Features of the lymphatic organs: structure, functions, diseases. Violation of the coagulation ability of the lymph. Functions of the lymphatic vessels

Lymph is a liquid tissue of the body contained in and In the human body, lymph is formed in the amount of 2-4 liters per day. it clear liquid, the density of which reaches 1.026. The reaction of the lymph is alkaline, it is pH 7.35-9.0. This liquid helps to maintain and is able to flush out pathological microorganisms from the tissues.

The composition of the lymph

This liquid tissue circulates in the vessels of the lymphatic system and is found in almost all organs. Most of all it is in organs with high permeability of blood vessels: in the liver, spleen, skeletal muscles, and also in the heart.

It is worth noting that its composition is not constant, since it depends on the organs and tissues from which it flows. The main constituents can be called water, decay products of organic compounds, lymphocytes and leukocytes. Unlike tissue fluid, lymph has a higher protein content. Its chemical composition resembles but its viscosity is lower.

Lymph also contains anions, enzymes and vitamins. In addition, it contains substances that increase blood clotting ability. When small blood vessels (capillaries) are damaged, the number of lymphocytes increases. Also in the lymph there is a small amount of monocytes and granulocytes.

It is worth noting that human lymph is devoid of platelets, but it can coagulate because it contains fibrinogen. In this case, a loose yellow clot is formed. In addition, factors humoral immunity(lysozyme, properdin), as well as complement, although the bactericidal ability of lymph is much lower than that of blood.

The meaning of lymph

The following main functions of lymph can be noted:

The return of electrolytes, proteins and water from the interstitial space to bloodstream;

Normal lymphatic circulation ensures the formation of the most concentrated urine;

Lymph carries many substances that are absorbed in the digestive organs, including fats;

Certain enzymes (such as lipase or histaminase) can only enter the blood through the lymphatic system (metabolic function);

Lymph takes erythrocytes from tissues, which accumulate there after injuries, as well as toxins and bacteria (protective function);

It provides communication between organs and tissues, as well as the lymphoid system and blood;

Maintenance of a constant microenvironment of cells, i.e. homeostatic function.

In addition, lymphocytes and antibodies are formed in the lymph nodes, which take part in the body's immune response. In oncological diseases, it is the lymph that is the main route of distribution cancer cells.

It should be noted that lymph, tissue fluid and blood are closely related, therefore they provide homeostasis.

Lymph formation

This process is based on filtration, diffusion, osmosis and the difference in hydrostatic pressure, which is recorded in the capillaries and in the interstitial fluid.

How is lymph formed? In this process, the degree of permeability of the lymphatic vessels is of great importance. Thus, particles of various sizes pass through the walls of the lymphatic capillaries in two main ways:

1. Intercellular, when highly dispersed particles pass through the intercellular gaps, the size of which reaches 10 nm - 10 microns.

2. Through the endothelium, such transport of substances is associated with their direct movement with the help of micropinocytic vesicles and blisters.

It is worth noting that these paths work simultaneously.

If you answer the question “how is lymph formed”, it is worth remembering about oncotic pressure. So, high blood promotes the formation of lymph, and high oncotic pressure inhibits this process. The filtration of the fluid takes place in the capillaries, while it returns to the venous bed, since there is a pressure difference at the venous and arterial ends of the capillaries.

It should be noted that the permeability of lymphocapillaries varies depending on the functional state of the organs, as well as under the influence of various mechanical, chemical, as well as humoral or nervous factors. The rate of formation of lymph and its volume depend on the relationship between systemic and lymphatic circulation. So, if the minute volume of blood circulation is 6 liters, then 15 ml of fluid is filtered through the blood capillaries, 12 ml of which is reabsorbed back, but 5 ml remains in the interstitial space, after which it returns to the circulatory system through the lymphatic vessels.

To better understand how and where lymph is formed, you should know the structural features of the lymphatic system.

Features of the organization of the lymphatic system

The initial link is the lymphatic capillaries. They are located in all tissues and organs. They are absent only in the brain and spinal cord, eyeballs and in the inner ear, as well as in the epithelium of the skin, in the spleen, bone marrow, placenta.

Lymphocapillaries are able to unite, forming lymphocapillary networks and larger lymphatic vessels, which have three membranes:

Internal - consists of cells called endotheliocytes;

Medium - contains cells of smooth muscle tissue;

External - connective tissue sheath.

It should be noted that the lymphatic vessels have valves. Thanks to them, the movement of lymph occurs only in one direction - from the periphery to the center. As a rule, lymphatic vessels from muscles and organs exit with blood vessels and are called deep.

important constituent elements of the lymphatic system are the lymph nodes. They act as a filter and provide the immune defense of the body. Lymph nodes are located near large blood vessels, as a rule, in groups, they can be superficial or located in the internal cavities of the body. They accumulate and remove viruses and bacteria, as well as foreign particles from the body. With excessive load, the lymph nodes increase and become painful, which indicates excessive pollution of the lymph. Lymph nodes in the groin tend to swell with infection in the pelvis or legs. The inflammatory process can also be associated with allergic reactions, the presence of benign cysts, or after muscle overstretching.

It must be said that in the lymphatic system there are also specific lymph trunks and straits, through which the outflow of lymph from various parts of the body and internal organs occurs.

Features of lymph movement

Approximately 180 ml of lymph enters the lymphatic vessels per hour, up to 4 liters of this fluid can pass through the thoracic lymphatic duct per day. Subsequently, it returns to the general bloodstream. Knowing how lymph is formed, it is worth familiarizing yourself with how it moves through the body.

Since lymph is formed in the lymphatic capillaries, more intensive filtration of fluid from the blood small vessels leads to an acceleration of its formation and to an increase in the speed of its movement. Among the factors that increase lymph formation, the following should be mentioned:

High hydrostatic pressure in capillaries;

High functional activity organs;

High capillary permeability;

Introduction of hypertonic solutions.

The main role in the processes of lymph movement is assigned to the creation of primary hydrostatic pressure. It promotes the movement of the bodice from the lymphatic capillaries towards the outlet vessels.

What ensures its further movement? Lymph is formed from tissue fluid. At the same time, the main force that contributes to its movement from the place of formation to the flow into the veins of the neck is the rhythmic contraction of lymphangions.

Features of the structure of lymphangions. Other mechanisms for moving lymph

Lymphangion is a tubular formation with valves and a muscular "cuff". These formations can be called a kind of lymphatic hearts. So, lymph accumulates in them, which leads to stretching of the “cuff”. In this case, the distal valve of the lymphangion closes, and the proximal valve, on the contrary, opens. As a result of this, the lymph moves to the next lymphangion (and so on until it flows into the venous system).

If we talk about the structure of the walls of lymphangions, then they are represented by adrenergic fibers that modulate spontaneous rhythmic contractions. The smooth muscles of the lymphangion are also capable of contraction, which leads to an increase in pressure in the lymphatic vessels and to the flow of lymph into the bloodstream. This process can be influenced by certain hormones, biologically active substances (for example, histamine), as well as changes in the concentration of metabolic compounds and high temperature.

The described mechanism of lymph movement is the main one, but there are also secondary factors. So, when you inhale, the lymph flows from the thoracic lymphatic duct more intensively, and when you exhale, this process slows down. Due to the movements of the diaphragm, the cisterns of this strait are periodically compressed and stretched, which contributes to the further movement of the lymph.

The intensity of the lymphatic flow is also affected by the rhythmic contraction of the organs (heart and intestines), which leads to a more active transition of tissue fluid into the lumen of the capillaries. The contractions of the skeletal muscles that surround the lymphatic vessels are also capable of squeezing out the lymph, since they contribute to its mechanical movement, and also increase the contractility of the lymphangions that are located in the muscle fiber. Due to this, the movement of lymph through the vessels is accelerated.

Stagnation in the lymphatic system

Insufficiency of lymphatic circulation is a violation of the formation or movement of lymph. Many diseases are accompanied by disorders in the functioning of the lymphatic system, which is often crucial in the progression of the pathological process.

In case of insufficiency of lymphatic circulation, the lymph cannot cope with its main task - the removal of metabolites from the tissues of the body with sufficient speed. In this case, mechanical insufficiency of lymphatic circulation can be of a general or regional nature.

Lymph stasis appears various symptoms, which depends on a number of factors:

From the zone in which lymphostasis develops;

From the features of the lymphatic network;

From the age of the patient;

From the speed with which lymphatic insufficiency develops.

Violation of the lymph flow leads to the accumulation of toxic products. When the lymphatic vessels are damaged, blood clots occur, which, as a rule, consist of leukocytes and fibrin. They are delayed by regional lymph nodes, so they do not pose a danger.

It should be noted that lymphostasis is especially dangerous in infectious pathologies and malignant diseases, since it causes the generalization of the lesion and the appearance of retrograde metastases (spread against the flow of lymph).

Edema is a common clinical manifestation of lymph circulation insufficiency. Lymph stagnation is accompanied by tissue hypoxia, impaired metabolic processes and water-electrolyte balance, as well as dystrophic and sclerotic phenomena. With a general stagnation of the lymph, varicose changes in the lymphatic vessels develop, hypertrophy of their muscle fibers, as well as intin sclerosis, changes in valves.

Violation of the coagulation ability of the lymph

It is known that the lymph contains almost all components that are responsible for the processes of coagulation, anticoagulation and fibrinolysis, therefore, intravascular coagulation is characteristic not only of blood vessels, but also of lymphatic vessels. At the same time, tissue coagulation factors affect not only hemostasis, but also vascular permeability and interstitial transport of tissue fluid. At the same time, the mechanisms that cause blood clotting can provoke similar phenomena in the lymphatic capillaries, vessels and nodes.

It should be noted that the relationship between the various components of blood and lymph has been little studied, but it is known that various pathological processes can affect lymph coagulation in different ways. So, with the introduction of heterogeneous blood, the ability of the lymph to coagulate disappears, since the amount of natural anticoagulants increases. It is assumed that a significant amount of anticoagulants in this case is formed in the liver, and the lymph only transports them into the blood.

Almost nothing is known about the violation of lymph coagulation during the development of thrombosis. There are experimental data that confirm that quantitative changes in the blood and lymph may differ somewhat, but their direction is identical. In addition, it is known that thrombosis is accompanied by a slight slowdown in the flow of lymph from the drained thoracic lymphatic duct, and the formation of a venous thrombus is accompanied by pronounced changes in both blood and lymph. This pattern indicates that there is every reason not only to theoretically study the features of coagulation processes in the lymphatic system, but also to use them in clinical practice.

Lymph cleansing: indications

In case of violation normal operation the lymphatic system, a significant amount of harmful compounds accumulate in the intercellular space. In this case, the lymph is polluted, which leads to the development of lymphostasis. This state accompanied by an increase in the load on the organs, especially the liver, kidneys and intestines. To prevent the damaging effects of toxins, it is necessary to provide lymphatic drainage and a constant outflow of interstitial fluid.

Indications for cleaning the lymphatic system are the following conditions:

Insufficient due to disturbances in the liver and intestines (hepatitis, colitis, dysbacteriosis, constipation and bile stasis);

Frequent colds;

Chronic infectious lesions of the pelvic organs (for example, cystitis, adnexitis or endometritis);

Intestinal infections or other pathologies that are accompanied by significant intoxication;

Skin diseases;

Allergic lesions (for example, neurodermatitis, eczema or atopic dermatitis);

Conditions accompanied by massive tissue damage and absorption of decay products into the bloodstream (injuries, burns and fractures);

Circulatory disorders due to blood loss, thrombosis, embolism;

Endocrine pathologies, especially obesity, diabetes and thyroid pathology.

The main methods of cleansing the lymph

Before cleaning the lymph, you should consult a doctor who will determine possible contraindications and help you choose the best option.

You need to take 900 ml of orange juice, the same amount of grapefruit juice, as well as 200 ml of fresh lemon juice. All this should be diluted with 2 liters of melt water. Do not have breakfast in the morning, make an enema of 2 liters of water, in which you must first add 2 tbsp. l. apple cider vinegar. After setting the enema, you should drink 100 ml of water, in which it is diluted immediately take hot shower, then drink 200 ml of a pre-prepared mixture of citrus juices and melt water. In the future, you should drink all 4 liters of this mixture (in portions, 100 ml every half hour).

Cleansing the lymph by this method must be carried out for three days. It should be remembered that after this it is impossible to suddenly switch to the usual diet, the diet should be expanded gradually. It is recommended to drink juices, eat fruits, boiled vegetables and porridge.

Method number 2. It helps to cleanse the lymph, remove toxins and saturate the body with vitamins. In the morning, you should do a cleansing enema. Then you need to eat one grated lemon with steamed zest, combined with honey and fruit sugar. Every day you need to use one lemon more, bringing the amount to 15. Then their number should be reduced, eating 1 less lemon every day.

