth, taking into account its localization.

Age determination.

To determine the approximate age, it is necessary to take into account not individual parts of the skeleton, but all bones without exception, which contain the most important features for estimating age. This is primarily the skull, teeth, body limbs, pelvis (consisting of both hip bones and sacrum), vertebrae.

When determining the age, precise estimates, up to a year, should be avoided and the time frames proposed below should be used.

Establishment of age by the structure of the skull.

The human skull consists of six bones: the frontal, two parietal, two temporal and occipital, interconnected by sutures. With age, the seams become less pronounced.

Between 20-30 years they begin to grow in the obelion part of the sagittal suture and partly in the temporal part of the coronal suture.

At the age of 30-40 years, this process is already clearly detected in the temporal part of the coronal suture, in the apical and posterior parts of the sagittal suture. The chin hole is gradually aligned. Up to 30 years, it is in the middle, and from 40 years old - the upper third of the lower jaw.

After 40 years, the orbital and temporal parts of the sphenoid-frontal suture, the lower part of the occipital-mastoid suture, the bregmatic part of the sagittal and coronal sutures gradually begin to close, middle part occipital suture on both sides and wedge-parietal suture.

From 50-55 years old, the overgrowing process spreads to other parts of the skull sutures. When determining the age of the skull, it is necessary to keep in mind the possibility of premature overgrowing of the sutures due to the occurrence of some serious diseases.

Establishing the age of the structure of the teeth.

Most effective method determining the age of the teeth is to establish the degree of their deterioration. There are a number of studies on this subject. To solve practical problems in military archeology, it is quite acceptable to use the data of M.M. Gerasimov on this issue (see Table 2).

Table 2. Erasure of the teeth of the upper jaw, depending on age.

0 - no erasing; 1 - only the enamel is worn; 2 - erasing tubercles; 3 - erasure affected the dentin; 4 - erasure touched the dental canal; 5 - abrasion has reached the full section of the crown; 6 - complete erasure of the crown.

The eruption of wisdom teeth occurs between 18 and 24 years, at 20-25 years they erupt completely, but are not yet fully developed. By the age of 25-30, the teeth are fully formed (32 teeth).

Establishing the age of the bones of the skeleton.

15-19 years:

brachial bone - the contours are rather smooth, rounded, light. The epiphysis is separated from the diaphysis by a slit-like space.

femur - the contours of the bone are rounded, the roughness remains only in the region of the neck and the greater tubercle. The epiphyseal fissure is well expressed and the epiphysis is easily separated from the diaphysis up to 18 years. Ossification of the epiphyseal line occurs between 18 and 20 years.

20-29 years:

humerus - the epiphyseal fissure in the form of a narrow line is noticeable up to 23 years, after 23 years it remains only at the lower edge of the head.

femur - the surface of the bone is mostly smooth, with the exception of a slight roughness observed in the region of the anterior neck.

ilium- the wing of the ilium by the age of 25 is completely fused with the ilium.

vertebrae - the radial arrangement of the vertebral faces is clearly distinguishable, and gradually smoothes out by the end of the decade.

pubic bone - the wavy pattern on the oval of the pubic bone begins to fade a little, and by the age of 30 it disappears and becomes unevenly rough.

sacrum - the transverse plates of the sacrum from below begin to close from the bottom to the top (the first sacral vertebra) and may already be fused by the age of 25.

By the age of 25, bone growth is completed, and the ribs are already fully formed.

30-39 years:

brachial bone - the surface of the bone is smooth, but in the region of the greater and lesser tubercles, the angular contours sometimes appear. The epiphyseal line is in the form of a narrow strip that disappears after 34 years.

femur- the fossa of the head becomes deeper and acquires a more pronounced outline. The borders of the head and neck merge.

vertebrae - the radial arrangement of the planes of the vertebrae completely disappears and gives way to uneven upper planes.

sacrum - the transverse plates of the sacrum up to 35 years are still clearly distinguishable, but by the age of 40 they are smoothed out and become absolutely smooth, the joints of the sacral vertebrae can no longer be distinguished.

pubic bone - becomes smooth.

40-49 years:

brachial bone - up to 45 years the bone has round shape. After 45 years, it becomes less smooth due to the appearance of small protrusions and roughness.

femur - irregularities and roughness on the surface of the neck. The edges of the pit are rough and sharp. The epiphyseal line is completely absent.

50-59 years

brachial bone - the surface of the bone is rough, with many small holes, outgrowths and ridges, the ridges of the large and small tubercles are clearly defined. The surface of the bone as a whole becomes rough.

femur - the entire surface of the bone becomes rough. Bone protrusions appear in the region of the head and both skewers. The fossa of the head is distinctly expressed, its edges are sharp, sometimes rounded.

60-69 years

brachial bone - the surface of the bone is rough, porous, the contours are angular. The crest of the bone is rough, clearly defined.

femur- the number of porous defects increases, the roughness of the bone increases.

hip joint - by the age of 60 and older, the acetabulum flattens and becomes less deep.

over 70 years

brachial bone - the phenomena described above are progressing.

femur - there are no significant changes compared to the previous decade.

In left-handers, the left clavicle is more developed than the right. The protrusions for muscle attachment on the humerus of the left arm are more distinct than on the right humerus. Left humerus compared to right hand not shorter and not weaker than the right.