Mental processes and their patterns. Attention has some features that are manifested to different degrees in different people. So properties. There are several ways to define the concept of "perception"

In this section, the following topics will be considered: mental processes from the point of view of cybernetic science, the theory of signals and mental processes, the information structure of nervous processes and mental images.

The concept of mental processes

Definition

Mental processes are certain structural elements that can be isolated from the psyche as a whole; dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena.

The peculiarity of mental processes is their short duration.

All mental processes can be divided into cognitive, emotional and volitional.

What is included in each section, we can see in Figure 1.

Figure 1. "Types of mental processes"

Let's consider in more detail each of their types.

Cognitive mental processes:

1. Sensation is a certain process of reflection of individual properties of the external world. Feeling is the simplest mental process. The ability to sense is present in all living organisms that have a nervous system. Conscious sensations are characteristic only for living beings that have a brain. The mechanism of sensation formation will be discussed in subsection 4.3. "Information Structure of Nervous Processes and Mental Images".
2. Perception is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. The main properties of perception: integrity, objectivity, constancy, meaningfulness, selectivity.
3. Representation is the process of reflecting the phenomena of the external world, recreated on the basis of previous experience. Main properties of views:

• fragmentation - in the presented image, any of its features are often absent;
• instability;
• variability - when a person is enriched with new experience and knowledge, there is a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world.

• object-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality;
• visual-figurative thinking occurs when presenting objective images;
• abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts.

The main mental operations include: analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, concretization, systematization (or classification).

1. Memory is a form mental reflection, the main functions of which are: consolidation, preservation and reproduction of experience. Memory processes include:

• memorization is such a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what matters to a person or aroused his interest and greatest emotions;
• preservation - the process of processing and retaining information;
• reproduction - the process of retrieving stored material from memory;
• Forgetting is the process of getting rid of long-received, rarely used information.

Emotional mental processes are experiences by a person of his attitude to objects and phenomena of reality, to what he cognizes, to himself and other people.

Throughout life, a person solves some problems, stores certain memories, creates a new cell of society and constantly develops. Each personality is individual in its own way, but what does this individuality consist of? The answer to this question can not only satisfy our curiosity, but also really make life easier.

We are able to regulate any mental process, for example, train attention or imagination. However, such activities can not do without effort. That is why it is much easier to arrange your existence based on understanding the structure of your own mental processes.

Mental processes include:

• Cognitive (affect the knowledge of human activity).
• Emotional (represent a reflection of the attitude of the individual to his own "I" and to other people).
• Volitional (deliberate control of their activities).

The study of these phenomena leads to the acquisition of new skills and abilities. The main mental processes are interconnected, so one knowledge hides another.

The creation of certain groups is conditional, because this has no practical evidence. Scientists are working on this issue, but so far the results have not been made public.

First of all, dependence on each other lies in the inability to exist apart. For example, they are impossible without, speech without memory, etc.

Cognition and intelligence

Cognitive mental processes are sometimes called intellectual, which sometimes misleads some people. In fact, these concepts are closely related. As for the content of this phenomenon, it is quite extensive.

This type is divided into:

1. Feeling. This is a mental reflection of certain features and conditions of the surrounding world that affect our senses. They are considered something subtle and primary, because initially they are not amenable to analysis of thinking.

Feelings indicate the various features of specific things, which helps to see big picture. Sensations include impressions of color, smell, understanding of weather conditions, picking up vibration from some objects, etc.

2. Perception. This is the mental process of forming ideas about objects and events in the surrounding world. Unlike sensations, it is indivisible and concrete. Perception is considered not only the process itself, but also its final result.

It should be noted that the features of mental processes are individual. For example, you and your interlocutor may have completely different perceptions, which can lead to conflict. Differences may arise due to the type of person or the person's knowledge of a particular subject or situation.

3. Thinking. This process is usually characterized by the ability to find a way out or solve some problems in new ways when the previous ones stop working. Simply put, thinking is the process of transforming incoming data into a stream of feelings and thoughts.

What is interesting is that thinking is not considered something special and unique, because even insects have it. In addition, the processing of information can lead to both interesting thoughts and complete nonsense.

4. Consciousness. This is the ability to understand, think, think and form a certain attitude towards specific things. That is, some feelings and sensations determine the subsequent reaction to something. Basic mental processes can be called part of consciousness.

Conscious actions and decisions cannot be random, because they are the result of deliberation. The only thing that should be emphasized is that will and will are by no means synonyms, as many believe, they should not be confused.

5. Speech. It is the ability to communicate with others through words and sounds. She can absolutely different character. Sometimes speech calms, sometimes angers, and sometimes pleases and inspires.

Through this process, individuals can become acquainted with other personalities, as well as enter into some kind of relationship with them. In addition, a person has the peculiarity of adjusting his speech to the interlocutor in order to please him or vice versa - to scare him away.

6. Attention. This process is the concentration of vision or the brain on a particular event or object. Attention helps us to weed out unnecessary information or knowledge, leaving the most important.

By the way, this process can be arbitrary and involuntary. The second option refers to everything distracting, but uninteresting. That is, the human brain reacts to this, but not on purpose, because sometimes just emotionally spoken words stranger attract us, even if only for a moment.

2. Feelings. Sometimes feelings are unconscious mental processes that are a sincere experience of a situation. They are difficult to fake, because they are considered part of the soul.

By the way, they are external and internal. The former show, for example, a reaction to weather conditions or someone's touch, while the latter reflect specific moods and spiritual impulses. By the way, sometimes feelings are confused with sensations, but these are completely different things.

2. Making a decision. This process consists in establishing some kind of certainty. Moreover, sometimes the choice can be elementary (eat a cutlet or pilaf, put on a yellow or green T-shirt), and sometimes very difficult. Although even in simple situations, we often use willpower.

Quick and informed decision making is a habit of successful people. In this case, not only reason, logic and meaning may be needed, but often the same emotions with feelings.

3. Goal setting. This is a clear awareness and definition by the individual of specific desires, the implementation of which he wants to achieve. Such an approach significantly promotes a person towards the realization of a dream, because setting a goal is a serious step.

For most people, this process generates some kind of motivation, which is very important for achieving any goals. In addition, such decision-making involves a conscious choice, which has a strong impact on the psyche.

Progress and defects

The development of mental processes occurs from birth, and what it will be depends largely on the parents. Scientists suggest that these processes are also interconnected with the macrocosm, so the influence of weather conditions or changes on other planets also leaves its mark.

Nevertheless, anyone can work on his own psyche by analyzing some weak sides and improving them along with the strong ones. This is the same choice that is unattainable without will.

However, sometimes mental processes have deviations that interfere with the entire group of phenomena. Most often this happens due to diseases such as stroke, schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease, etc.

In this case, of course, only the advice of doctors and special medications can help. It is only worth noting that one should never give up, because there are cases of unexpected recovery even after the most severe ailments. Author: Lena Melissa

The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Generally there are three major groups mental phenomena:

1) mental processes;

2) mental states;

3) mental properties.

mental processes - dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena. The mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the end of one mental process is closely connected with the beginning of another. Hence - the continuity of mental activity in the state of wakefulness of a person. Mental processes are caused both by external influences on the nervous system and by stimuli emanating from the internal environment of the organism. All mental processes are divided into cognitive, emotional and strong-willed(Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Classification of mental processes

Cognitive mental processes play an important role in human life and activity. Thanks to them, a person reflects the objective world around him, cognizes it and, on the basis of this, orients himself in the environment and acts consciously.