Method number 3. You need to take lemons, beets, carrots, pomegranates (all 2 kg each), squeeze the juice, mix with honey and take 50 ml on an empty stomach for 10 days, then take a five-day break. Repeat such courses until the end of the prepared mixture, which should be stored in the refrigerator with a tightly closed lid.

Method number 4. Tibetan doctors recommend to purify the lymph as follows. You need to take 200 ml fresh juice carrots and beets in a ratio of 4:1 daily before meals. At the same time, an infusion of celandine should be taken according to the appropriate scheme: on an empty stomach in the morning - 1 drop, before lunch - 2 drops, in the evening for dinner - 3 drops, etc., bringing the dose to 15 drops, and then reducing the amount of infusion to the initial dosage ( up to 1 drop).

To prepare this infusion, celandine grass should be crushed and squeezed out the juice, then strain it. After that, for every 450 mg of juice, add 70 ml of alcohol. The resulting infusion should be stored in the refrigerator.

It should be noted that this method of cleaning the lymphatic system is also favorable in patients with hypertension, diseases of the digestive system, psoriasis, hemorrhoids, osteochondrosis.

Conclusion

To summarize, we can say that lymph is a liquid that surrounds and washes all the cells of the human body. The primary task of the lymph is to clean tissues and organs from decay products. Lymph circulation is closely related to blood circulation and ensures the optimal physical condition of a person and a high level of his vital energy.

How is lymph formed? As mentioned above, this is a rather complex process that goes through several schemes and depends on many factors. Cleansing the body due to lymph is that it takes excess fluid, as well as metabolic products from the intercellular space, and transfers them to the lymph nodes, which are "filtration stations". In addition, lymph performs a protective function, as it helps to get rid of foreign agents and pathogenic microbes.

Lymph is an important regulator of metabolic processes in the body, as well as a factor in the proper nutrition of cells. In cases of violation of the formation of lymph or a slowdown in its circulation, stagnation of the intercellular fluid develops, which leads to the appearance of edema. It should also be noted that the slow circulation of the lymph leads to the appearance of excessive fatigue, as well as to the inertia of the vital important processes, which in the future can cause various kinds of diseases and premature aging of cells.

lymphatic system(Fig. 278-280) is a system of lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes located along them. The lymphatic system is part of the cardiovascular vascular system, provides together with venous system outflow from organs and tissues of water, colloidal solutions of proteins, emulsions of fats, removal of waste products of cells and microbial bodies from tissues, performs a protective function of the body. In the lymphatic vessels is a colorless liquid - lymph, similar in composition to blood plasma. The lymphatic system, along with the venous system, performs the drainage function of tissues through the formation of lymph. In addition, the lymphatic system performs a specific function - it plays the role of a barrier to microbes and other harmful particles, including tumor cells that linger in the lymph nodes.

The lymphatic system plays a large role in immune function - lymph nodes form protective cells(plasma cells) that produce antibodies to disease-causing particles (germs). The lymph nodes also contain B- and T-lymphocytes responsible for immunity. B-lymphocytes are formed in the red bone marrow, and their final maturation occurs in the lymph nodes. B-lymphocytes, matured in the lymph nodes, enter the bloodstream. If necessary, B-lymphocytes produce antibodies - specific proteins that can bind to substances foreign to the body and neutralize them.

The drainage function of the lymphatic system is carried out through the absorption of water and proteins dissolved in it, cell decay products, bacteria, etc. from the tissues of the body. The volume of lymph formed depends on the amount of water present in the intercellular spaces of the tissues of the body, and on the amount of chemicals and protein dissolved in this water.

If proteins and carbohydrates from the intestines are absorbed into the blood, then most of the fats are absorbed into the lymphatic vessels, and then, together with the lymph flow, enter the bloodstream. Large proteins cannot penetrate from the intercellular space into the blood capillary. Meanwhile, finding them in the blood is extremely important for the body. Since the permeability of the lymphatic capillaries for proteins is higher than that of the blood capillaries, the proteins enter the bloodstream with the lymph flow.

Figure 278. Scheme of the structure of the human lymphatic system. 1 - lymph vessels of the face; 2 - submandibular lymph nodes; 3 - lateral cervical lymph nodes; 4 - left jugular trunk; 5 - left subclavian trunk; 6 - subclavian vein; 7 - thoracic duct; 8 - left brachiocephalic vein; 9 - parasternal lymph nodes; 10 - axillary lymph nodes; 11 - cistern of the thoracic duct; 12 - intestinal trunk; 13 - superficial lymphatic vessels of the upper limb; 14 - common and external iliac lymph nodes; 15 - superficial inguinal lymph nodes; 16 - superficial lymphatic vessels of the lower limb; 17 - right lumbar trunk.

Figure 279. Human lymphatic system. 1 - lymphatic vessels of the face; 2 - submandibular lymph nodes; 3 - chin lymph nodes; 4 - the mouth of the thoracic duct; 5 - anterior mediastinal lymph nodes; 6 - axillary lymph nodes; 7 - superficial lymphatic vessels of the arm, following along the lateral saphenous vein; 8 - medial group of superficial lymphatic vessels of the hand; 9 - lumbar lymph nodes; 10 - common iliac lymph nodes; 11 - internal iliac lymph nodes; 12 - superficial inguinal lymph nodes; 13 - medial group of superficial lymphatic vessels of the leg; 14 - lateral group of superficial lymphatic vessels of the leg; 15 - superficial lymphatic vessels of the foot; 16 - deep lymphatic vessels of the rear of the foot; 17 - deep lymphatic vessels of the leg; 18 - deep lymphatic vessels of the thigh; 19 - deep lymphatic vessels of the palm; 20 - deep inguinal lymph nodes; 21 - external iliac lymph nodes; 22 - deep lymphatic vessels of the forearm; 23 - superficial ulnar lymph nodes; 24 - shoulder lymph nodes; 25 - intercostal nodes; 26 - chest stream; 27 - subclavian trunk; 28 - jugular trunk; 29 - deep cervical lymph nodes; 30 - jugular-bigastric lymph node; 31 - posterior lymph node; 32 - parotid lymph nodes.

Figure 280. Location of the central and peripheral organs of the immune system in the human body. Scheme. Front view. 1 - bone marrow; 2 - tonsils of the lymphoid pharyngeal ring; 3 - thymus; 4 - lymph nodes (axillary); 5 - spleen; 6 - lymphoid (Peyer's) plaque; 7 - appendix; 8 - lymphoid nodules.

The lymphatic system begins with lymphatic capillaries, which are located between cells. The walls of lymphatic capillaries, like blood capillaries, are thin, so water and other substances can freely penetrate through them. The permeability of lymphatic capillaries for certain substances and microorganisms (large proteins, foreign particles, bacteria, and others) is higher than that of blood capillaries. Therefore, these substances and microorganisms enter the lymph, and not the blood.

Figure 281. Mechanism of lymph formation. The arrows indicate the direction of fluid movement.

Lymph capillaries(Fig. 282) are the initial link of the lymphatic system. They are found in all human organs and tissues, except for the brain and spinal cord, their shells, eyeball, inner ear, epithelium of the skin and mucous membranes, tissue of the spleen, bone marrow and placenta.

The diameter of the lymphatic capillaries is 0.01-0.02 mm. The wall of the capillary consists of a single layer of endothelial cells, which are attached to adjacent tissues with special outgrowths - filaments. Lymphatic capillaries, connecting with each other, form lymphocapillary networks in organs and tissues.

Figure 282. Section of the lymphatic capillary

Lymphatic vessels(Fig. 283) are formed by the merger of the lymphatic capillaries. Their walls consist of three layers: 1) the inner layer - from endothelial cells; 2) middle layer - from smooth muscle cells (muscle layer); 3) the outer layer of the lymphatic vessels consists of a connective tissue membrane.

Figure 283. Scheme of the structure of the lymphatic vessels. 1 - bringing lymphatic vessels; 2 - efferent lymphatic vessels; 3 - wall of the lymphatic vessel; 4 - valve; 5 - lymph node.

Lymphatic vessels have valves, the presence of which gives the lymphatic vessels a clear appearance. The purpose of the valves is to pass lymph in only one direction - from the periphery to the center. Depending on the diameter of the lymphatic vessel, the distance of the valves from each other is from 2 mm to 15 mm,

Lymphatic vessels from the internal organs, muscles, as a rule, leave with blood vessels - these are the so-called deep lymphatic vessels. Superficial lymphatic vessels are located next to the saphenous veins. In mobile places (near the joints), the lymphatic vessels bifurcate and reconnect after the joint.

Lymphatic vessels, connecting with each other, form a network of lymphatic vessels. In the walls of large lymphatic vessels there are small blood vessels that feed these walls with blood, and there are also nerve endings. Distinctive feature

lymphatic vessels is the presence of valves in them. The valves allow lymph flow in one direction.

Through the lymphatic vessels, lymph from the organs and tissues of the body is sent to the lymph nodes. The organs in which lymphocytes are formed are called lymphoid organs, and the fabric, their component, - lymphoid tissue. These include lymph nodes, thymus and spleen. Lymphatic vessels and nodes of individual areas are located throughout the body: in the lower extremities, abdominal cavity and pelvis, chest cavity, upper extremities, head and neck, as well as in internal organs. Lymph nodes are involved in the processes of hematopoiesis, defensive reactions body and regulate lymph flow.

The lymph nodes(Fig. 284, 285) act as a filter and play an important role in the immune defense of the body.

Figure 284. Lymph nodes of various shapes. 1 - bean-shaped; 2 - round; 3 - ovoid; 4 - segmental; 5 - ribbon-like.

Figure 285. Lymph node (nodus lymphaticus). Lengthwise cut. 1 - capsule; 2 - trabecula; 3 - bringing the lymphatic vessel; 4 - subcapsular lymphatic sinus; 5 - cortical substance; 6 - paracortical (thymus-dependent) zone; 7 - lymphoid nodule; 8 - the center of reproduction of the lymphoid nodule; 9 - cortical lymphatic sinus; 10 - pulpy strands; 11 - cerebral sinuses; 12 - portal sinus; 13 - efferent lymphatic vessel; 14 - portal thickening; 15 - blood vessels.

Each node has an external connective tissue capsule and lymphoid tissue located in the form of nodes. This creates gaps, similar to partitions, through which the lymph is forced to pass. This filter mechanism is an effective trap for bacteria and other pathogenic organisms. Lymph nodes are located near large blood vessels, more often venous, usually in groups from several nodes to ten or more. There are about 150 groups of lymph nodes in the human body.

Groups of lymph nodes lie superficially - under the skin layer (inguinal, axillary, cervical nodes, etc.) and in the internal cavities of the body - in the abdominal, chest, pelvic cavities, near the muscles.

The lymph node has a pinkish-gray color, rounded shape. The size of the lymph node is from 0.5 mm to 22 mm in length. The mass of all lymph nodes in an adult is 500-1000 g. Outside, the lymph node is covered with a capsule. Inside it contains lymphoid tissue and a system of channels communicating with each other - lymphoid sinuses, through which lymph flows through the lymph node.

2-4 lymphatic vessels approach the lymphatic vessel, and 1-2 vessels leave it. On its way from each organ, lymph passes at least one lymph node.

After passing through the lymph nodes, the lymph is collected in large lymphatic vessels - lymphatic trunks and lymphatic ducts.

The thoracic duct, ductus thoracicus, (Fig. 286) collects lymph from both lower extremities, organs and walls of the pelvic and abdominal cavities, the left lung, the left half of the heart, the walls of the left half of the chest, from the left upper limb and the left half of the neck and head.

Figure 286. Thoracic (lymphatic) duct (ductus thoracicus). Common iliac and lumbar lymph nodes. Front view. I - internal jugular vein (left); 2 - arc of the thoracic duct; 3 - the place where the thoracic duct flows into the venous angle (the confluence of the internal jugular and subclavian veins; 4 - subclavian trunk (lymphatic), left; 5 - left brachiocephalic vein; 6 - superior vena cava; 7 - thoracic (lymphatic) duct; 8 - accessory (upper) semi-azygous vein; 9 - semi-azygous vein; 10 - cistern of the thoracic duct; 11 - intestinal trunks (lymphatic); 12 - lumbar lymph nodes; 13 - aorta; 14 - common iliac lymph nodes; 15 - left common iliac artery; 16 - right common iliac artery; 17 - inferior vena cava; 18 - unpaired vein; 19 - axillary vein; 20 - axillary artery; 21 - axillary lymph nodes; 22 - axillary vein (right).

The thoracic duct is formed in the abdominal cavity at the level of the II lumbar vertebra from the fusion of three lymphatic vessels: the left lumbar trunk and the right lumbar trunk, truncus lumbalis sinister et truncus lumbalis dexter, and one unpaired intestinal trunk, truncus intestinalis. The left and right lumbar trunks collect lymph from the lower

limbs, walls and organs of the pelvic cavity, abdominal wall, lumbar and sacral departments spinal canal and meninges of the spinal cord. The intestinal trunk collects lymph from all organs of the abdominal cavity. When combined, both lumbar and intestinal trunks sometimes form an enlarged section of the thoracic duct, called the cistern of the thoracic duct, cistema ductus ihoracici, which can often be absent, and then these three trunks flow directly into the thoracic duct.

The thoracic duct, along with the aorta, passes through the hiatus aorticus diaphragmatis into the chest cavity. Heading upward, the thoracic duct deviates to the left, lies behind the esophagus and is already at the level of III thoracic vertebra is located to the left of it and follows, thus, to the level of the VII cervical vertebra. Then the thoracic duct turns forward, goes around the left dome of the pleura, passes between the left common carotid artery and the left subclavian artery and flows into the left venous angle - the confluence v. jugularis interna sinistra and v. subclavia sinistra..

Ductus thoracicus in the chest cavity takes into its composition small intercostal lymphatic vessels, as well as a large bronchomediastinal trunk, truncus bronchomediastinalis, from organs located in the left half of the chest (left lung, left half of the heart, esophagus and trachea) and from the thyroid gland. In the supraclavicular region, at the place where it flows into the left venous angle, the ductus thoracicus receives two more large lymphatic vessels: the left subclavian trunk, truncus subclavius ​​sinister, which collects lymph from the left upper limb; left jugular trunk, truncus jugularis sinister, - from the left half of the head and neck.

The thoracic duct is 35-45 cm long. The diameter of its lumen is not the same everywhere: in addition to the initial expansion of the cistema ductus thoracici, it has a somewhat smaller expansion in the terminal section, near the confluence with the venous angle. Along the duct lies a large number of lymph nodes. The movement of lymph along the duct is carried out, on the one hand, as a result of the suction action of negative pressure in the cavity of the chest and in large venous vessels, on the other hand, due to the pressor action of the legs of the diaphragm and the presence of valves. The latter are located throughout the thoracic duct. Especially a lot of valves in its upper section. The valves are located at the confluence of the duct into the left venous angle and prevent the reverse flow of lymph and the ingress of blood from the veins into the thoracic stream.

The right lymphatic duct, ductus lymphaticus dexter, is a short, 1-1.5 cm long and up to 2 mm in diameter, lymphatic vessel that lies in the right supraclavicular fossa and flows into the right venous angle - the confluence v. jugularis intema dextra and v. subclavia dextra. The right lymphatic duct collects lymph from the right upper limb, the right half of the head and neck, and the right half of the chest.

It is formed by the following lymphatic trunks.

1. The right subclavian trunk, truncus subclavius ​​dexter, which carries lymph from the upper limb.

2. The right jugular trunk, truncus jugularis dexter, is from the right half of the head and neck.

3. The right bronchomediastinal trunk, truncus bronchomediastinalis dexter, collects lymph from the right half of the heart, the right lung, the right half of the esophagus and the lower part of the trachea, as well as from the walls of the right half of the chest cavity.

The right lymphatic duct has valves in the area of ​​the mouth.

The abdominal part of the thoracic duct, pars abdominalis ductus thoracici, collects lymph through three lymphatic trunks: intestinal, truncus intestinalis, and two, right and left, lumbar, trunci lutnbales, dexter et sinister. The lumbar lymphatic trunks are mainly the efferent vessels of the lumbar lymph nodes, nodi lymphatic lumbales, which, 20-30 in number, lie in lumbar on the sides and in front of the aorta and inferior vena cava. They, in turn, receive lymphatic vessels from the external iliac lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici iliaci externi, collecting lymph from the lower limb and

abdominal wall, as well as from the internal iliac and sacral lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici iliaci interni et sacrales, carrying lymph from the pelvic organs.

Lymphatic vessels and nodes of the organs and walls of the pelvis are located near the blood vessels. In the pelvic region, the following lymph nodes are distinguished.

1. External iliac lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici iliaci externi, - along the external iliac artery.

2. Sacral lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici sacrales, - along the median sacral artery.

3. Internal iliac lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici iliaci interni, - along the internal iliac artery.

4. Common iliac lymph nodes - along the common iliac artery. Most of the lymphatic vessels of the pelvic organs are sent to the sacral and internal iliac nodes.

The lumbar lymphatic plexus, in addition to the lymphatic vessels of the pelvis and lower limb, also receives the lymphatic vessels of the kidneys and adrenal glands, the lumbar and sacral parts of the spinal column, the lateral sections of the abdominal wall and back.

The intestinal trunk, truncus intestinalis, is formed from the connection of the efferent lymphatic vessels of the nodes of the mesentery root and the efferent lymphatic vessels of the celiac lymphatic plexus. There are the following main lymph nodes associated with the lymphatic vessels of the intestinal trunk system.

1. superior mesenteric lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici mesenterici superiores,

which number 180-200 are located between the sheets of the mesentery of the small intestine; among these nodes, several subgroups are distinguished. Especially many nodes accumulate in the region of the root of the mesentery.

2. Lymph nodes of the large intestine, nodi lymphatici colici, number 20-30, lie retroperitoneally along the outflow lymphatic vessels of the colon; they are subdivided into a number of subgroups.

3. Celiac lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici celiaci. number 10-15, located at the root of truncus celiacus. These nodes are central to the efferent lymphatic nodes of the stomach, spleen, pancreas, upper duodenum and parts of the liver.

4. Lymph nodes of the stomach.

a) The left gastric lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici gaslrici sinistri, lie in the region of the lesser curvature of the stomach and along the left gastric artery.

b) The right gastric lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici gastrici dextri, are located along the greater curvature of the stomach in the form of small groups.

c) Pyloric lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici pylorici, are located in the area of ​​the pylorus.

5. Pancreatosplenic lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici pancreaticolienales, are located in the region of the hilum of the spleen, along the splenic artery, on the anterior and posterior surfaces of the pancreatic head and along its lower edge.

6. Lymph nodes of the liver:

a) Hepatic lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici hepatici, lie in the region of the gate of the liver.

b) The lymph node of the gallbladder is unstable, located in the neck of the gallbladder

The lymphatic vessels of the small and large intestines, vasa lymphatica intestinalia, form lymphatic capillary networks of the mucous, muscular and serous membranes in the thickness of the intestinal wall. at the posterior cecal artery. All these nodes are combined into one common group of iliocolic nodes, nodi lymphatici ileocolici, where there is also a non-permanent lymph node of the appendix.

The lymphatic vessels of the stomach form lymphatic capillary networks in the mucosa, submucosa, muscle and serous membranes. The lymphatic capillaries of the gastric mucosa begin as sinuses - blind protrusions located between the glands. They are interconnected and form an intermucosal network of lymphatic capillaries of the gastric mucosa.

The lymphatic vessels of the spleen are divided into superficial and deep nodes, nodi lymphatici pancreaticolienales.

The lymphatic vessels of the pancreas leave it throughout. The efferent lymphatic vessels from the head of the pancreas enter mainly into the anterior and posterior groups of the pancreatic-splenic lymph nodes located on the anterior and posterior surfaces of the pancreatic head.

Lymphatic vessels of the liver are divided into superficial and deep. The superficial lymphatic vessels of the liver are represented by a network of lymphatic capillaries located on the surface of the liver between the bundles of fibers that form its capsule. The deep lymphatic vessels of the liver begin from a network of lymphatic capillaries surrounding the lobules and located in the interlobular connective tissue. The vessels leaving the gates of the liver connect with the superficial vessels suitable here and enter the hepatic lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici hepatici.

Thus, the celiac lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici celiaci, collect lymph from the stomach, liver (part), spleen, upper duodenum and pancreas. The celiac lymph nodes, together with the vessels connecting them, form the celiac lymphatic plexus. The efferent vessels of this plexus connect with the efferent vessels of the mesenteric nodes, nodi lymphatici mesenterici, and form the intestinal trunk, truncus intestinalis

Lymphatic vessels and nodes of the chest cavity are divided into two groups: lymphatic vessels and nodes of the anterior mediastinum and lymphatic vessels and nodes of the posterior mediastinum.

The following lymph nodes lie in the anterior mediastinum.

1. The diaphragmatic lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici phrenici, are located at the point of attachment of the diaphragm to the 7th rib and xiphoid process and anterior to the inferior vena cava.

2. Parasternal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici parasternales, are located along a. thoracica intema.

3. Anterior mediastinal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici mediastinales anteriores.

lie on the anterior surface of the aortic arch and brachiocephalic veins. AT posterior mediastinum the following nodes are located.

1. Intercostal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici intercoslales, are located on the heads of the ribs.

2. Posterior mediastinal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici mediastinales posleriores,

follow the course of the thoracic aorta and thoracic duct (prevertebral group).

3. Diaphragmatic lymph nodes, nodi lymphatic! phrenici, are located on the diaphragm near the aortic opening and the legs of the diaphragm.

4. Tracheal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici tracheales. lie at the lateral surface of the trachea, as well as in front of it.

5. The upper and lower tracheobronchial lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici tracheobronchiales superiores et inferiores, are located along the length from the gate of the lungs to the division of the trachea (upper nodes) and under the division of the trachea between the main bronchi (lower nodes).

6. Broncho-pulmonary lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici bronchopulmonales, lie in the region of the roots of the lungs, ranging from the bronchi to the mediastinal surface of the lungs.

7. Pulmonary lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici pulmonales, are located in the region of the gates of the lungs and in the branching angles of the lobar and segmental bronchi and vessels.

In the chest area, there are anterior and posterior intercostal lymphatic vessels that collect lymph from the muscles and bones of the chest, as well as from

superficial and deep lymphatic plexuses of the costal pleura. The anterior intercostal lymphatic vessels enter the nodi lymphatici parasternales, which are located in the chest cavity along with the internal thoracic vessels, taking the efferent vessels of the anterior diaphragmatic, thoracic and mediastinal nodes. The efferent lymphatic vessels flow into the ductus thoracicus on the left side, and into the ductus lymphaticus dexter on the right side. The posterior intercostal lymphatic vessels go back along the intercostal space, receive the abducting lymphatic vessels of the back and flow into the intercostal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici intercostales. The efferent vessels of these nodes, through several branches, flow into the initial section of the thoracic duct, within its cistern. Part of the vessels enters the nodi lymphatici mediastinales posteriores, the efferent vessels of which also flow into the ductus thoracicus

Lymphatic vessels of the lungs are divided into superficial and deep. The superficial lymphatic vessels of the lungs are represented by a lymphatic capillary network (narrow- and wide-loop) and efferent vessels. The capillary network is embedded in the thickness of the pulmonary pleura. From the efferent vessels, part enters the thickness of the lungs and connects with deep vessels, part goes to the lymph nodes in the region of the gates of the lungs. Deep lymphatic vessels form networks of lymphatic capillaries in the connective tissue septa of the lungs and in the submucosa of the bronchi. Periadventitial lymphatic plexuses are formed in the circumference of the blood vessels, and peribronchial plexuses are formed in the circumference of the bronchi. The efferent vessels of these plexuses leave the gates of the lungs and enter the pulmonary lymph nodes.

Lymphatic vessels of the esophagus are formed from a network of lymphatic capillaries in the mucous and muscular membranes and from the submucosal lymphatic plexus. The efferent lymphatic vessels from the upper third of the esophagus are directed to the lymph nodes of the trachea, internal jugular and posterior mediastinal; from the middle third of the esophagus - to the posterior mediastinal, from the lower third of the esophagus - to the left gastric nodes.

Lymphatic vessels of the heart are divided into superficial and deep. Deep lymphatic vessels of the heart form capillary lymphatic networks in the thickness of the myocardium. The lymphatic vessels of the endocardium join the said lymphatic vessels of the myocardium. The superficial lymphatic vessels of the heart lie under the epicardium, where they form superficial and deep networks in the ventricular region, and only one network of lymphatic capillaries in the atrial region.

The lymphatic vessels of the thymus gland form two efferent lymph trunks,

which go to nodi mediastinales anteriores.

The lymphatic vessels of the mammary gland are formed from two networks, superficial and deep, and have connections with nearby and distant lymph nodes.

Spleen (Fig. 287, 288), lien (splen), an organ of the circulatory and lymphatic system, located in the region of the left hypochondrium, between the diaphragm and the stomach. The spleen is shaped like a coffee bean with one convex and one concave surface. The length of the spleen is 12 cm, width 7-8 cm, thickness 3-4 cm, weight 150-200 g. However, the size and weight of the spleen are individual and physiologically very variable. The color of the spleen is brownish-red, the consistency is soft, on the cut it consists of a white and red substance - the pulp of the spleen.