In a complex mental activity, various processes are connected and form a single whole that provides an adequate reflection of reality and the implementation of various kinds activities.

mental states - this is a relatively stable level of mental activity determined at a given time, which is manifested by increased or decreased activity of the individual. Each person experiences various mental states every day (Fig. 6). In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and inefficient. Mental states are of a reflex nature, arising under the influence of a certain environment, physiological factors, time, etc.

Rice. 6. Classification mental states

Mental properties of a person are stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior, typical for this person. Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is fixed by practice. It is therefore the result of reflective and practical activity. The mental properties of a person are diverse (Fig. 7), and they must be classified in accordance with the grouping of mental processes on the basis of which they are formed.

Rice. 7. Classification of mental properties

1. Cognitive mental processes

Cognitive mental processes are the channels of our communication with the world. The incoming information about specific phenomena and objects undergoes changes and turns into an image. All human knowledge about the surrounding world is the result of the integration of individual knowledge obtained with the help of cognitive mental processes. Each of these processes has its own characteristics and its own organization. But at the same time, proceeding simultaneously and harmoniously, these processes imperceptibly interact with each other and as a result create for him a single, integral, continuous picture of the objective world.

1. Feeling - the simplest cognitive mental process, during which there is a reflection of individual properties, qualities, aspects of reality, its objects and phenomena, the connections between them, as well as internal states organism, directly affecting the human senses. Sensation is the source of our knowledge of the world and ourselves. The ability to sense is present in all living organisms that have a nervous system. Conscious sensations are characteristic only for living beings that have a brain. The main role of sensations is to quickly bring to the central nervous system information about the state of both the external and internal environment of the body. All sensations arise as a result of the action of stimuli-irritants on the corresponding sense organs. In order for a sensation to arise, it is necessary that the stimulus that causes it reach a certain value, called absolute lower threshold of sensation. Each type of sensation has its own thresholds.

But the sense organs have the ability to adapt to changing conditions, so the thresholds of sensations are not constant and can change when moving from one environment to another. This ability is called sensation adaptation. For example, during the transition from light to dark, the sensitivity of the eye to various stimuli changes tenfold. The speed and completeness of adaptation of various sensory systems is not the same: in tactile sensations, with smell, a high degree of adaptation is noted, and the lowest degree is observed with pain sensations, since pain is a signal of dangerous violation in the work of the body, and the rapid adaptation of pain sensations can threaten him with death.

The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a classification of sensations, presented in fig. eight.

Exteroceptive sensations- these are sensations arising from the influence of external stimuli on human analyzers located on the surface of the body.

proprioceptive sensations These are sensations that reflect the movement and position of parts of the human body.

Interoceptive sensations These are sensations that reflect the state of the internal environment of the human body.

By the time the sensations occur relevant and irrelevant.

For example, a sour taste in the mouth from a lemon, a feeling of so-called "factual" pain in an amputated limb.

Rice. eight. Classification of sensations (according to Ch. Sherrington)

All sensations have the following characteristics:

? quality- an essential feature of sensations, which makes it possible to distinguish one of their types from others (for example, auditory from visual);

? intensity– quantitative characteristic sensations, which is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus;

? duration- the temporal characteristic of sensations, determined by the time of exposure to the stimulus.

2. Perception - this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. The ability to perceive the world in the form of images is only in humans and some of the highest representatives of the animal world. Together with the processes of sensation, perception provides direct orientation in the surrounding world. It involves the selection of the main and most significant features from the complex of fixed features with simultaneous distraction from the non-essential ones (Fig. 9). Unlike sensations, which reflect individual qualities of reality, perception creates an integral picture of reality. Perception is always subjective, since people perceive the same information differently depending on their abilities, interests, life experience, etc.

Rice. 9. Classification of types of perception

Consider perception as an intellectual process of successive, interconnected acts of searching for features necessary and sufficient for the formation of an image:

The primary selection of a number of features from the entire flow of information and the decision that they belong to one specific object;

Search in memory for a complex of signs close to the sensations;

Assigning the perceived object to a certain category;

Search additional features confirming or refuting the correctness of the decision;

The final conclusion about which object is perceived.

To the main properties of perception relate: integrity- internal organic interconnection of parts and the whole in the image;

objectivity- an object is perceived by a person as a separate physical body isolated in space and time;

generality- assignment of each image to a certain class of objects;

constancy- the relative constancy of the perception of the image, the preservation of the object of its parameters, regardless of the conditions of its perception (distance, lighting, etc.);

meaningfulness- understanding the essence of the perceived object in the process of perception;

selectivity- preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception.

Perception happens outward directed(perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and internally directed(perception of one's own states, thoughts, feelings, etc.).

According to the time of occurrence, perception is relevant and irrelevant.

Perception can be erroneous(or illusory) such as visual or auditory illusions.

The development of perception is very important for learning activities. Developed perception helps to quickly assimilate a larger amount of information with a lower degree of energy costs.

3. Submission - this is a mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of previous experience. Ideas arise not by themselves, but as a result of practical activity.

Since ideas are based on past perceptual experience, the main classification of ideas is based on classifications of types of sensations and perceptions (Fig. 10).

Rice. ten. Classification of types of representations

Main view properties:

fragmentation- in the presented image, any of its features, sides, parts are often absent;

instability(or impermanence)- the representation of any image sooner or later disappears from the field of human consciousness;

variability- when a person is enriched with new experience and knowledge, there is a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world.

4. Imagination - This is a cognitive mental process, which consists in the creation of new images by a person based on his ideas. Imagination is closely related to the emotional experiences of a person. Imagination differs from perception in that its images do not always correspond to reality, they may contain, to a greater or lesser extent, elements of fantasy, fiction. Imagination is the basis of visual-figurative thinking, which allows a person to navigate the situation and solve problems without direct practical intervention. It especially helps in those cases when practical actions are either impossible, or difficult, or inexpedient.

Rice. eleven. Classification of types of imagination

When classifying types of imagination, they proceed from the main characteristics - degree of volitional effort and degree of activity(Fig. 11).

Recreating imagination manifests itself when a person needs to recreate the representation of an object according to its description (for example, when reading a description of geographical places or historical events, as well as when meeting literary characters).

Dream is the imagination directed towards the desired future. In a dream, a person always creates an image of what is desired, while in creative images the desire of their creator is not always embodied. A dream is a process of imagination that is not included in creative activity, i.e., does not lead to an immediate and direct receipt of an objective product in the form artwork inventions, products, etc.

Imagination is closely related to creativity. creative imagination It is characterized by the fact that a person transforms his ideas and creates independently a new image - not according to a familiar image, but completely different from it. In practical activity, the process of artistic creativity is connected, first of all, with the phenomenon of imagination in those cases when the author is no longer satisfied with the reconstruction of reality by realistic methods. Turning to unusual, bizarre, unrealistic images makes it possible to enhance the intellectual, emotional and moral impact of art on a person.

Creation is an activity that generates new material and spiritual values. Creativity reveals the need of the individual for self-expression, self-actualization and realization of their creative potential. The following are distinguished criteria creative activity:

Creative is such an activity that leads to a new result, a new product;

Because the New Product(result) can be obtained by chance, then the process of obtaining the product itself must be new (a new method, technique, method, etc.);

The result of creative activity cannot be obtained using a simple logical conclusion or action according to a known algorithm;

Creative activity, as a rule, is aimed not so much at solving a problem already set by someone, but at an independent vision of the problem and the identification of new, original solutions;

Creative activity is usually characterized by the presence of emotional experiences preceding the moment of finding a solution;

Creative activity requires special motivation.