With its long axis, it is located almost parallel to the lower ribs; top, back down and forward.

Figure 287. Spleen (lien). A - top view (diaphragmatic surface); B - front view (visceral surface). A: 1 - upper edge; 2 - diaphragmatic surface; 3 - rear end; 4 - bottom edge; 5 - front end. B: 1 - rear end; 2 - gastric surface; 3 - top edge; 4 - peritoneum (cut off); 5 - front end; 6 - colonic surface; 7 - surface (tail) of the pancreas; 8 - splenic vein; 9 - splenic artery; 10 - bottom edge; 11 - gate of the spleen; 12 - renal surface.

Figure 288. Spleen (lien). The upper part of the figure is the spleen in cross section. Bottom part drawing - the contours of the spleen. 1 - fibrous capsule; 2 - trabecula; 3 - ellipsoids (macrophage-lymphoid clutches); 4 - lymphoid nodules; 5 - brush arterioles; 6 - central artery; 7 - periarterial lymphoid clutches; 8 - red pulp; 9 - gate of the spleen; 10 - splenic vein; 11 - splenic artery; 1 - trabecular vein; 13 - trabecular artery; 14 - sinus of the spleen; 15 - pulp arteries.

In the region of the lower limb (Fig. 289, 290), the following groups of lymph nodes are distinguished.

Figure 289. Lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes of the lower limb; right. Front view. 1 - inguinal lymph nodes; 2 - medial group of lymphatic vessels; 3 - lateral group of lymphatic vessels.

1. Superficial inguinal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici inguinales superficiales,

number 12-16, lie in the upper third of the thigh, immediately below the inguinal fold; they lie under the skin on the wide fascia of the thigh. Part of these nodes (7-12) is located in the area of ​​hiatus saphenus; the remaining 3-5 nodes lie mainly along the inguinal fold.

2. Deep inguinal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici inguinales profundi, number 3-5 lie under the fascia lata of the thigh in the fossa iliopectina on the anterior surface of the femoral vein. One of these nodes, the largest, lies directly under the inguinal ligament medially from the femoral vein, m.. e. occupies the most medial section of the lacuna vasorum.

3. Popliteal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici poplitei, number 4-6, are located in the depth of the popliteal fossa in the circumference of the popliteal artery and vein.

4. Anterior tibial lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici tibiales anteriores, lie

in upper third of the leg on the anterior surface of the interosseous membrane of the leg. In addition to those indicated, small lymph nodes lie singly and in groups in various parts of the lower limb along the course of the lymphatic vessels. Lymphatic vessels of the lower limb are divided into superficial and deep

Figure 290. Iliac and inguinal lymph nodes. Front view. 1 - superficial inguinal lymph nodes; 2 - wide fascia of the thigh; 3 - superficial lymphatic vessels; 4 - big saphenous vein legs; 5 - femoral vein; 6 - deep inguinal lymph nodes; 7 - outer iliac vein; 8 - inguinal ligament; 9 - external iliac lymph nodes; 10 - common iliac lymph nodes; 11 - inferior vena cava; 12 - abdominal part aorta; 13 - lumbar lymph nodes; 14 - subaortic lymph nodes.

Superficial lymphatic vessels of the lower limb, vasa lymphatica superficialia membri inferioris, start from the capillary lymphatic networks of the skin, fascia and periosteum of those bones that are covered only by skin. Small lymphatic vessels emerging from these networks are collected in large superficial lymphatic vessels of the lower limb, which, located between the skin and the fascia, go next to the saphenous veins. The beginning of the lymphatic vessels of the lower extremities are:

1. Dorsal lymphatic network of the foot and plantar lymphatic network of the foot.

2. Lymphatic vessels of the medial surface of the foot, which pass to the medial surface of the lower leg and then to the anteromedial surface of the thigh. Rising, these lymphatic vessels reach the hiatus saphenus, where they flow into the superficial inguinal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici inguinales superficiales.

3. The lymphatic vessels of the lateral surface of the foot are sent to the back surface of the lower leg along with v. saphena parva. Having reached the popliteal fossa with it, a smaller part of these lymphatic vessels(1-2) flows into the popliteal nodes; the greater part goes up and inwards, passes to the medial surface of the thigh; here they connect with the superficial lymphatic vessels, which carry lymph to the superficial inguinal lymph nodes that lie subcutaneously in the hiatus saphenus region.

4. Lymphatic vessels from the lower half of the abdominal wall and from the perineum flow into a group of superficial inguinal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici inguinales superficiales.

In this case, the following lymphatic vessels flow into the nodes:

a) from the lower parts of the abdominal wall - superficial abdominal lymphatic vessels; b) from the external genital organs: in men - superficial lymphatic vessels of the penis, lymphatic vessels of the scrotum, as well as the anus and perineum; in women - the area of ​​the labia majora and labia minora, the clitoris and perineum, the lymphatic vessels of the external genitalia, as well as the lymphatic vessels of the lower vagina

and fundus of the uterus.

To Inguinal lymph nodes are also suitable superficial lymphatic vessels from the outer surface of the thigh, gluteal region and lower back.

Deep lymphatic vessels of the lower limb, vasa lymphatica profunda membri inferioris, originate from the capillaries of the network of muscles, fascia, joints, periosteum, bones and bone marrow. The lymphatic vessels of the dorsal foot are collected in the anterior tibial lymphatic vessels, which follow along with the dorsal artery of the foot, and then with the anterior tibial artery as part of the neurovascular bundle of the anterior surface of the leg. In the upper third of the lower leg, the anterior tibial lymphatic vessels are interrupted in the anterior tibial lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici tibiales anteriores, the efferent vessels of which flow into the popliteal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici poplitei. The lymphatic vessels of the plantar surface of the foot are collected in the posterior tibial lymphatic vessels, which, like the peroneal lymphatic vessels, accompany the arteries of the same name and, having reached the popliteal fossa, enter the popliteal lymph nodes. The efferent and afferent vessels of the popliteal nodes, connecting with each other, form the popliteal lymphatic plexus. The efferent lymphatic vessels of the popliteal nodes penetrate through the canalis adductorius to the thigh, where they connect with the deep lymphatic vessels of the thigh and form the lymphatic plexus surrounding the femoral artery. Part of the lymphatic vessels of the thigh penetrates into the small pelvis, following the course of the sciatic nerve. In the upper third of the thigh, one part of these lymphatic vessels flows into the deep inguinal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatic inguinales profundi, the other bypasses these nodes and reaches a large lymph node in the lacuna vasorum. The deep lymphatic vessels of the medial thigh and gluteal region are collected in the lymphatic vessels, which, following along with the vasa obturatoria and vasa ischiadica, enter the pelvic cavity and flow into the iliac lymph nodes. The efferent lymphatic vessels of the deep inguinal nodes penetrate, together with the external iliac artery and vein, into the pelvic cavity, where they enter the external iliac lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici iliaci extern. The external iliac lymph nodes, 4-10 in number, lie on the sides and in front of the external iliac vessels and, together with the vessels connecting them, form the external iliac lymphatic plexus. This plexus is followed by lymphatic vessels from the walls of the pelvis and lower abdominal wall. The efferent vessels of the external iliac lymph nodes are sent to the lumbar lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici lumbales.

The lymphatic vessels of the head and neck are collected in the right and left jugular lymphatic trunks, trunci jugulares dexter et sinister: truncus jugularis dexter flows into ductus lymphaticus dexter, truneus jugularis sinister - into ductus thoracicus.

In the head and neck region (Fig. 291), the following main groups of lymph nodes are distinguished.

Figure 291. Lymphatic vessels and nodes of the head. View from the left. 1 - lymphatic vessels; 2 - superficial parotid lymph nodes; 3 - submandibular lymph nodes; 4 - chin lymph nodes.

1. The occipital lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici occipilales, lie in the subcutaneous tissue at the level of the superior nuchal line.

2. Behind the ear lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici retroauriculares, behind the auricle.

3. Submandibular lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici submandibulares in trigonum submandibulare (some of them lie in the thickness of the submandibular salivary gland).

4. Submental lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici submentales, above the body of the hyoid bone, on the anterior surface of mm. mylohyoidei.

5. Mandibular lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici mandibulares.

6. The lymph nodes parotid gland, nodi lymphatici parotidei, - in the circumference and thickness of the parotid gland; distinguish superficial and deep, nodi lymphatici parotidei superficiales et profundi.

7. Buccal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici buccales.

8. Lingual lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici linguales, on the sides of the root of the tongue.

9. Superficial cervical lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici cervicales superficiales, no

course of the external jugular vein and behind m.. sternocleidomastoideus.

10. Deep cervical lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici cervicales profundi, are divided into bigastric-jugular, nodi lymphatici jugulodigastrici, lying along the main vessels from the base of the skull to the level of division of the common carotid artery, and jugular-scapular-hyoid, nodi lymphatici juguloomohyoidei, located downward and posterior to the clavicle.

11. Retropharyngeal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici retropharyngei, located on the lateral surface and somewhat behind the pharynx.

The superficial lymphatic vessels of the head originate from the lymphatic networks of the skin and are divided into two groups: anterior and posterior. The direction of the large lymphatic vessels corresponds to the course of the blood vessels. The posterior group of superficial lymphatic vessels of the head collects lymph from the occipital region, from the posterior half of the parietal and temporal regions, from the auricle, external auditory canal and eardrum. The lymphatic vessels of the occipital region enter the occipital lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici occipitales (2-3 in number). The lymphatic vessels of the parietal and temporal regions and the auricle are sent to the behind-the-ear lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici retroauriculares (3-4 in number). Lymphatic vessels from the tympanic membrane, external auditory canal and part of the auricle go to the superficial and deep lymph nodes of the parotid gland, nodi lymphatici parotidei superficiales et profundi. The efferent lymphatic vessels of these nodes (nodi occipitales, retroauriculares, parotidei) - flow mainly into the superficial cervical lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici cervicales

superficiales; part of the vessels goes to the deep cervical lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici cervicales profundi. The anterior group of superficial lymphatic vessels of the head begins in the lymphatic networks of the skin of the forehead, the outer part of the upper and lower eyelids, the anterior parts of the parietal and temporal regions, and the anterior surface of the auricle. The lymphatic vessels of these areas are sent to nodi lymphatici parotidei superficiales, located in front of the auricle and at the upper edge of the parotid gland. The efferent vessels of these nodes enter into the thickness of the parotid gland into the deep lymph nodes of the parotid gland, nodi lymphatici parotidei profundi, whose efferent vessels are at the level of the angle mandible flow into the deep cervical lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici cervicales profundi. Lymphatic vessels from the skin networks of the inner halves of the upper and lower eyelids, glabella, nose, cheeks and upper and lower lips, as well as deep vessels from the muscles, bones, mucous membrane of the vestibule of the mouth and nose, the conjunctiva are sent according to the course of the vasa facialia to the submandibular triangle, where enter the submandibular lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici suhmandibulares. number from 6 to 10. Some of these lymphatic vessels are interrupted in the buccal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici huccales, located on the outer surface of m. buccinator. Lymphatic vessels from the lower lip and chin are sent to the submental lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici submentales. which are located above the body of the hyoid bone; they also receive lymph from the lymphatic vessels of the tip of the tongue. Deep lymphatic vessels from the hard and soft palate, nasopharynx and nasal cavity, pterygopalatine and infratemporal fossae go to deep facial lymph nodes and to nodi lymphatici parotidei. Lymphatic vessels of the tongue are divided into superficial, which start from the network of lymphatic vessels of the mucous membrane, and deep, accompanying blood vessels. Both groups of vessels enter the lingual lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici linguales. The efferent vessels of the tongue are directed to nodi cervicales profundi, submandibulares et submentales. Lymphatic vessels from the upper and lower eyelids, conjunctiva and eye sockets are sent to the corresponding regional nodes. The eyeball does not have lymphatic vessels, but contains lymphatic spaces. These include spatia zonularia (the so-called lymphatic space between the divergent fibers of the ligament that suspends the lens), the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye, and the gaps between the membranes. The outflow of fluid from the anterior and posterior chambers and spatia zonularia is carried out through spatia anguli iridocornealis (the so-called microscopic lymphatic gaps between the bundles of the pectinate ligament of the iridocorneal angle of the eyeball) into the venous sinus of the sclera, sinus venosus sclerae, and from there into the venous system.

Superficial lymphatic vessels of the neck are sent to v. jugularis externa, in the circumference of which they are interconnected and enter into nodi lymphatici cervicales superficiales, up to 4-5 in number. The deep lymphatic vessels of the neck collect lymph from the internal organs of the neck - the pharynx, larynx, trachea and cervical esophagus, thyroid gland and neck muscles - and are sent to the neurovascular bundle of the neck, where they enter the bigastric-jugular lymph node and deep cervical lymph nodes , nodi lymphatici jugulodigastrici et nodi lymphatici cervicales profundi. The lymphatic vessels of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland flow into the bigastric-jugular lymph nodes; the lymphatic vessels of the isthmus of the thyroid gland are preliminarily interrupted in the preglottic lymph nodes, which, in number 2-3, lie above the upper edge of the isthmus, and in the tracheal lymph nodes, which are below the isthmus on the lateral surface of the trachea. These nodes also receive a number of lymphatic vessels from the larynx. Along the lymphatic vessels of the pharynx there are retropharyngeal lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici retropharyngei, located on the posterolateral surface of the pharynx. The efferent vessels of the listed nodes flow into the deep cervical lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici cervicales profundi. The latter, together with the lymphatic vessels suitable here, form the jugular lymphatic plexus; their vessels are sent to the jugular-scapular-hyoid lymph node and deep cervical lymph nodes,

nodi lymphatici juguloomohyoidei et cervicales profundi, which collect all the lymph from the head and neck; they lie, 10-15 in number, from the level of division of the carotid artery to the clavicle, located on the anterior surface of the scalene muscles. Lymph flows from them into the right lymphatic duct, ductus lymphaticus dexter, on the right and into the thoracic duct, ductus thoracicus,

left. The lymphatic vessels of the lower pharynx, cervical esophagus and trachea, respectively, also flow into all of the listed nodes.

In the region of the upper limb (Fig. 292), the following lymph nodes are distinguished.

Figure 292. Lymphatic vessels and nodes of the upper limb, right. Front view. 1 - axillary lymph nodes; 2 - elbow lymph nodes; 3 - medial lymphatic vessels; 4 - intermediate (middle) lymphatic vessels; 5 - lateral lymphatic vessels.

1. Axillary lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici axillares, 15-20 in number, lie in the axillary fossa. They are regional nodes of the upper limb and girdle region of the upper limb. Part of the axillary nodes is located superficially, in a layer of fatty tissue, the rest - in the depths of the axillary fossa, in the circumference of the blood vessels. Depending on their position, they are distinguished: apical, central, lateral and

thoracic lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici apicales, centrales, laterales. pectorales. According to the topography and connections with the lymphatic vessels of certain areas, the lymph nodes of the upper limb are also divided into three groups: anterior, lower and external. The anterior group of nodes (nodi lymphatici pectorales) is located on the outer surface of m. serratus anterior along a. thoracia lateralis and receives lymph from the superficial vessels of the upper part of the anterior abdominal wall, anterolateral parts of the chest and mammary gland. The lower group of nodes (nodi lymphatici centrales et subscapulares) is located in back section axillary fossa. This group of nodes receives the lymphatic vessels of the shoulder and the back of the chest. The outer group of nodes (nodi lymphatici laterales) lies on the outer wall of the axillary fossa and receives the lymphatic vessels of the upper limb.

2. The brachial lymph nodes are located along the brachial artery.

3. Elbow lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici cubitales, are located mainly in the deep parts of the cubital fossa in the circumference of the blood vessels. Some of these nodes(1-3) lies superficially over the medial epicondyle of the humerus.

4. Lymph nodes of the forearm, number 1-2, are located in the upper third of the forearm along the ulnar artery. Lymphatic vessels of the upper limb are divided into superficial

and deep lymphatic vessels.

The superficial lymphatic vessels of the upper limb lie in the superficial layers of the subcutaneous tissue. They start from the lymphatic networks of the dorsal and palmar surfaces of the hand, forming two groups of large lymphatic vessels: internal along v. basilica and outer along v. cephalica. Large trunks of superficial vessels, 8-10 in number, receive small lymphatic vessels of adjacent areas along the way. The internal group of superficial lymphatic vessels of the upper limb, following the course of v. basilica, reaches the cubital fossa. Here, one or two vessels enter the ulnar lymph nodes, nodi lymphatici cubitales, the efferent vessels of which go along with the vein under the brachial fascia to the deep lymphatic vessels of the shoulder. The remaining lymphatic vessels of this group follow in the subcutaneous tissue along the inner surface of the shoulder and reach the nodi lymphatici axillares. The outer group of superficial lymphatic vessels of the upper limb is sent along with v. cephalica and, having reached the upper third of the shoulder, penetrates with it into the depth, into the axillary fossa, where it also reaches nodi lymphatici axillares.

The deep lymphatic vessels of the upper limb collect lymph from the muscles, bones, and joints. The lymphatic vessels of the fingers run along their lateral surface along the course of the arteries. On the hand, these vessels, anastomosing with each other, form the palmar lymphatic plexus, which corresponds to the arterial arch. The efferent lymphatic vessels of this plexus go to the forearm, located along the a. radialis and a. ulnaris. Lymphatic vessel running along v. ulnaris, is interrupted in the upper third of the forearm in the lymph nodes of the forearm, where the lymphatic vessel also joins, collecting lymph from the rear of the forearm and accompanying the posterior interosseous artery. The lymphatic vessel accompanying the radial and ulnar arteries, having reached the cubital fossa, enters the nodi lymphatici cubitales. The efferent vessels of these nodes form a single lymphatic vessel, which is directed to the shoulder along a. brachialis. On the border of the lower and middle thirds of the shoulder, this vessel enters the lymph node of the shoulder, from which two efferent vessels emerge. Rising upward along the outer and inner surfaces of the brachial artery, they reach the axillary fossa, where they enter the outer group of axillary lymph nodes. The lymphatic vessels of the upper part of the anterior abdominal wall (superficial) outward and upward from the navel are interrupted in the epigastric lymph node, nodulus lymphalicus epigastricus, and, following the lateral surface of the chest, reach the axillary fossa, where they enter the anterior group nodi lymphatici axillares.

1. Lymph tints from the tissues along the lymphatic vessels to ....
2 Energy metabolism processes are associated with biological oxidation.....
3.Where are sound-sensitive cells located?
4. What does the central nervous system form from? (From the brain, from the spinal, head and outgoing nerves, from the spinal and brain, from ganglions and nerves.

1 Receptors

2 Sebaceous glands

3 Sweat glands

4 hair bags

5 Hair roots

6 Blood vessels

7 Nerve endings

8 Muscle

9 Epithelial tissue

10 Lymphatic vessels

11 Connective tissue

12 subcutaneous tissue

Option 1

I. forms the top layer of the skin - the epidermis.

II. The basis of the second layer of the skin (dermis)

III. Participate in metabolism.

I.Y. Turns into nails and hair

Y. The function of storing fat and energy.

YI. They perform the selection function.

Option 2

I. The third layer of the skin.

II. Sensitive part of the skin.

III. gives skin elasticity.

I.Y. They are in the second layer.

Y. Produce fat, soften the skin.

YI. maintain a constant body temperature (thermoregulation)

K. Landsteiner and Wiener established the Rh factor in human blood, which is contained in ....

A) leukocytes

B) erythrocytes

C) platelets

E) monocytes

2. The duration of the cardiac cycle is 0.8 seconds. Where is the correct answer about the timing of the phases of the cardiac cycle?

A) atrial contraction - 0.1 sec, their relaxation - 0.7 sec

C) contraction of the ventricles - 0.2 sec, their relaxation - 0.6 sec

C) atrial contraction-0.4 sec, their relaxation -0.4 sec

E) contraction of the ventricles - 0.3 sec, their relaxation - about 5 sec

What effect does the substance serotonin contained in platelets have on the body? A) dilates blood vessels, accelerates blood flow B) slows down the activity of the heart and dilates blood vessels C) dilates blood vessels, accelerates the formation of fibrinogen D) constricts blood vessels, accelerates blood clotting E) there is no correct answer among the given answers 4. Which of the following factors is involved in blood clotting? 1) fibrinogen 2) decrease in calcium ions 3) decrease in the number of platelets 4) lack of vitamin K 5) fibrin forms a network on the damaged area of ​​the vessel wall 6) thrombin A) 1.2.3 B) 1.3.5 C) 1.4 ,6 E)1,5,6 F)1,2,4 5. What proteins are contained in erythrocytes? 1) hemoglobin 2) agglutinogen 3) agglutinin 4) fibrinogen 5) Rh factor 6) fibrin A) 1.3.6 B) 1.3.4 C) 1.2.5 E) 1.5.6 E) 1,4,6 6. What artery originates from the middle part of the aortic arch? A) right general carotid B) left general carotid C) left subclavian E) right subclavian E) nameless 1) water 2) protein 3) salts 4) glucose 5) fats a) 7-8 b) 90-92 c) o.1 g) 0.8 e) 0.9 A) 1-a, 2-b, 3-c, 4-d, 5-d C) 1-b, 2-a, 3-d, 4-c, 5-d C) 1-e, 2-d, 3-c, 4-b, 5-a E) 1-e, 2-b, 3-c, 4-a, 5-d E) 1-c, 2-e, 3-d, 4-b, 5-a 8. Which of the following substances should not be contained in human blood at the same time? A) agglutinogen A, agglutinin B B) agglutinogen B, agglutinin L C) agglutinin L and c D) agglutinogen A, agglutinin L E) agglutinogen A and B 9. From the following organs, name the organs that perform the 1st stage of self-defense of the body human from microbes and viruses: 1) blood leukocytes 2) skin 3) antibodies 4) mucous membranes of the respiratory tract 5) antitoxins 6) saliva 7) phagocytes 8) gastric juice 9) platelets 10) intestinal juice A) 1,2,3, 4.5 C) 2.4.6.8.10 C) 1.3.5.7.9 E) 2.3.4.5.7.9 E) 3.5.7.9.10 10 What is the weight of a human spleen? A) 50-100g. B) 100-150g. C) 140-200g. D) 200-250g. E) 250-300g. 11. What organs do lymphatic vessels originate from? A) from the heart B) from the artery C) from all organs and tissues D) from the lymph nodes E) from the veins lymph E) tissue fluid, blood, lymph 13. What is the location of the semilunar valves in the human heart? A) between the atrium and the ventricle B) between the right ventricle and the atrium C) between the atria E) at the outlet of the aorta and the pulmonary artery E) between the ventricles 14. Which of the following signs are characteristic of arteries? 1) thick wall 2) thin wall 3) high pressure 4) low pressure 5) absence of valves 6) presence of valves 7) branching into capillaries 8) not branching into capillaries A) 1.3.8 B) 2.4.8 C )1,4,6,7 E)2,3,5,8 F)1,3,5,7 15. What is the composition of plasma? 1) erythrocytes 2) leukocytes 3) platelets 4) serum 5) fibrinogen A) 1.3 B) 2.5 C) 3.4 E) 1.2.3 E) 4.5 thoracic duct? A) into the right atrium B) into the aorta C) into the left subclavian vein E) into portal vein liver E) into the portal vein of the kidneys 17. What blood function is impaired in hemophilia? A) transport B) respiratory C) immune E) protective E) nutrition A) along the lymph vessels B) on the outer walls of the vessels C) in the thoracic ducts D) on the inner walls of the lymph vessels E) at the place where the lymph vessels flow into the bloodstream 19. Antibodies are proteins that ... A) neutralizing foreign bodies and their toxins B) determining the blood type C) determining the Rh factor of blood E) accelerating blood clotting E) slowing blood clotting 20. What blood cells do not have a nucleus and are formed in the red bone marrow and spleen? A) leukocytes B) platelets C) erythrocytes D) lymphocytes E) monocytes

Lymph is the living water of our body

The lymphatic system consists of lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, capillaries and interstitial fluid. It goes "bottom-up" and never in reverse order! That is, from the fingertips - and to the thoracic lymphatic duct. Lymph in the form of intercellular fluid, like water in streams, washes every cell of our body, then it enters the lymph nodes through the lymphatic vessels-rivers. Leaving the lymph nodes and merging with each other, the lymphatic vessels form the main lymphatic ducts, from which the lymph again enters the bloodstream. In the blood and liver, the neutralization processes started in the lymph nodes are completed.

Nodes occupy a key place in the lymphatic system. Lymph nodes are the purification facilities of the entire body. In our body every day naturally about 1 billion cells die, while viruses and bacteria are destroyed by the immune system, and unnecessary toxic substances penetrate with food, air and water. All this is partially neutralized in the lymph nodes. At the exit from the nodes, the lymph appears already cleansed.

Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes and antibodies that protect the body from infections.
Lymph nodes contribute to the uniform movement of lymph through the vessels, facilitating entry into the tissues of internal organs nutrients required for cell viability.
In other words, the lymphatic system is responsible for the transport and cleanliness of the internal environment of the body.