Analyzing the nature of creativity, G. Lindsay, K. Hull and R. Thompson tried to find out what hinders the manifestation creativity in a person. They found that interferes with creativity not only insufficient development of certain abilities, but also the presence of certain personality traits, for example:

- a tendency to conformism, i.e., the desire to be like others, not to differ from most people around;

- Fear of appearing stupid or funny;

- fear or unwillingness to criticize others because of the idea formed since childhood about criticism as something negative and offensive;

- excessive conceit, i.e., complete satisfaction about one's personality;

- the prevailing critical thinking, i.e., aimed only at identifying shortcomings, and not at finding ways to eradicate them.

5. Thinking - this is the highest cognitive process, the generation of new knowledge, a generalized and indirect reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relations. The essence of this cognitive mental process is the generation of new knowledge based on the transformation of reality by a person. This is the most complex cognitive process, the highest form of reflection of reality (Fig. 12).

Rice. 12. Classification of types of thinking

subject-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality.

Visual-figurative thinking occurs when presenting objective images.

abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts. Thinking wears motivated and purposeful nature, all operations of the thought process are caused by the needs, motives, interests of the individual, his goals and objectives.

Thinking always individually. It makes it possible to understand the patterns of the material world, cause-and-effect relationships in nature and social life.

The source of mental activity is practice.

The physiological basis of thinking is reflex activity of the brain.

An extremely important feature of thinking is the inextricable connection with speech. We always think in words, even if we don't speak them out loud.

Active research into thinking has been going on since the 17th century. Initially, thinking was actually identified with logic. All theories of thinking can be divided into two groups: the first are based on the hypothesis that a person has innate intellectual abilities that do not change over the course of life, the second on the idea that mental abilities are formed and developed under the influence of life experience.

To the main mental operations relate:

analysis- mental division of the integral structure of the reflection object into constituent elements;

synthesis- reunification of individual elements into a coherent structure;

comparison- establishing relationships of similarity and difference;

generalization- selection common features based on the combination of essential properties or similarity;

abstraction- highlighting any side of the phenomenon, which in reality does not exist as an independent one;

specification- distraction from common features and highlighting, emphasizing the particular, single;

systematization(or classification)- mental distribution of objects or phenomena in certain groups, subgroups.

In addition to the types and operations listed above, there are thinking processes:

judgment- a statement containing a specific thought;

inference- a series of logically connected statements leading to new knowledge;

definition of concepts- a system of judgments about a certain class of objects or phenomena, highlighting their most common features;

induction- derivation of a particular judgment from a general one;

deduction- the derivation of a general judgment from particular ones.

Basic quality thinking characteristics these are: independence, initiative, depth, breadth, speed, originality, criticality, etc.

The concept of intelligence is inextricably linked with thinking.

Intelligence is the totality of all mental capacity enabling a person to solve various problems. In 1937, D. Wexler (USA) developed tests for measuring intelligence. According to Wexler, intelligence is the global ability to act intelligently, think rationally, and cope well with life's circumstances.

L. Thurstone in 1938, exploring intelligence, singled out its primary components:

counting ability- the ability to operate with numbers and perform arithmetic operations;

verbal(verbal) flexibility- the ability to find the right words to explain something;

verbal perception- ability to understand spoken and written language;

spatial orientation- the ability to imagine various objects in space;

memory;

reasoning ability;

the speed of perception of similarities and differences between objects.

What determines intelligence development? Intelligence is influenced by both hereditary factors and the state of the environment. The development of intelligence is influenced by:

Genetic conditioning - the influence of hereditary information received from parents;

Physical and mental state of the mother during pregnancy;

Chromosomal abnormalities;

Ecological living conditions;

Features of the child's nutrition;

The social status of the family, etc.

Attempts to create single system The "dimensions" of human intelligence encounter many obstacles, since intelligence includes the ability to perform mental operations of completely different quality. The most popular is the so-called IQ(abbreviated as IQ), which allows you to correlate the level of intellectual capabilities of an individual with the average indicators of his age and professional groups.

There is no consensus among scientists about the possibility of obtaining real assessment intelligence with the help of tests, since many of them measure not so much innate intellectual abilities as knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the learning process.

6. Mnemic processes. At present, there is no unified, complete theory of memory, and the study of the phenomenon of memory remains one of the central tasks. Mnemic processes, or memory processes, are studied by various sciences that consider physiological, biochemical and psychological mechanisms memory processes.

Memory- this is a form of mental reflection, which consists in fixing, preserving and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.

Among the first psychologists who began experimental studies mnemonic processes, was the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus, who, investigating the process of memorizing different phrases, deduced a number of laws of memorization.

Memory connects the past of the subject with his present and future - this is the basis of mental activity.

To memory processes include the following:

1) memorization- such a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what matters to a person or aroused his interest and greatest emotions;

2) preservation– the process of processing and retaining information;

3) reproduction– the process of retrieving stored material from memory;

4) forgetting- the process of getting rid of long-obtained, rarely used information.

One of the most important characteristics is memory quality, which is due to:

? memorization speed(number of repetitions required to retain information in memory);

? forgetting speed(the time during which the memorized information is stored in memory).

There are several reasons for classifying the types of memory (Fig. 13): by the nature of the mental activity that prevails in the activity, by the nature of the goals of the activity, by the duration of consolidation and preservation of information, etc.

Rice. 13. Classification of types of memory

The work of different types of memory obeys some general laws.

The Law of Understanding: the deeper the comprehension of what is remembered, the easier the latter is fixed in memory.

Law of Interest: interesting things are remembered faster because less effort is spent on it.

Installation law: memorization is easier if a person sets himself the task of perceiving the content and remembering it.

Law of First Impression: the brighter the first impression of what is remembered, the stronger and faster its memorization.

Context law: information is easier to remember when it is correlated with other simultaneous impressions.

The law of the volume of knowledge: the more extensive knowledge on a particular topic, the easier it is to remember new information from this area of ​​knowledge.

The law of the volume of stored information: the greater the amount of information for simultaneous memorization, the worse it is remembered.

Deceleration law: any subsequent memorization inhibits the previous one.

End law: what is said (read) at the beginning and end of a series of information is better remembered, the middle of the series is remembered worse.

The law of repetition: repetition improves memory.

In connection with the study of memory, one can come across two terms that are very similar to each other - "mnemonic" and "mnemonic", the meanings of which are different. Mnemic means "pertaining to memory", and mnemonic- "related to the art of memorization", i.e. mnemonics are memorization techniques.

The history of mnemonics is rooted in Ancient Greece. AT ancient Greek mythology speaks of Mnemosyne, the mother of the nine muses, the goddess of memory, memories. Mnemonics received special development in the 19th century. in connection with the laws of associations that have received theoretical justification. For better memorization, various mnemonic techniques. Let's give examples.

Association method: the more various associations arise when storing information, the easier the information is remembered.

Link method: combining information into a single, integral structure with the help of key words, concepts, etc.

Place method based on visual associations; having clearly imagined the subject of memorization, one must mentally combine it with the image of the place, which is easily retrieved from memory; for example, in order to remember information in a certain sequence, it is necessary to break it down into parts and associate each part with a certain place in a well-known sequence, for example, the route to work, the arrangement of furniture in the room, the arrangement of photographs on the wall, etc.

A well-known way of remembering the colors of the rainbow, where initial of each word of the passphrase is the first letter of the color word:

to each - to red

hunter - about range

and does - and yellow

h nat - h green

G de- G blue

With goes– With blue

f azan – f purple

7. Attention - this is an arbitrary or involuntary orientation and concentration of mental activity on some object of perception. The nature and essence of attention cause controversy in science; there is no consensus among psychologists regarding its essence. The complexity of explaining the phenomenon of attention is due to the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form, it is always “attention to something”. Some scientists believe that attention is not an independent process, but is only a part of any other psychological process. Others believe that this is an independent process that has its own characteristics. Indeed, on the one hand, attention is included in all psychological processes, on the other hand, attention has observable and measurable characteristics (volume, concentration, switchability, etc.), which are not directly related to other cognitive processes.

Attention is a necessary condition for mastering any kind of activity. It depends on the individual typological, age and other characteristics of a person. Depending on the activity of the individual, three types of attention are distinguished (Fig. 14).

Rice. fourteen. Classification of types of attention

involuntary attention is the simplest form of attention. He is often called passive or forced since it arises and is maintained independently of human consciousness.

Arbitrary attention controlled by a conscious purpose, connected with the will of man. It is also called volitional, active or deliberate.

Post-voluntary attention also has a purposeful character and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the activity itself becomes so interesting that it practically does not require volitional efforts from a person to maintain attention.

Attention has certain parameters and features, which are largely a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. To basic properties of attention usually include the following:

concentration- this is an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a particular object, the intensity of communication with it; concentration of attention implies the formation of a temporary center (focus) of all psychological activity of a person;

intensity- characterizes the efficiency of perception, thinking and memory in general;

sustainability- the ability to maintain high levels of concentration and intensity of attention for a long time; determined by the type of nervous system, temperament, motivation (novelty, importance of needs, personal interests), as well as external conditions human activities;

volume- a quantitative indicator of objects that are in the focus of attention (for an adult - from 4 to 6, for a child - no more than 1-3); the amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and on the possibilities of short-term memory of the individual, the characteristics of perceived objects and the professional skills of the subject himself also matter;

distribution- the ability to focus on several objects at the same time; at the same time, several focuses (centers) of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes at the same time without losing any of them from the field of attention;

switching - the ability to more or less easily and fairly quickly move from one type of activity to another and focus on the latter.

One of the most complex, diverse in its manifestations and the least studied in human body are mental processes. The table presented in this article clearly divides the phenomena occurring in our psyche into three main groups: according to properties, states and processes. All this is a reflection of reality, which can be traced in dynamics, that is, each such phenomenon has its own beginning, develops and ends with the reaction that follows from this. Mental processes (the table clearly demonstrates this) interact extremely closely with each other. Mental activity continuously flows from one process to another when a person is awake.

mental states

The processes occurring in the human psyche can be caused by external influences that irritate the nervous system, as well as be born directly in the internal environment of the body, depending on the state in which it is at that moment. The table divides mental processes into three main groups: cognitive, emotional and volitional. Here, their components are classified in detail: perception and sensations, memory and representation, imagination and thinking are related to cognitive processes, and active and passive experiences are emotional. The table reveals volitional mental processes as the ability to make decisions, execute and

Consider carefully the graph, which presents the state of the human psyche. Motivational, that is, cognitive mental processes, the table presents the most widely, up to the actualization of needs. The reasons are clear: they can provide the right help to form knowledge and regulate behavior. In a single stream of consciousness, various cognitive mental processes merge, the table of which is presented in the article, since a person is a very complex organism, and the mental component is the basis for any life activity. It is she who ensures the adequacy in the reflection of reality, controlling all types of human activities.

Activity level

That the processes human psyche proceed unevenly, with different intensity and speed, show the very first tables on general psychology. Mental processes depend entirely on the state of the individual and external influences on it. What is a mental state? Roughly speaking, this is the relative stability of the level of mental activity, which manifests itself in a reduced or increased activity. A person can experience a variety of conditions. Anyone can remember that sometimes physical and mental work seemed easy and productive, and at other times the same actions required a lot of work and still did not achieve the desired effect.

Depending on the state of the individual, the characteristics of mental processes also change, the table clearly shows this. The nature of the processes occurring in the psyche is reflexive, they arise and change depending on physiological factors, the situation, the course of work, even verbal influences (from praise and censure, the state of the individual clearly acquires new qualities). The comparative table lays out the mental cognitive processes of the individual point by point. It contains the most studied factors of such changes. For example, the level of attention can vary from concentration to absent-mindedness, characterizing the general mental state, and emotional moods especially brightly change the general background of all characteristics - from sadness or irritability to cheerfulness and enthusiasm. Especially a lot of research concerns the main creative state of the individual - inspiration.

personality traits

Mental - stable formations, the highest regulators of activity, which determine the level of the state in the quality and quantity of its components, which is observed in behavior and activities typical of a particular individual. A comparative table of mental cognitive processes connects each gradually formed property of the psyche with the result of practical and reflective activity. The variety of such properties is rather difficult to classify, even in accordance with the foundations of all already grouped mental processes.

However, the intellectual, that is, cognitive, volitional and emotional activity of the individual have been studied quite deeply and considered in many complex interactions of their synthesis. Thus, the table shows a variety of mental processes. The properties, functions and role of these components in human life will be considered by us within the framework of this material. From cognitive functions, for example, it is worth noting observation and a flexible mind, perseverance and determination belong to volitional functions, and sensitivity and passion belong to emotional ones. The properties and functions of mental processes are different, but they all play important role in our daily life.

Synthesis

Properties of the psyche human personality do not exist separately, they act in synthesis, forming the most complex structural complexes. There is a classification of manifestations of the unconscious according to mental processes. A table of such states is presented below.

This includes following processes synthesizing with each other:

• Life position: needs, interests, beliefs, ideals, personality activity and selectivity.
• Temperament - natural personality traits: balance, mobility, tone, other behavioral characteristics, all that characterizes the dynamics of behavior.
• Abilities: a whole system of intellectual, volitional, emotional personality traits that can determine creative possibilities.
• Character - a system of ways of behavior and relationships.

Interconnected neuropsychic acts in their stable and purposeful totality have a certain scheme for transforming activity in order to obtain a certain result. These are the mental processes inherent in each individual, which are of the main value for study. For example, memory as a mental process requires the memorization of information, this is its need - conscious and unconscious. Here, the input to the process will be precisely this requirement as a property, and the output or end result will be the information remaining in memory.

Psychic Phenomena

The most common mental processes have been listed above, but let's dwell on these lists in more detail. They vary greatly among authors. Common and noted by all are attention, emotions, memory, will, thinking, perception, speech. In the category of mental phenomena, they are accessible to any direct and unskilled observation.

Most often, not even the observed process itself is interesting, but its deviations from the norm, that is, characteristics. Here, usually, students are helped to understand the classification by the usual table of features of mental processes. Children of all categories are studied especially carefully, but even their cognitive processes can be quite easily distinguished from emotional or volitional ones.

Personality Features

People are endowed with completely different abilities: one is distracted, and the other is attentive, this one perfectly remembers faces, and that one only melodies. In addition, behavior characterizes any mental phenomenon and the degree of balance: a surprise will please someone, surprise someone, and leave some indifferent. People treat each other differently: some love others, while others find humanity disgusting. There are people who are persistent, even stubborn in achieving their goal, as well as those who are indifferent to everything - they always remain apathetic and lethargic.

Attitude towards science

Domestic psychology divides everything into three types: properties, states and processes. The differences between them are not so great and are temporary. Processes are usually fast, but the properties are more stable and long lasting. Modern psychologists believe that through the interconnectedness of mental processes, the psyche itself is formed, which can be divided into components only very conditionally, since there is no theoretical justification for this study. Nevertheless, not only the major phenomena of the work of the psyche, but also the main mental processes, the comparative table for which exists far from being in the singular, have been fairly widely identified and studied.