It is not difficult to imagine what happens when this purification system fails. All waste products of cells rush through additional paths, for example, the skin. As a result, acne may appear, complexion worsens and general state skin. Redness and age spots that suddenly appear on the skin can also be the consequences of malfunctions in the lymphatic system.

In violation of the functions of the lymphatic system up to 83% harmful substances accumulates in the intercellular space and as a result, pollution of the lymphatic channel is formed - lymphotoxicosis. This increases the load on all organs of excretion and detoxification: the liver, intestines, kidneys. It turns out that the purity of the internal environment of our body is directly interconnected with the network of lymphatic vessels.

In order for all these toxic factors not to damage the cells, a constant outflow of interstitial fluid, or drainage, is necessary. How to help the lymphatic system cope with the ever-increasing flow of substances poisoning our body?

Lymph cleansing points

The lymphatic system is the only system, except for the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract, that has an output through the mucous membranes to the outside!
This is a completely unique phenomenon, because we cannot throw anything out through the skin! The release of poisons can only be through the mucous membranes, because they do not have a solid dead protective barrier of the epidermis.

So, first foothold lymphatic evacuation - the first place to land the corpses of bacteria outside - the vagina (in women) and the urethra (in men)!
As soon as something has got into the body, this “something” is immediately found here: an uncomfortable state begins below, pain, cramps, etc.

As a rule, it turns out well: there are no discharges for three days - and then they start again (thrush, for example). And what is thrush, what is discharge with thrush? - these are the "corpses" of the fungus, which were destroyed by our body with the help of leukocytes!
Therefore, it is not with the "corpses" that we must fight, but with live fungi! And there is only one way to fight - raising immunity. Because nothing will work out by other methods: you can’t kill all living things in the body ...

Second bridgehead landings - the intestines, a huge amount of poisons is released through it! There are thousands of lymph nodes open inside the intestines - so they secrete all this!

Third bridgehead are sweat glands, especially in the armpits. A person just has to sweat - all the poisons (hormones, toxic poisons) the body removes through the skin.

And what do we do so that they never appear? That's right, the advertised 24-hour deodorant! And all the problems with sweat are solved: at least scare you, at least ride on a roller coaster - and there will be no more sweating! Where will the poisons go? In the nearest place - in the mammary gland!
And hence the mastopathy, pollution of the lymphatic pool: the lymph drove everything out - and you sprinkled (anointed), and now you are a fearless, never sweating (but potentially sick) James Bond!

Never use 24 hour deodorant! Only 6 hours, and then let the body sweat - and wash everything off! Unfortunately, chemicals splashed on the skin constrict the blood vessels according to a given program - for 12 - 24 - 48 hours. And now there are super-deodorants - 7-day. Then you will simply block the mechanism of the sweat glands - and in general the end ...

Everything is very simple: here is the knee joint - two bones with a smooth supporting surface, and around them - an articular bag (capsule). Some have swollen joints ... it would seem, why swell here?

But it turns out that there is a huge lymph node behind this joint, and if it is thrombosed (by bacteria, for example, beta-hemolytic streptococcus), which lives in the blood, then arthritis will turn out here (rheumatoid, infectious-allergic, polyarthritis - if many joints are affected).

The temperature may rise, but ask yourself: what is it for? Yes, to fight bacteria!
Or there is swelling. Why? The lymph node is not leaking fluid. What do we usually do: heat, smear with ointments, mud, hormones, rubbing - and do you think it will help? Never! - because, first of all, it is necessary to clean the lymph!

But first you need to determine who "lives" there. Until we know this, neither the joints, nor the skin, nor the kidneys can be cured! To get rid of different “inhabitants”, different medicines are needed: for example, a fungus lives there, and we are prescribed a course of antibiotics, but they absolutely do not work against the fungus and even feed it! And there is a powerful fungal arthritis, which is very difficult to cure! And after it, Bechterew's disease begins (when a person twists all the joints at one moment), and everything you want ...

Fourth bridgehead- the nose, through which the main amount of airborne infection is excreted. They cut out the adenoids - they killed their defensive line!

Fifth bridgehead- almonds. Constantly swollen, interfered - cut off and buried another protective line!

Sixth bridgehead- the larynx is laryngitis.

Seventh bridgehead- trachea - development of tracheitis.

Eighth bridgehead- bronchi - the development of bronchitis.

Ninth bridgehead- lungs - the development of pneumonia.

That's it, there are no more protective barriers ... A person can block or cut off everything, but how he will then release poisons is completely incomprehensible!

Lymph is fine - thanks to charging!

In order to cleanse the lymph, it is necessary to purposefully influence not only the lymphatic system, but also the functioning of the liver and intestines.

Our intestines are surrounded by a very rich lymphatic network. Through it passes the transport of all fats, fat-soluble substances and the removal of toxins. In the liver, the process of neutralizing substances brought by lymph is actively taking place.

With improper functioning of the intestines and liver, intoxication of the body can increase. As a result, the lymph nodes may not be able to cope with the increasing flow and fail. At the same time, in those parts of the body that are “served” by these lymph nodes, lymph stagnation will form, accompanied by swelling.

In 1955, the German doctor G.G. Rekeweg formulated the theory of slagging of the human body. Its essence lies in the fact that the disease is a manifestation of the body's reaction to the effects of various toxins.

Why do those who pay attention to exercise usually have everything in order with the lymphatic system? A person does not have a separate heart for the lymphatic system, but how is a moving lymph flow created? Here is a lymphatic vessel, and around it are muscles. The muscle contracts - the lymph is pushed through, and the valves in the lymphatic vessels do not let it pass back. But if the muscle around the vessel does not work, where does the movement of the lymph come from? ..

Rules to know

Firstly, never let the lymphatic system become clogged with toxins, as over time it will become so slagged that it will be very difficult to restore it. If the situation gets out of your control, contact a knowledgeable specialist in a timely manner.

Secondly, always monitor the condition of the small and large intestines, for their complete and regular emptying. To do this, strictly observe the diet. It is also useful to massage the central area of ​​the palms of the hands, where many biologically active substances are located. active points associated with the abdominal organs. During emptying, it is useful to massage the entire intestine.

Thirdly, regularly, at least twice a year, perform lymphatic drainage massage sessions - on your own or, if possible, with experienced professionals. If this is not possible, regularly during a visit to the bathhouse or when taking a hot bath with a hard brush or washcloth 10-15 times with effort, pass through the body along the course of the lymphatic system: on the limbs, in the pelvic, abdominal and chest regions - from bottom to top and outside inside; on the head and neck - from top to bottom and back to front. With self-massage, you can use special massage creams, rubbing them into the skin with your hands in a circular motion.

Fourth check your weight periodically. When overweight appears, it is necessary to pay attention to the work of the liver and gallbladder, small and large intestines, it is imperative to activate physical movements to enhance the movement of stagnant lymph with toxins, balance food intake and expenditure of energy received, and prevent overeating. Remember that the appearance of excess weight is a sure sign of aging.

What Not to Do

The lymphatic system cannot be heated, forget about quartz for life!

You can’t put any compresses on the lymphatic system, avoid the lymph nodes during the massage: leukocytes live there, and if you press them, go against the flow, you will simply destroy them ...

If you damage the lymph node under the knee, it will swell all its life! There is such a disease as elephantiasis - lymph flows from the inside, all external procedures will not help in any way! Lymph can be cleansed from the inside, but only active movements, muscle contractions - gymnastics can make it move.

So that the lymph does not stagnate

If you feel tired while sitting at work, it means that the lymph has stagnated! Whoever moves his arms and legs even a little (hidden gymnastics for the body) - his muscles contract and lymph movement appears.

And in order to avoid hemorrhoids - “jump” 30-50 times on the gluteal muscles: this is a massage of the lymphatic collectors of the small pelvis. And there will be no such massage - there will be prostatitis, adenoma ...

Lymphatic drainage massage

The technology of such massage was developed in the middle of the last century. It was originally used to relieve swelling in postoperative period. With time lymphatic drainage massage began to be used in venous diseases. Massage, in which there is an active effect on the body along the lymph flow lines, is most often used today in cosmetology, since its effectiveness in terms of improving appearance can be seen with your own eyes quite quickly. However, the method has contraindications that must be heeded.

INDICATIONS AND BENEFITS

Lymphatic drainage massage for cosmetic purposes is used for:

• Treatment of cellulite (including its edematous form).
• Get rid of excess body fat.
• Reduce swelling on the face problem areas ah legs and other parts of the body.
• Elimination of bruises and bags under the eyes.
• Acceleration of skin cell regeneration.
• Elimination of sagging skin.
• Reducing the number of wrinkles.
• Improvement of body contours.

No anti-cellulite program is complete without a course of lymphatic drainage procedures. The most effective of them is lymphatic drainage massage.

In order to improve the body, lymphatic drainage massage is used for:

• Enhance immunity.
• Improvement of the psycho-emotional state.
• Treatment of stress, relieving internal tension.
• Treatment of lymph flow disorders.
• Elimination of excess interstitial fluid.
• Treatment of varicose veins.

Any of the massage techniques can be successfully used to improve and maintain the body, while losing weight, as a preventive measure that prevents the formation of cellulite. Lymphatic drainage massage is a natural method of slowing down the aging process in the body.

LYMPHODRAINAGE MASSAGE TECHNIQUES

There are several techniques for this type of massage. Their separation occurs according to the methods of execution. There is a manual and hardware lymphatic drainage massage.

Manual lymphatic drainage massage is performed with the method of light smooth pressure and sliding along the lymph flow line on the body using special massage mixtures. Manual massage technique is divided into subspecies:

• superficial (stimulates the metabolic processes of the body and in the layers of the skin and unblocking the capillaries);

• deep (impact on the vessels that provide the outflow of lymphatic fluid from the internal organs directly);

• internal (impact on the lymph nodes).

Hardware lymphatic drainage massage is divided into:

• pressotherapy - exposure to certain parts of the body with compressed air. Most often, the technique is used to reduce the volume of the arms, hips and legs. This hardware method requires the use special equipment. During pressotherapy, the client is dressed in a suit resembling a giant cuff for measuring pressure;

• microcurrent drainage - a painless procedure in which the body is affected by a pulsed current supplied through several electrodes;

• vacuum hardware massage- occurs according to the principle of vacuum anti-cellulite massage, the effect is almost identical. In the process, special vessels are installed on the body, under which the pressure is reduced. As a result, excess liquid begins to come to the surface.

Manual technique requires much more time than hardware massage.

All methods are performed according to the same principle and have approximately the same result: metabolism in the cells of the body is accelerated, toxins and toxins are removed along with excess fluid.

Contraindications

Any impact on the body with the help of tactile techniques or the use of devices has contraindications. In this case, these are:

• Thrombophlebitis, thrombosis.
• Severe diseases of the cardiovascular system.
• Skin diseases, purulent inflammation.
• Herpes in the active stage.
• Lymphadenitis and lymphadenopathy.
• Neuralgia.
• Burns and other damage to the skin.
• aggravated inflammatory processes(after the acute phase is removed, such a massage is even recommended for a speedy recovery).
• The presence of oncological neoplasms.
• Pregnancy.

You should not try to give yourself or loved ones lymphatic drainage massage if you have not received appropriate training or have not become familiar with the correct technique. This can lead to unpredictable results.

There are no very common contraindications. This is one of the factors in the ever-growing popularity of the procedure. It is chosen not only to improve appearance, but also for the treatment of a number of diseases.

However, before the procedure, you should definitely undergo examinations and find out if you have any contraindications.

LYMPHODRAINAGE BODY MASSAGE

In order to do lymphatic drainage massage of the legs and body at home, make sure that you do not have any contraindications and remember that:

1. All movements must be smooth and careful. Often, during the sessions, clients even fall asleep. After the procedure, there should be no bruises and bruises on the body

2. Lymphatic drainage massage of the body begins with warming up the problem area (legs, thighs, arms): start slow stroking in the direction of lymph flow. Do a few sets in one place, then move around a little

3. After the tissues of the legs or arms are warmed up, move on to a more active stage: move in one direction with the edge of the palm towards the lymph nodes.

4. After the procedure, take a contrast or cool shower.

Lymphatic lines:

• From neck to chest.
• From wrist to shoulders.
• From the abdomen and legs to the hip composition.

The lymph nodes:

• Floor of the lower jaw.
• Side of the neck.
• Armpits.
• On the line of elbow flexion.
• In the center of the chest and others.

You can also purchase a special device with which you can do lymphatic drainage massage at home. Contraindications to its use are the same as when using the manual method.

LYMPHODRAINAGE FACIAL MASSAGE

Most often, lymphatic drainage facial massage is used to relieve puffiness. There are special rules for this:

1.Before doing lymphatic drainage massage, the face must be thoroughly cleansedlymphatic drainage facial massage

2. In general, lymphatic drainage occurs with the help of movements directed from the center to the contour. First you need to massage in the direction of the nearest nodes - submandibular and chin

3. In the temporal region, you need to move from the temples and nodes behind the ears

4. On the scalp, massage is done, starting from the crown of the head and moving towards the nodes behind the ears, on the neck in the back of the head

5. An excellent finish can be a corrective mask or any procedure with a lifting effect.

The duration of a face and head massage is on average 15 minutes. After the session, there is a feeling of lightness and pleasant warmth.

Lymphatic drainage massage of the legs, body and face is performed using a massage mixture from a composition of base and essential oils. The components are selected in accordance with the required psychophysiological effect.

Lymphatic drainage massage of the face, legs and other possible problem areas is one of the simplest and most available methods cleansing and rejuvenation of the body. Today it is available and necessary for everyone who has no contraindications and who wants to stay healthy, young and beautiful longer.

Nutrition for the lymph

Human life, without the presence of lymphatic vessels in it, would be in constant danger from a variety of pathogenic microorganisms. It is the lymphatic system that plays the role of a biological filter that protects the body from viruses, bacteria, cancer cells and other negative factors of modern ecology.

The lymphatic system consists of nodes connected by blood vessels. Through them, a colorless liquid circulates around the clock, not containing erythrocytes, but rich in lymphocytes - lymph. As a result of circulation, lymph from the distant parts of the body enters the central ones, passing near large veins, on which the lymph nodes are located. In the lymph nodes, the lymph is cleared of impurities and, enriched with antibodies, flows further.

• Lymph owes its origin to the blood, from the plasma of which it is formed.
• The human body contains from one to two liters of lymph.
• Lymph, translated from Latin, means "clear water".

Useful products for lymph

• Carrot. Due to the content of beta-carotene, carrots can significantly slow down the aging process. In addition, it prevents the destruction of lymphocytes and helps in the production of antibodies.

• Walnuts. Due to the content of a large amount of vitamins and trace elements in them, nuts are an important product for the entire lymphatic system. They are involved not only in the nutrition of the lymph nodes and blood vessels, but also increase the protective properties of the lymph, thanks to the phytoncide contained in them - juglone.

• Chicken eggs. Thanks to lutein, it has a stimulating effect on the regenerative abilities of the lymph.

• Chicken meat. It is a source of easily digestible protein, which, as a building material, is involved in the creation of new blood vessels.

• sea ​​kale. Famous for a large amount of iodine. Due to this, it is able to increase the immune properties of the lymph.

• oily fish. The polyunsaturated acids contained in it help maintain the electrolytic balance of the lymph, and also ensure the health of the vessels themselves.

For the normal functioning of the body, it is necessary that all its organs and systems are protected from the negative effects of the environment. This is the role of the lymphatics. But they also demand attention. In order for the entire lymphatic system to be in working condition, the following recommendations must be followed:

• Avoid hypothermia. Lymph nodes are very sensitive to colds.

• Do sport. This will support the tone of the lymphatic vessels.

• Avoid smoking and drinking alcohol. Thanks to this, the lymphatic vessels will remain operational for many years, and the lymph will freely reach the most remote part of the body.

• Be outdoors more often. Walks will strengthen defensive forces the entire lymphatic system.

Folk remedies for cleansing the lymph

In order to provide the body with healthy lymph, it must first be cleaned. For this, the following methodology is used:

Daily, for two weeks, take 4 tablets of activated charcoal, 2 in the morning and 2 in the evening. In the interval between taking coal, take a composition consisting of crushed berries of shadberry and blackcurrant, dried apricots, dates, figs and prunes. Take everything in equal amounts. In 1 kg of the mixture, add 3 tablespoons of honey, preferably buckwheat. Mix, take a dessert spoon 3 times a day. Wash down with a decoction of chaga or Ivan-tea.

Harmful products for lymph

• Alcoholic drinks. They cause vasospasm and disrupt lymph circulation.
• Salt. Excessive salt intake increases the pressure inside the blood vessels, as a result of which the vessels “risk” to break.

• Sausages, canned food and "crackers". They contain substances that are harmful to the lymph, which disrupts the filtering mechanism of the lymph nodes.

The composition of the lymph

Lymph is composed of: cellular elements, proteins, lipids, low molecular weight organic compounds (amino acids, glucose, glycerol), electrolytes. The cellular composition of the lymph is represented mainly by lymphocytes. In the lymph of the thoracic duct, their number reaches 8 * 109 / l.
red blood cells in the lymph, they are normally found in a limited amount, their number increases significantly with tissue injuries, platelets are normally not detected. Macrophages and monocytes are rare. Granulocytes can penetrate into the lymph from the foci of infection.
Ionic composition lymph does not differ from the ionic composition of blood plasma and interstitial fluid. At the same time, in terms of the content and composition of proteins and lipids, lymph differs significantly from blood plasma. In human lymph, the protein content is on average 2-3% of the volume.
Protein concentration in the lymph depends on the rate of its formation: an increase in the flow of fluid into the body causes an increase in the volume of the resulting lymph and reduces the concentration of proteins in it. In the lymph a small amount contains all the coagulation factors, antibodies and various enzymes found in plasma.

cholesterol and phospholipids found in the lymph in the form of lipoproteins. The content of free fats, which are in the lymph in the form of chylomicrons, depends on the amount of fats that have entered the lymph from the intestine. Immediately after a meal, the thoracic duct lymph contains a large amount of lipoproteins and lipids absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract. Between meals, the lipid content in the thoracic duct is minimal.

We clean the lymph nodes and ducts

This method of lymph cleansing was proposed by the American naturopathic doctor Norbert Walker. To use it, you need to stock up on citrus fruits in advance. You will need to be able to make two liters of mixed juices for three days in a row.

These two liters will consist of:

• 800-900 gr grapefruit juice,
• 200 gr lemon juice,
• 800-900 gr orange juice.

This is a one day serving. This amount of juice is prepared in the morning and then diluted with two liters of melt water. In total, every day you will need to drink four liters of fluid.

How is the procedure? In the evening you take an enema (yes, you can’t get away from this method of bowel cleansing), and the next morning you take 50 grams (this is a tablespoon with a top) of Glauber’s salt in one glass of water. It is very important, according to Walker, just such a composition of laxative salt: it is the adsorbent that removes specific dirt from the body. When the laxative works, every half hour you start taking a glass of prepared liquid, slightly warming 200 grams of juice. And besides him - nothing!

That is, you do not take anything orally for three days, except for citrus juice and Glauber's salt, which makes all mechanisms of lymph formation actively work with the help of this specific fluid. In the evening, an enema, every day in the morning - Glauber's salt, and in between - twenty two-hundred-gram glasses of slightly warmed juice.

The result is a remarkable cleansing of the entire body. I can say that you do not experience any feeling of hunger these days, because the aforementioned citrus juice - and even on melt water - is a colossal energy drink. After that, calmly, without hurrying, you can switch to light cereals, to a normal diet.

Such cleaning should be done once a year, preferably in January-February, when all citrus fruits are brought to us at the same time. This is the technique of Walker, the man who developed the whole doctrine of the treatment of juices. He already knew about the existence of tangerines, but it was grapefruits, lemons and oranges that he introduced into practice. Therefore, it is better not to allow any deviations from this recipe.

Attention: the liquid must be prepared anew every day so that it is fresh in the morning.

Important about the lymphatic system

Functions of the lymphatic system

How does blood move in our body? Through the arteries, blood makes the heart move - muscular vascular organ, and the movement of blood through the veins is provided by the muscular-valve structure of the veins. This is how the large and small circles of blood circulation function.

But the lymphatic channel does not have such a "drive". The movement of lymph is slow and is provided by the muscles. The main muscle for driving the lymph is diaphragm. This is a kind of "heart" of the lymphatic system. With physical exertion and deep breathing with the "belly", the amplitude of the movement of the diaphragm increases, and the circulation of the lymph increases, i.e. its stagnation is removed.

With obesity and the absence of certain physical exertion, lymph stagnation occurs in any lymph nodes. At the same time, waste products of cells (fragments of decayed lipids, proteins, toxins, etc.) accumulate in the intercellular spaces, which even gradually grow into connective tissue fibers (doctors call this process fibrosis). And these cells simply begin to rot - there are sluggish oncological diseases, hypertension, allergies, etc.

Lymph is cleansed through saliva. The salivary glands belong to the lymphatic system, have access to the oral cavity and, together with saliva, carry waste and pollution from their system to the digestive tract for further removal from the body.

Under stress, it usually dries up in the mouth, saliva is not released, stagnation occurs in the lymphatic system. And the man is given water to drink. But this is undesirable. It is better to stimulate the secretion of saliva with sucking movements of the lips in order to release the saliva in the mouth and make swallowing movements.
And to enhance the secretion of saliva, you can use chewing gum or put salt on the tip of a knife under the tongue half an hour after eating.

You should give up the bad habit - immediately after eating, drink drinks for the third and eat fruits for dessert.

Do not store yesterday's food in the refrigerator, as it (especially warmed up) is rich in toxins from reproduction putrefactive bacteria, and after use fills the entire intercellular space and lymphatic system in the human body with ballast.

The lymphatic system is a system that even doctors don't know well. They never seriously studied it. The lymphatic system works in one direction. All lymph flows from bottom to top. Edema on the legs, arms, eyes, lower back, joints - it's all lymph. A bacterium, virus or fungus enters the body. What does lymph do? Near the hit is a large lymph node, for example, the genital tract. Lymph nodes block the passage of infection further. If gonorrhea passed through the body and got into the brain, then people would die immediately.

Lymphocytes come out of the lymph nodes, and they patrol the entire mucous membrane, urethra, and vagina. If they find something there, they eat it and take it back to the lymph nodes. In the lymph nodes, this is all lysed, activated and thrown out. The first way lymph is ejected in the body is through the vagina and urethra.. Everything that is connected with leucorrhea in women, discharge in men, suggests that someone lives in the body, and the lymph of this someone eats, at the cost of his own life, and removes it. The second escape route is in the intestines, which contains tens of thousands of small lymph nodes.

Through sweat and armpits up to 50% of poisons come out. Now people use deodorants, from which a person does not sweat for 24 hours. They do not sweat under the armpits, but the palms sweat. They also do cosmetic surgery when they cut the lymphatic ducts. The forehead should not sweat. If the armpits are clogged, then the entire surface of the body sweats. This indicates the second degree of damage and pollution of the lymph. The face should be relatively dry, and under the armpits should flow, because there is a powerful sweat collector. There are not many sweat glands on the face.

Adenoids are the lymph nodes. Everyone who breathes through the mouth has adenoids - enlarged lymph nodes in the nose.
Salivary glands- the most powerful detoxifying organ. Up to half a liter of toxic sputum is excreted through saliva. If a child has saliva on the pillow, then this indicates serious problems of the lymphatic system.

If a person or a child sweats in a dream, then this may indicate that he has pinworms, Giardia, or something else. Children should not sweat even at an ambient temperature of 30C. They have a poorly developed sweat system. If small child wet head at night, it means he is sick. In a child, everything should go through the kidneys, intestines.

Larynx. Chronic laryngitis or pharyngitis is the lymph nodes of the pharynx and larynx. With this diagnosis, a person chronic infection chronic fungus or chronic streptococcus. They are candidates for chronic lymphatic involvement.

Tonsils are the most powerful springboard for various bacteria. Streptococcus always goes through the tonsils. This is angina, rheumatism. Staphylococcus will not go through the tonsils. It goes through the nose.

Sinusitis is a lesion of the lymphatic system, not the respiratory system. There is nothing in the nose, there are only minks for air and membranes 1 micron thick. Everything else in there is rubbish. Where does pus come from? From the abdomen, from the lymph, from the blood, from the intercellular spaces, and exit through the nose. Staphylococcus has this way. The fungus through the nose will never go. The fungus is excreted through nearby organs. If it is foot, then it will stand out there. The skin will crack. The lymphatic system will never drag the fungus into the nose, because it will not drag it. She will kill all the lymphatic collectors. The lymphatic system will open the skin and eject the lymphatic fluid right between the fingers. The lymph nodes of the bones will never miss the fungus. If the whole body is affected by the fungus, then fungal bronchitis begins. The deep lymph nodes of the bronchi are connected, and a person may begin bronchial asthma (we are talking not about psychosomatics, when a person draws attention to himself with an illness).

Inflammation of the joints is a lesion of the lymphatic system. Everyone believes that swelling in the legs is cardiac, renal. Edema can only be lymphatic. The heart is exhausted and cannot pump blood. But it is not blood that lingers in the legs, but lymph. Elephantiasis is a lesion of the lymph when the inguinal lymph nodes are clogged and the fluid does not rise. Swelling of the hands is a blockage axillary lymph nodes. Puffiness of the eyes is a blockage of the submandibular and facial lymph nodes. This indirectly indicates blockage of the kidneys. If the kidneys secrete less fluid than they need, then there is more of it in the body.