But since psychology has become a science, scientists are developing methods for its cognition, where the main postulate is an integrative approach to the human psyche, and all classifications in tables are a propaedeutic and pedagogical value. Similar processes take place in society. Just as in the psyche of an individual, they are extremely interconnected in society: children study, parents raise them, work, athletes train, alcoholics drink, the police catch criminals, and so on. No matter how parallel these processes may seem, sooner or later they all intersect with each other in some way.

Will and emotions

A person throughout his life reproduces his skills, knowledge, skills, trying to connect various forms behavior with the existing emotional state. Thus, the actualization of connections between various mental processes is built, their transition from a latent to an active form is carried out. Among the emotional states, the most striking is affect. This is a stormy, rapidly flowing emotion of great strength, which is similar to an explosion, therefore it is beyond the control of consciousness and is often pathological.

But the process that concentrates consciousness on a real or ideal object is attention. But it is not emotional. A special ability regulates and self-determines its own activity. This is will. All mental processes can be subordinated to it. Its main properties and functions are the exact choice of goals and motives, the regulation of motives for certain actions, even if there is a lack of motivation, the organization of those mental processes that can fit into the system of adequately performed activities, the mobilization of mental and physical capabilities, if it is necessary to overcome obstacles on the way to the set goal.

Cognition and intelligence

Representation and imagination serve as tools for adequate reflection and projection of the world surrounding a person. They are closely connected with non-specific structures of the brain at the cortical level and make it possible to build the dynamic characteristics of maturing mental processes. These are speed and quantitative indicators of certain actions and their implementation. The state in which the psyche of the individual is located can be different, hence the high variability of the results of activity.

Speech is in the closest connection with thinking, about as closely as sensations and perception - one follows from the other. These cognitive processes of the psyche are characteristic of any activity, since it is they that ensure its effectiveness. With the help of basic cognitive processes, a person can set the necessary goals in advance, make plans, fill the upcoming activity with content, predict results and manipulate them as the work progresses. The table presented in the article demonstrates mental cognitive processes and their characteristics as intellectual.

conclusions

The psychological process is most easily explained by the ability of a person to remember, think and anticipate. Most often, this concept is associated with the acquisition of knowledge. Cognitive mental processes are always creative and active, not so much reflecting the world how much its converting. There are two ways of knowing - specific and non-specific. The first uses sensual and rational processes - these are sensations, perception and thinking, in the latter they share the concept, judgment and conclusion.

Universal, or non-specific, processes of the psyche are memory, will, imagination, attention. They operate through a through method, providing connections throughout the duration of the cognitive process, and it is on them that all processes of the behavioral plan that are in synthesis depend. This is how the cognitive activity and practical objective activity of the individual is supported, which receives not only individuality, but also originality and uniqueness.

The concept of mental processes. Mental processes are elementary units that we can distinguish in mental activity, its "atoms". The processes are primary - on their basis the entire complex system of the functioning of the psyche is built. Processes are dynamic - they have their own course, development. Let's describe the main processes.

Feeling and perception. Sensations are elementary mental processes, which are a subjective reflection by a living being of the simple properties of the surrounding world in the form of mental phenomena, elements, components of perception that make up images. The following types of sensations are distinguished: skin (touch, or pressure, there are temperature and pain), proprioceptive (position of the body in space, relative positions of body parts), organic (coming from the nerve cells of the internal organs), taste and olfactory, visual and auditory. Sensations are possible due to the presence of receptors - special nerve cells that perceive this effect, pathways (nerves) and cells of the central nervous system that are able to receive and process this or that signal. The combinations of these nervous formations are called sensory systems. Phylogenetically the most ancient, i.e., the earliest to arise in evolution, are sensations that directly relate to the state of the body - pain, temperature, younger - taste and smell. Then, in the history of species, visual sensory systems arose, and the auditory ones are the youngest.

Every sensation has absolute and relative thresholds. The absolute threshold is the minimum amount of stimulus that can cause a sensation. For example, for the sense of smell, it can be several hundred molecules of a substance. The absolute threshold, however, is individual for each individual. The relative, or differential, threshold is the magnitude of a stimulus that can elicit a sensation that is distinct from that evoked by a stimulus of a different magnitude. So, a person can hear a sound with a frequency of 16 Hz, but is able to distinguish one sound from another only starting from a height of 40 Hz. There is also an upper threshold of sensation, which tends to border on pain, for example sound above 14,000 Hz causes pain.

Auditory sensations allow you to describe sound in terms of loudness, pitch, timbre. Loudness corresponds to the sound intensity, measured in decibels. A person perceives sound from 3 to 130–140 dB, the last number corresponds to the upper limit of audibility, the pain threshold. The pitch of a perceived sound, or tonality, corresponds to the frequency of the sound, measured in hertz. The lower threshold of hearing is 16 Hz, the upper one is about 20,000 Hz (for comparison: in a dog it is 38,000 Hz). Our usual range lies in the region from 1000 to 3000 Hz, the pain threshold is at the level of 14,000-16,000 Hz. Timbre is a complex characteristic of sound that has no direct physical analogue, just like timbre we distinguish a complex pattern of sound tones - a combination of sounds of a certain loudness and height.

Visual sensations are formed by determining the hue, brightness and saturation. The shape of an object is transmitted by reflecting light spots of different colors and tones on the retina, and the movement is transmitted by moving these spots.

A person perceives light waves with a length of 390 to 780 nanometers, i.e. bottom line is at the infrared level, the upper one is at the ultraviolet level. human eye is able to perceive a light pulse of 8-47 quanta (this is the lower threshold of perception) and a 1-1.5% change in surface illumination (this is the differential threshold of visual perception). The upper threshold of visual perception is the most relative - the state of blindness depends on the adaptation of the eye to light - and can be caused even by normal daylight, if the eye is accustomed to a lack of light.

In man visual perception is the leading one - according to experts, 90% of all information comes through this channel. Hearing, smell, touch and other channels of perception are of much lesser importance.

The process of perception is built on the basis of sensations.
Perception is the process of receiving and processing various information by a person, culminating in the formation of an image. Perception is not just the result of the integration of data entering the brain through various sensory organs; information stored in memory, thinking and other mental processes are connected to the formation of a holistic image. The hallmark of perception is integrity. Let us explain: when describing an object only with the words “cold”, “big”, “white”, we are still at the level of sensations, but as soon as we correlate these data and get a holistic image of the object (whether it be a refrigerator or the mythical Gorgon Medusa), we can talk about perception. An integral feature of perception is also meaningfulness: we can always think about the formed image and describe it in words.

The image contains not only information received from the sense organs, but other cognitive processes are also involved in the process of its formation, the process of completing the image is underway. In this case, normal errors often occur. So, if a white cylinder with a red end is presented to the subjects, most people tend to assume that the second end, which is not visible, i.e., is outside the limits of perception, is also red. On the one hand, the process of completing the construction of an image is necessary in everyday life - we can most often guess the entire object from fragmentary elements of the image, on the other hand, this effect still sometimes leads to errors in perception.

An illusion is an image that is a product of real sensations, but incorrectly reflects reality. This is a perceptual error that occurs due to the interference in the process of perception of memory, desire, fantasy, some attitude or other mental phenomenon. For example, a person may mistake a jacket hanging on a chair in a dark room for a seated person, or an atypically shaped cloud for a flying saucer. The appearance of illusions is considered a normal mental phenomenon. They should be distinguished from hallucinations - fully constructed images that are subjectively perceived as real objects. Thus, a person may claim to see objects or hear sounds that do not exist in objective reality. Hallucinosis is considered a pathological process.