IMPORTANT! For the functioning of the lymphatic system it’s not enough just to “drink a pill” - for people leading a sedentary lifestyle, at least you need to do breathing exercises, “breathe in your stomach”, do at least minimal exercises, try to walk more. This allows you to partially eliminate the stagnation of the lymph.

The fluid that enters the tissue is lymph. Lymphatic system - component vascular system, providing the formation of lymph and lymphatic circulation.

Lymphatic system - a network of capillaries, vessels and nodes through which lymph moves in the body. Lymphatic capillaries are closed at one end, i.e. blindly end in tissues. Lymphatic vessels of medium and large diameter, like veins, have valves. Lymph nodes are located along their course - "filters" that trap viruses, microorganisms and the largest particles in the lymph.

The lymphatic system begins in the tissues of organs in the form of an extensive network of closed lymphatic capillaries that do not have valves, and their walls are highly permeable and have the ability to absorb colloidal solutions and suspensions. Lymphatic capillaries pass into lymphatic vessels equipped with valves. Thanks to these valves, which prevent the reverse flow of lymph, it flows only towards the veins. Lymphatic vessels flow into the lymphatic thoracic duct, through which lymph flows from 3/4 of the body. The thoracic duct drains into the cranial vena cava or jugular vein. Lymph through the lymphatic vessels enters the right lymphatic trunk, which flows into the cranial vena cava.

Rice. Diagram of the lymphatic system

Functions of the lymphatic system

The lymphatic system performs several functions:

• The protective function is provided by the lymphoid tissue of the lymph nodes, which produces phagocytic cells, lymphocytes and antibodies. Before entering the lymph node, the lymphatic vessel divides into small branches that pass into the sinuses of the node. Small branches also depart from the node, which are combined again into one vessel;
• the filtration function is also associated with the lymph nodes, in which various foreign substances and bacteria are mechanically retained;
• the transport function of the lymphatic system is that through this system the main amount of fat that is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract enters the bloodstream;
• the lymphatic system also performs a homeostatic function, maintaining the constancy of the composition and volume of the interstitial fluid;
• The lymphatic system performs a drainage function and removes excess tissue (interstitial) fluid located in the organs.

The formation and circulation of lymph ensure the removal of excess extracellular fluid, which is created due to the fact that filtration exceeds the reabsorption of fluid into the blood capillaries. Such drainage function The lymphatic system becomes apparent if the outflow of lymph from some area of ​​the body is reduced or stopped (for example, when squeezing the limbs with clothing, blockage of the lymphatic vessels during their injury, crossing during a surgical operation). In these cases, local tissue edema develops distal to the compression site. This type of edema is called lymphatic.

Return to the bloodstream of albumin, filtered into the intercellular fluid from the blood, especially in organs with highly permeable (liver, gastrointestinal tract). More than 100 g of protein returns to the bloodstream per day with lymph. Without this return, the loss of protein in the blood would be irreplaceable.

Lymph is part of the system that provides humoral connections between organs and tissues. With its participation, the transport of signaling molecules, biologically active substances, and some enzymes (histaminase, lipase) is carried out.

In the lymphatic system, the processes of differentiation of lymphocytes transported by the lymph along with immune complexes that perform body's immune defense functions.

Protective function The lymphatic system also manifests itself in the fact that foreign particles, bacteria, remnants of destroyed cells, various toxins, and also tumor cells are filtered out, captured and in some cases neutralized in the lymph nodes. With the help of lymph, red blood cells that have left the blood vessels are removed from the tissues (in case of injuries, damage to blood vessels, bleeding). Often, the accumulation of toxins and infectious agents in the lymph node is accompanied by its inflammation.

Lymph is involved in the transport of chylomicrons, lipoproteins and fat-soluble substances absorbed in the intestine into the venous blood.

Lymph and lymph circulation

Lymph is a blood filtrate formed from tissue fluid. It has an alkaline reaction, it is absent, but contains fibrinogen and, therefore, it is able to coagulate. The chemical composition of lymph is similar to that of blood plasma, tissue fluid and other body fluids.

Lymph flowing from different organs and tissues has a different composition depending on the characteristics of their metabolism and activity. The lymph flowing from the liver contains more proteins, the lymph contains more. Moving along the lymphatic vessels, the lymph passes through the lymph nodes and is enriched with lymphocytes.

Lymph - a clear, colorless liquid contained in the lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes, in which there are no erythrocytes, there are platelets and many lymphocytes. Its functions are aimed at maintaining homeostasis (the return of protein from tissues to the blood, the redistribution of fluid in the body, the formation of milk, participation in digestion, metabolic processes), as well as participation in immunological reactions. The lymph contains protein (about 20 g/l). Lymph production is relatively low (most of all in the liver), about 2 liters are formed per day by reabsorption from the interstitial fluid into the blood of the blood capillaries after filtration.

Lymph formation due to the transition of water and dissolved substances from the blood capillaries to the tissues, and from the tissues to the lymphatic capillaries. At rest, the processes of filtration and absorption in the capillaries are balanced and the lymph is completely absorbed back into the blood. In the case of increased physical activity in the process of metabolism, a number of products are formed that increase the permeability of capillaries for protein, its filtration increases. Filtration in the arterial part of the capillary occurs when the hydrostatic pressure rises above the oncotic pressure by 20 mm Hg. Art. During muscular activity, the volume of lymph increases and its pressure causes the penetration of interstitial fluid into the lumen of the lymphatic vessels. Lymph formation is facilitated by an increase in the osmotic pressure of tissue fluid and lymph in the lymphatic vessels.

The movement of lymph through the lymphatic vessels occurs due to the suction force of the chest, contraction, contraction of the smooth muscles of the wall of the lymphatic vessels and due to the lymphatic valves.

Lymphatic vessels have sympathetic and parasympathetic innervation. Excitation of the sympathetic nerves leads to a contraction of the lymphatic vessels, and when the parasympathetic fibers are activated, the vessels contract and relax, which increases the lymph flow.

Adrenaline, histamine, serotonin increase the flow of lymph. A decrease in the oncotic pressure of plasma proteins and an increase in capillary pressure increase the volume of outflowing lymph.

Formation and amount of lymph

Lymph is a fluid that flows through the lymphatic vessels and is part of the internal environment of the body. The sources of its formation are filtered from the microvasculature into the tissues and the contents of the interstitial space. In the section on microcirculation, it was discussed that the volume of blood plasma filtered into tissues exceeds the volume of fluid reabsorbed from them into the blood. Thus, about 2-3 liters of blood filtrate and fluid of the intercellular medium that are not reabsorbed into the blood vessels per day enter the lymphatic capillaries, the system of lymphatic vessels through the interendothelial clefts, and return to the blood again (Fig. 1).

Lymphatic vessels are present in all organs and tissues of the body with the exception of the superficial layers of the skin and bone tissue. The largest number of them is found in the liver and small intestine, where about 50% of the total daily volume of the body's lymph is formed.

The main constituent of lymph is water. The mineral composition of the lymph is identical to the composition of the intercellular environment of the tissue in which the lymph was formed. Lymph contains organic substances, mainly proteins, glucose, amino acids, free fatty acids. The composition of the lymph flowing from different organs is not the same. In organs with a relatively high permeability of blood capillaries, such as the liver, lymph contains up to 60 g/l of protein. The lymph contains proteins involved in the formation of blood clots (prothrombin, fibrinogen), so it can clot. The lymph flowing from the intestines contains not only a lot of protein (30-40 g/l), but also a large amount of chylomicrons and lipoproteins formed from aponrotheins and fats absorbed from the intestines. These particles are in suspension in the lymph, transported by it into the blood and give the lymph a similarity to milk. In the composition of the lymph of other tissues, the protein content is 3-4 times less than in the blood plasma. The main protein component of tissue lymph is the low molecular weight fraction of albumin, which is filtered through the wall of capillaries into extravascular spaces. The entry of proteins and other large molecular particles into the lymph of the lymphatic capillaries is carried out due to their pinocytosis.

Rice. 1. Schematic structure of a lymphatic capillary. The arrows show the direction of lymphatic flow.

Lymph contains lymphocytes and other forms of white blood cells. Their number in different lymphatic vessels varies and is in the range of 2-25 * 10 9 / l, and in the thoracic duct is 8 * 10 9 / l. Other types of leukocytes (granulocytes, monocytes and macrophages) are contained in the lymph in a small amount, but their number increases with inflammatory and other pathological processes. Red blood cells and platelets can appear in the lymph when blood vessels are damaged and tissue injuries.

Absorption and movement of lymph

Lymph is absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries, which have a number of unique properties. Unlike blood capillaries, lymphatic capillaries are closed, blindly ending vessels (Fig. 1). Their wall consists of a single layer of endothelial cells, the membrane of which is fixed with the help of collagen filaments to extravascular tissue structures. Between endothelial cells there are intercellular slit-like spaces, the dimensions of which can vary widely: from a closed state to a size through which blood cells, fragments of destroyed cells and particles comparable in size to shaped elements blood.

The lymphatic capillaries themselves can also change their size and reach a diameter of up to 75 microns. These morphological features the structure of the wall of the lymphatic capillaries gives them the ability to change the permeability over a wide range. Thus, during contraction of skeletal muscles or smooth muscles of internal organs, due to the tension of collagen filaments, interendothelial gaps can open, through which the intercellular fluid, the mineral and organic substances contained in it, including proteins and tissue leukocytes, freely move into the lymphatic capillary. The latter can easily migrate into the lymphatic capillaries also due to their ability to amoeboid movement. In addition, lymphocytes, which are formed in the lymph nodes, enter the lymph. The flow of lymph into the lymphatic capillaries is carried out not only passively, but also under the influence of negative pressure forces that arise in the capillaries due to the pulsating contraction of the more proximal parts of the lymphatic vessels and the presence of valves in them.

The wall of the lymphatic vessels is built of endothelial cells, which, on the outside of the vessel, are covered in the form of a cuff by smooth muscle cells located radially around the vessel. Inside the lymphatic vessels there are valves, the structure and principle of functioning of which are similar to the valves of the venous vessels. When smooth myocytes are relaxed and the lymphatic vessel is dilated, the valve leaflets open. With the contraction of smooth myocytes, which causes narrowing of the vessel, the pressure of the lymph in this area of ​​the vessel increases, the valve flaps close, the lymph cannot move in the opposite (distal) direction and is pushed through the vessel proximally.

Lymph from the lymphatic capillaries moves into postcapillary and then into large intraorgan lymphatic vessels that flow into the lymph nodes. From the lymph nodes, through small extraorganic lymphatic vessels, lymph flows into larger extraorganic vessels that form the largest lymphatic trunks: the right and left thoracic ducts, through which lymph is delivered to the circulatory system. From the left thoracic duct, lymph enters the left subclavian vein near its junction with the jugular veins. It travels through this duct into the blood most of lymph. The right lymphatic duct delivers lymph to the right subclavian vein from the right side of the chest, neck, and right arm.

Lymph flow can be characterized by volumetric and linear velocities. The volumetric flow rate of lymph from the thoracic ducts to the veins is 1-2 ml / min, i.e. only 2-3 l / day. The linear speed of lymph movement is very low - less than 1 mm/min.

The driving force of the lymph flow is formed by a number of factors.

• The difference between the hydrostatic pressure of the lymph (2-5 mm Hg) in the lymphatic capillaries and its pressure (about 0 mm Hg) at the mouth of the common lymphatic duct.
• Contraction of smooth muscle cells in the walls of lymphatic vessels that move lymph towards the thoracic duct. This mechanism is sometimes called the lymphatic pump.
• Periodic increase in external pressure on the lymphatic vessels, created by contraction of the skeletal or smooth muscles of the internal organs. For example, the contraction of the respiratory muscles creates rhythmic pressure changes in the chest and abdominal cavities. The decrease in pressure in the chest cavity during inhalation creates a suction force that promotes the movement of lymph into the thoracic duct.

The amount of lymph formed per day in a state of physiological rest is about 2-5% of body weight. The rate of its formation, movement and composition depend on the functional state of the organ and a number of other factors. Thus, the volumetric flow of lymph from the muscles during muscular work increases by 10-15 times. After 5-6 hours after eating, the volume of lymph flowing from the intestine increases, its composition changes. This occurs mainly due to the entry of chylomicrons and lipoproteins into the lymph.

Clamping the veins of the legs or standing for a long time leads to difficulty in returning venous blood from the legs to the heart. At the same time, the hydrostatic pressure of blood in the capillaries of the extremities increases, filtration increases and an excess of tissue fluid is created. The lymphatic system under such conditions cannot provide sufficient drainage function, which is accompanied by the development of edema.