We live in a four-dimensional world: we know three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. The perception of space is not innate and develops in the process of learning. A person determines the size of objects by comparing them with other objects and relying on his previous experience. However, if the subject is presented with an isolated object, such as a cube on a white background, which is shown through a special hole in the screen so that the distance to it cannot be determined, then the person will not be able to determine its size. The perception of space arises due to the ratio of the distance to the object and its size. Binocular vision is important in the perception of space, but life experience is decisive - we learn to determine distance and size and can perceive space using only one eye.

Very rarely pay attention to another dimension available to human perception - the perception of time. Time is perceived as an irreversible uniform movement from the past to the future. We have learned to express time in units of duration: seconds, hours, days, years. The subjective perception of time is different from the objective one: it can flow unevenly - stretch or shrink. In the experiment, one group of subjects was offered Interesting games, and the other was placed in separate empty rooms and asked to wait. People who were having fun perceived the 10-minute time interval as very short - 2-3 minutes, and those who were waiting indicated the same time period as 15 minutes. So it became known that subjective time flows unevenly - it can "slow down" and "accelerate" depending on the circumstances.

Knowledge about sensations and perceptions is important in obtaining testimony, resolving the issue of recognizing a person as sane, identifying special mental states that are important in criminal and civil cases.

Attention and memory. Attention is a state of mental concentration, concentration on an object. Attention is not an independent process, it is a process of regulation of other cognitive processes, a characteristic of mental activity, the state of our perception, consciousness, thinking, memory. Attention always has an object to which it is directed, whether it be an object of the surrounding world, a memory or a fantasy. The roots of attention can be traced in a state of alertness, vigilance, an orienting reflex. Attention is a mental process designed to quickly rebuild the psyche in response to changing environmental conditions and maintain special treatment work of the psyche for the right time.

Allocate involuntary and voluntary attention. Involuntary attention is primary, a person is born with it, it persists throughout life. Involuntary attention is established and maintained regardless of conscious desire and will. Voluntary attention is the ability to consciously direct attention to an object, its formation is associated with the development of the will. It is believed that voluntary attention is normally formed by 4-6 years of age. Voluntary and involuntary attention perform somewhat different functions: involuntary attention is passive, uncontrollable, but it plays the role of a "watchman" directing cognitive processes to the most important, strong external stimuli, including those that are rejected by consciousness; voluntary attention is active, it is subject to the will and makes it possible to arbitrarily adjust mental processes, ignoring information rejected by consciousness.

This division of attention into two types is ideal to a certain extent, therefore some authors also call voluntary-involuntary attention - mixed type: attention that does not require volitional effort, but is under the control of consciousness. This is a situation when we follow some phenomenon "out of the corner of our eye".

Attention can be described in terms of its concentration, volume, persistence, and switchability. The concentration of attention, or concentration, expresses the intensity of the connection between the subject and consciousness. The amount of attention is measured by the number of objects that are perceived simultaneously. Stability - the duration during which a given concentration of attention is maintained. Switchability is the ability to reorient cognitive processes from one subject to another. These characteristics of attention are functionally interconnected: a change in one entails a change in the others. So, high concentration leads to a decrease in switching or reduces the amount of attention.

It was noted that in a 2-4-year-old child, switchability is two to three times higher than in a 4-6-year-old child. These data indirectly testify to the process of formation of voluntary attention (indirectly, since concentration of attention does not yet mean voluntariness). Arbitrariness is the ability to consciously change the nature of attention.

Psychological examination of attention is important in obtaining testimony, assessing the maturity of a person, identifying special mental states that are important in criminal and civil cases.

Memory is the process of remembering, storing and subsequent reproduction of information. Memory is a reflection and reproduction of past events, one of the basic mental processes. The basis of memorization is imprinting - an almost exact copy of the picture of reality. Initially, in a newborn, memory exists only in the form of involuntary imprinting, and only later, with the development of thinking, will, consciousness, voluntary attention, the second type of memory is formed - voluntary memory. Thus, we distinguish two types of memory - involuntary and arbitrary. Arbitrary, or conscious, memory differs from imprinting and involuntary memory in selectivity, it is mediated by the processes of voluntary attention and thinking, and is always purposeful. Memorization is not a passive process and therefore not photographic: already at the stage of storing information, its primary processing takes place - generalization, systematization, selection of essential features and sifting out everything superfluous.

Arbitrary memorization that occurs over more than late stages development and, it would seem, more progressive, nevertheless inferior to the involuntary. In one of the experiments, in the first case, the subjects were shown pictures and instructed to memorize as much as possible, and in the second case, an abstract goal not related to memorization was set. It turned out that a larger amount of information was stored in the case when the task of memorizing the drawings was not set. Thus, it was concluded that most information we assimilate precisely thanks to involuntary memory.

Allocate short-term and long-term memory. short term memory saves information for a time interval from several seconds to two minutes, although this duration is conventionally allocated. Long-term memory is able to retain information for several minutes, hours, days, years. Short-term memory usually stores information for as long as the object is in our sphere of attention, and as soon as we are distracted, its contents are erased. Long-term memory stores information in an inactive state, but under certain conditions it can be activated.

Short-term memory is often compared to computer RAM, and long-term memory is often compared to permanent memory. But unlike a computer, the human brain eventually erases most of the unclaimed information or the one that he does not use for a long time. This is another mental mechanism that provides a flexible response to changing conditions - the unnecessary is erased, making room for more useful information. This process is described by the "forgetting curve" - ​​for the first hour about 59.2% of information is stored in memory, after 9 hours 35.8% remains, after a day - 27.3%, after two days - 25.4%, and then forgetting becomes insignificant. Note that forgetting occurs rapidly during the first 9 hours, then less rapidly - within two days, and the remaining amount of information is stored by long-term memory in almost unchanged volume. Given the law of the “forgetting curve”, we can assume that the farther in time an event is, the less we can remember about it. However, there is an amendment to this rule. Reminiscence is a phenomenon when the subsequent reproduction of information is richer than the previous one, this is a gradual recall. Reminiscence is possible due to the fact that, focusing on the need to remember, we raise ever deeper layers of memory, “unwind” the memory, and receive clues from outside.

In memorizing information, its meaningfulness, the emotional richness of the experience, the relevance of the information, i.e. its significance for the rememberer, play a role. Meaningful, logically linked information is remembered much better than unstructured one: a person is able to remember an average of 7-10 words from the first reading and only 4-7 meaningless combinations of sounds. In a situation of emotional stress, memory improves. We better assimilate information that is meaningful to us, and forget that which does not cause an emotional or mental response.

Memory is not only the assimilation and storage of information, but also the ability to subsequently reproduce it, that is, to remember. The first step to remembering is recognition - this is the stage when we still cannot consciously recall an image from memory, but we are able to distinguish once perceived information from new information. A typical example is when a person cannot describe the face of another person, but is able to recognize him upon meeting. True memorization is characterized by the ability to consciously reproduce the image stored by memory. Reproduction is not a mechanical reproduction of the image, it is a reconstruction during which the image is built anew. In the experiment, the subjects were shown a geometric composition resembling a house, but with one unfinished wall. When, after some time, they were asked to reproduce the image, most of the subjects built this figure, completing the face that did not exist in the original. Thus, it was shown that memorization is not photographic, the integrity of perception and logic "prompted" to the subjects one more line. These are normal memory errors, but there are also pathological forms described below. Pathological memory disorders are most often the result of mental illness or traumatic brain injury.

Amnesia is memory loss, temporary or permanent. Temporary memory loss - loss of memory of events that occurred over a period of time from several minutes to several days - may be the result of a traumatic brain injury or emotional disorder (affect or severe stress). Retrograde amnesia - forgetting the events of the past - can occur in two forms: from the present to the past and from the past to the present. In the first case, a person may not remember what he did during the day, whether he had dinner, whether he watched a TV program, but he recalls events related to his youth and youth with sufficient accuracy. In the second case, he remembers the events of the last days, but cannot indicate where he was born, studied, lived and worked. Paramnesia, or false memory, can manifest itself in the form of pseudo-reminiscences - the substitution of events with memories from other moments of life, the substitution of real events for heard or read facts, confabulations - the replacement of real events of the past with fantastic, fictional pictures. In all cases of paramnesia, the person himself sincerely believes that his memories are real.

Let's return to the norm: depending on the leading channel of perception, memory can be visual, auditory (auditory), kinesthetic (motor), depending on the leading type of thinking - visual-figurative or verbal-logical. Memorization and reproduction are easier if a person uses the type of memory that he has more developed.

Memory can be characterized in terms of "accuracy", "volume", "longevity". Accuracy is a value that expresses the ratio of correctly reproduced units of information and erroneous ones. Volume expresses total correctly reproduced units of information. Long-term is the duration of retention in memory of a constant volume of correctly reproduced units of information.

Psychological examination of memory helps to clarify complex issues related to the testimony of victims, witnesses and suspects, including the results of identification, identifying special mental states that are important for making a judgment.

Thinking and intelligence. Thinking is a mental process of generalized and indirect reflection of reality; in fact, it is a process of information processing. Thinking operates with signs and symbols in which the facts of objective reality are encoded. Thinking is a mental process that reveals the relationship between objects and phenomena, thanks to it we compare, compare, distinguish, reveal the relationship between the data obtained through the perception system. Thinking reveals the properties of things and phenomena and reveals new, inaccessible directly to the senses, their abstract properties. We do not need to directly observe a phenomenon in order to analyze it and draw a conclusion - we can process information about it logically. This feature of thinking is possible thanks to speech - a system for transmitting signs and symbols.

Thinking and speech are closely interconnected; they cannot develop and exist without each other. Through speech, communication, the child is given concepts - symbols, behind which the totality of the integral features of the described object is hidden, the basic methods of information processing are instilled - the logic of thinking.

The thought process consists of the operations of analysis, classification and synthesis, or integration, of information. Analysis allows you to separate the essential and non-essential properties of an object or phenomenon, random and necessary connections, that is, to separate mere coincidences and real patterns. The task of thinking is to identify essential, significant features and connections, after which its next stage is possible - classification. The classification is based on the allocation of concepts - mediated and generalized knowledge about the subject, based on the disclosure of its more or less significant objective connections and relationships. The process of integrating information allows you to move from isolated cases to patterns and forecasting: thinking in a generalized form reveals the principle of solving a problem and anticipates the solution of similar problems that may arise in the future.

Violations of thinking are the result of a violation of any of the operations that make it up. Violation of the analysis operation consists in the inability to separate essential, significant features from minor ones, as a result, a person cannot responsibly proceed to the stage of classification, and then to generalization. In cases of violation of thinking, a person either “splits” reality too much, that is, he sees only differences in objects, but does not find common features, for example, cannot attribute a cat and a dog to the same class - animals, or falls into too broad generalizations, relying on weak signs and connections of objects, for example, finds the similarity of a flower and an airplane in that both of them are “drawn in blue”. The underdevelopment of thinking is characterized by the inability to abstract from concrete concepts and reach a higher, abstract level. Violation of thinking is a pathological process.

Normally, every thought process is an action aimed at solving a specific problem. This task includes the goal of the individual's mental activity, correlated with the conditions by which it is set. The goal always arises in connection with the existence of certain motives or the need to satisfy a certain need. The motive creates a problem situation, which is Starting point thought process. The problem situation determines the involvement of the individual in the thought process.

There are several types of thinking: visual-effective, visual-figurative and abstract, or theoretical. Visual-effective thinking arises in ontogeny, i.e., the development of the individual, most early. It relies on empirical experience person, the concrete experience of his communication with surrounding objects. A simple example of visual-figurative thinking is the conclusion that if the faucets do not open to the left, they open to the right. Visual-figurative thinking is a higher level of development of thinking. Here a person does not need to empirically find out the facts of reality, but it is enough to scroll through the possible options in his mind. So, we can imagine the possible ways of connecting kite rails, without having real experience in carpentry, but having general ideas about options for connecting rigid parts. Abstract thinking is the highest level of development of thinking, when a person, in the process of solving a problem, refers to concepts and logical schemes, performs actions in the mind, without resorting to practical experience. It is thanks to abstract thinking that we are subject to tasks of the type: A is equal to B, B is not equal to C, therefore, A is not equal to C (a very wide range of tasks can be solved using this scheme). result abstract thinking there is always a judgment - a conclusion about the inherent properties of objects or phenomena and significant relationships between them.

Based on what kind of information a person deals with, mathematical, verbal, artistic, spatial thinking is distinguished. Thanks to the leading way of processing information, logical and associative thinking can be noted. Logical thinking is based on given sequences, and associative thinking works by bringing analogies.

In connection with questions of thinking, one more important concept should be mentioned - intelligence.

Intelligence is a relatively stable structure of an individual's mental abilities, a certain level of development of a person's mental activity, which provides the opportunity to acquire new knowledge and use it in the course of life. Intelligence is essentially a set of skills for solving problem situations, strategies for finding solutions. Psychologists have developed criteria for assessing the degree of development of mental functions - the IQ.

Psychological examination of thinking may be important for identifying the maturity of the individual, sanity, the ability to realize the nature of the actions performed, and the restoration of the crime planning process.

Speech is a system of signs and symbols used by a person to represent, process, store and transmit information. In evolution, speech arose along with thinking in the process of social labor activity and developed in the process of the socio-historical development of mankind in unity with thinking. Thanks to speech, the individual consciousness of each person, not limited to personal experience It is nourished and enriched by the results of social experience through its own observations, and the observations and knowledge of all people become or can become the property of everyone.

Speech activity performs two main functions - communicative and significative. The significative role of language is connected with its sign-semantic aspect. With the help of words in which concepts and meanings are encoded, we can exchange information about the world around us, transmit information and receive it, without having a direct connection with the object about which in question. The communicative side of communication is associated with the transfer of emotions and feelings of communicating people.

In accordance with these components, verbal and non-verbal components of communication are distinguished. The verbal component includes all the factual information transmitted to the interlocutor. For ease of understanding the differences between verbal and non-verbal, we point out that we can convey all verbal information using writing. The non-verbal component, which carries the emotional component, is contained in the facial expressions, posture of the speaker, his gestures, intonations, speech speed, and gaze. According to the features of the non-verbal component of the speaker's speech, one can determine his emotional state, which helps to clarify a person's attitude to events, the features of his personal attitudes and to identify lies.

Speech disorders can have two main forms: the inability to speak, i.e., the inability to translate the concept into verbal form, and the inability to understand speech - the inability to extract meaning from the word-symbol. Such deviations are most often the result of gross violations of brain activity, craniocerebral trauma.

In legal practice, the psychology of speech, the main function of which is the ability to be a means of communication, is of general importance, but can also be useful in diagnosing special mental conditions that are important for considering criminal and civil cases, as well as identifying false testimony.

Imagination, will and emotions. Imagination is the ability to imagine an absent or non-existent object, keep it in mind and manipulate it. It is believed that imagination is the ability of only the human psyche, it is the basis of visual-figurative thinking, foresight of the future, planning and implementation of behavior programs. Thanks to the imagination, fantasies are possible as complex, detailed pictures of a non-existent reality or a supposed future. It provides a creative transformation of reality due to its innovative potential.

Imagination, however, is not free from objective reality - the new images it creates are a combination of previously seen, objectively existing. This is the process of compilation (rearrangement and combination) already famous images and facts. This kind of creative transformation serves as the basis for intellectually innovative activity, which essentially ensures the thought process. The set goals, thanks to the imagination, are provided with a program of action and, ultimately, are realized in action. In other words, the planning of activities initially occurs precisely in fantasies.

The propensity for increased fantasizing is the tendency of the individual to create pictures of reality that are not directly relevant for his life path, while fantasies are experienced very vividly and often replace reality. Getting used to a fictional reality can be so strong that the individual begins to sincerely believe in the events he himself created. Being quite normal for children and early adolescence, a tendency to increased fantasizing in adulthood indicates deviations in personality development.

An analysis of the nature of the imagination process and its content is important when considering the individual psychological qualities of a person that are important for making a judgment and restoring the process of planning a crime.

Will is a process of mental regulation designed to create and direct effort and, as necessary, maintain tension. Thanks to the will, a person can, on his own initiative, based on a perceived need, perform actions in accordance with a given plan. Will provides self-determination and self-regulation of the activity and flow of various mental processes.

Will is closely related to consciousness and attention. The volitional process is always conscious: it can be tracked, analyzed, arbitrarily called, it is a means of control, but it is also controlled by consciousness. Attention is necessary for the realization of volitional effort: only what is in the sphere of human attention can be affected by volitional effort.

The will is formed and developed under the influence of society's control over human behavior and only then is it internalized, that is, it becomes a purely internal mental process - self-control of the individual. The formation of the will is associated with the transition from external modes of action to internal ones.

Volitional action is always purposeful, through this action a person strives to achieve the goal facing him according to a given plan, subordinating his impulses to conscious control and changing the surrounding reality in accordance with his plan. The acting subject, directing an effort to achieve the goal, can evaluate the result of the action, comparing it with the goal to which it was directed. The effectiveness of volitional effort is evaluated by a person through the successful or unsuccessful achievement of the goal.

For the emergence of volitional effort, certain conditions are necessary - the presence of obstacles and barriers. Will manifests itself when difficulties appear on the way to the goal. Situations requiring volitional regulation are diverse: overcoming obstacles, directing action into the future, conflict of motives, conflict between the requirements of social norms and existing desires.

The main functions of the will are: the choice of motives and goals, the regulation of motivation for actions with insufficient or excessive motivation, the organization of mental processes into an adequate system for the activity performed by a person, the mobilization of physical and mental capabilities in overcoming obstacles in achieving goals. Will can be described in terms of "strength" - "weakness".

Psychological analysis of the volitional process is important in deciding the issue of sanity and capacity, in qualifying special conditions that are important for the consideration of criminal and civil cases, including the state of physiological passion, identifying a person’s ability to resist psychological coercion when involved in illegal activities, the ability of a crime victim to resist.

Emotional processes are a mental reaction to internal or external influences, expressed in the restructuring of the rhythm of activity of both the psyche itself and the whole organism. Emotions contain an assessment of the phenomenon, and its private features are not distinguished, emotional response occurs on the event as a whole. Emotions perform a regulatory function - they restructure the activity of the psyche and the body for a prompt response to changing conditions. Activation of the nervous system and above all its vegetative department leads to numerous changes in the state of internal organs and the body as a whole. The nature of these changes shows that emotional states cause either the mobilization of the organs of action, energy resources and protective processes of the body, or (in favorable situations) relaxation. So, in case of danger, a person has a feeling of fear, the hormone adrenaline enters the bloodstream, while the vessels of the brain narrow and the vessels of the body expand, providing muscles large quantity oxygen and nutrients. The state of fear prepares the body for decisive action in extreme conditions.

Along with the general preparation of the body for action, individual emotional states are accompanied by specific changes in the plasticity of movements, facial expressions, and sound reactions. In evolution, they also developed and became fixed as a means of notifying the emotional state of an individual in intraspecific and interspecific communication. With the increasing role of communication in higher animals, expressive movements become a finely differentiated language, with the help of which individuals exchange information both about their state and about what is happening in the environment. In humans, emotions retain their iconic function - the function of notification. It is thanks to emotions and the changes in appearance and behavior caused by them that we can judge the internal, psychological state of the individual.

Emotions are always associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of any important human needs. A positive or negative sign of emotion indicates the possibility of satisfying a need. Positive emotions - joy, pleasure, triumph - inform about the correct way to achieve the goal, negative ones - pain, anger, fear, disappointment - cause the desire to minimize the influence of objective conditions and are aimed at changing the program of action. Thus, emotions perform a regulatory function, reporting on the correctness or incorrectness of the way to achieve goals.

Emotions perform a motivating function emotional stress encourages action. In an attempt to resolve a tense situation, a person shows activity, charged with potential emotional state.

When considering the interaction of emotions and personality development, two factors must be taken into account. The first of them is the influence of heredity on the emotional make-up of a person. Heredity plays an important role in the formation of emotionality, setting the thresholds for experiencing a particular emotion. The second factor of interaction is individual experience and skills of self-control of the emotional sphere.

Emotional processes differ in their modality, or quality. Emotions of fear, anger, sadness, despair, joy, pleasure and others can form complex experiences, for example, emotions of anger, disgust and contempt form a kind of emotional complex of hostility, which can develop into a feeling of hostility underlying aggressive illegal behavior. Emotions can also develop into contradictory, ambivalent states - pain-pleasure, sympathy-disgust, fear-admiration.

Emotions have a certain power, which depends both on the objective circumstances that caused them, and on the individual characteristics of a person, his emotionality. Reaching a certain threshold level, they can get out of the control of consciousness, rendering strong impact on human behavior, his mood, thinking, often preventing the implementation professional activity. An extreme form of loss of control over feelings is the development of affective states.

Emotion is a form of mental reflection of the surrounding world in the form of short-term experiences of a person, but, being extended in time, they turn into a new type of mental phenomena - emotional states. Emotional states are holistic, dynamic, relatively stable personal formations that largely determine the originality mental life person at a certain stage of his life path. Some feelings, emotional states become leading, dominant in the structure of the personality and, as a result, can seriously influence the formation of character. The main experiences of a person, the most frequently experienced emotions, can be fixed in the character.

The pathological manifestation of emotions can take the form of emotional callousness, when emotions are experienced shallowly, superficially, or excessive emotiveness, that is, immersion in emotion and the inability to control it. There are also disorders in which there is a stuck on a certain emotional state - these are the so-called manias and depressions.

Knowledge of the language of emotions and feelings is a professionally important skill of a lawyer. On the one hand, it is expressed in the ability to recognize emotional manifestations, the experiences of other persons, to identify the simulative nature of the feelings and emotions they demonstrate, on the other hand, this ability is manifested in the correct choice of the most expressive forms of response, in the lawyer's demonstration of his emotional state, adequate to a particular communicative situation.

Psychological assessment of the characteristics of the flow of emotional processes of an individual in legal practice is important for assessing a person's ability to realize the nature of their actions and manage them, to assess the psychological harm caused to the victim of unlawful actions.