Complete blood count of dogs. How to take a blood test? Change in creatinine

Dog blood test.

Unfortunately, our pets sometimes get sick and we have to turn to specialists to help us cure our four-legged friend.

Complete blood count of a dog decoding

It is not uncommon for pet dogs to have a blood test. But after receiving the result of a dog’s blood test, the owners cannot always figure out what’s what and what is written on the sheet, our site wants to explain to you, dear readers, what a blood test for dogs includes.

Dog blood tests.

Hemoglobin is a blood pigment in erythrocytes that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide. An increase in hemoglobin levels can occur due to an increase in the number of red blood cells (polycythemia), may be the result of excessive exercise. Also, an increase in hemoglobin levels is characteristic of dehydration and thickening of the blood. Decreased hemoglobin levels are indicative of anemia.

red blood cells are non-nuclear blood elements containing hemoglobin. They make up the bulk shaped elements blood. Increased amount red blood cells (erythrocytosis) may be due to bronchopulmonary pathology, heart defects, polycystic or neoplasms of the kidneys or liver, as well as dehydration.
A decrease in the number of red blood cells can be caused by anemia, large blood loss, chronic inflammatory processes and overhydration. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) in the form of a column when settling blood depends on their quantity, "weight" and shape, as well as on the properties of plasma - the amount of proteins in it and viscosity. Increased value ESR is characteristic of various infectious diseases, inflammatory processes, and tumors. An increased ESR value is also observed during pregnancy.

platelets are derived from cells bone marrow blood plates. They are responsible for blood clotting. Increased content platelets in the blood can be caused by diseases such as polycythemia, myeloid leukemia, inflammatory processes. Also, the platelet count may increase after some surgical operations. A decrease in the number of platelets in the blood is characteristic of systemic autoimmune diseases(lupus erythematosus), aplastic and hemolytic anemia.

Leukocytes are white blood cells formed in the red bone marrow blood cells. They perform a very important immune function: protect the body from foreign substances and microbes. There are different types of leukocytes. Each species has a specific function. Diagnostic value has a change in the number of individual types of leukocytes, and not all leukocytes in total. An increase in the number of leukocytes (leukocytosis) can be caused by leukemia, infectious and inflammatory processes, allergic reactions, long-term use some medical preparations. A decrease in the number of white blood cells (leukopenia) may be due to infectious pathologies bone marrow, hyperfunction of the spleen, genetic abnormalities, anaphylactic shock.

Leukocyte formula- This is the percentage of different types of leukocytes in the blood.

Types of white blood cells in a dog's blood

1. Neutrophils- These are leukocytes responsible for fighting inflammatory and infectious processes in the body, as well as for removing their own dead and dead cells. Young neutrophils have a rod-shaped nucleus, the nucleus of mature neutrophils is segmented. In the diagnosis of inflammation, it is the increase in the number of stab neutrophils (stab shift) that matters. Normally, they make up 60-75% of total number leukocytes, stab - up to 6%. An increase in the content of neutrophils in the blood (neutrophilia) indicates the presence of an infectious or inflammatory process in the body, intoxication of the body, or psycho-emotional arousal. A decrease in the number of neutrophils (neutropenia) can be caused by some infectious diseases (most often viral or chronic), bone marrow pathology, and genetic disorders.

3. Basophils- leukocytes involved in hypersensitivity reactions immediate type. Normally, their number is no more than 1% of the total number of leukocytes. An increase in the number of basophils (basophilia) may indicate an allergic reaction to the introduction of a foreign protein (including food allergy), chronic inflammatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract, and blood diseases.

4. Lymphocytes are the main cells immune system fighting with viral infections. They destroy foreign cells and altered own cells of the body. Lymphocytes provide the so-called specific immunity: they recognize foreign proteins - antigens, and selectively destroy the cells containing them. Lymphocytes secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins) into the blood - these are substances that can block antigen molecules and remove them from the body. Lymphocytes make up 18-25% of the total number of leukocytes. Lymphocytosis (an increase in the level of lymphocytes) may be due to viral infections or lymphocytic leukemia. A decrease in the level of lymphocytes (lymphopenia) can be caused by the use of corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, as well as malignant neoplasms, or kidney failure, or chronic diseases liver, or immunodeficiency states.

In the article I will talk about the main indicators of a biochemical blood test in dogs. I will describe possible deviations, causes and why they occur, and what indicators are considered normal in dogs. I will tell you why alkaline phosphatase can increase, why LDH increased and pancreatic amylase lowered, treatment options.

Deciphering blood biochemistry

Blood for biochemistry is taken strictly from a vein. To do this, use a needle and sterile test tubes, which are closed with plastic caps.

It is unacceptable to shake or foam the resulting biomaterial.

In dogs, blood is usually taken from a vein in the front or hind limb, less often from the jugular vein (on the neck).

In biochemical analysis, the following indicators are examined:

• total protein and albumin. Show the state of the liver and the level of protein metabolism in the body.
• Urea. This substance is formed in the liver after the neutralization of ammonia, which is the result of the fermentation of bacteria in the digestive tract. It is allocated with urine.
• Bilirubin. A product that is formed after the destruction of hemoglobin in the blood. Deviation from the norm indicates diseases that are accompanied by the breakdown of red blood cells.
• Creatinine A substance that is excreted in the urine. This indicator reflects the work of the kidneys.
• ALT and AST. Enzymes that are directly involved in the metabolism of amino acids. According to this indicator, the state of the liver is assessed.
• Alkaline phosphatase. Deviation can be the norm (in puppies), and also indicate the development of diseases of the liver, intestines, endocrine system.
• Amylase. Involved in the breakdown of complex sugars. Amylase is produced by the pancreas and salivary glands.
• Glucose. This indicator evaluates the metabolism of carbohydrates in the body of the animal.
• Cholesterol. Participates in fat metabolism. The indicator judges the function of the liver, endocrine organs, kidneys.
• electrolytes. These include potassium, calcium, phosphorus, sodium, iron, chlorine, magnesium. They take part in the metabolism in the body.
• pH. This indicator is always constant, and the slightest deviation from the norm can lead to the death of a pet.

It is impossible to make a diagnosis based on only one indicator of biochemical analysis. It is necessary to conduct a full assessment and compare all the data.

A correctly deciphered biochemical analysis will give an idea of ​​the work of all internal organs dogs.

Biochemical blood test in a dog: norm and interpretation of the results table

The table shows the normal indicators of biochemistry, as well as a decoding of possible deviations.

Significance of Alkaline Phosphatase Elevation in Dogs

Raise alkaline phosphatase does not speak about a specific disease, it is necessary to evaluate several indicators at once to make a diagnosis.

High levels of the enzyme can be observed in the following cases:

• active bone growth in puppies;
• bearing offspring;
• healing of bone fractures;
• autoimmune diseases;
• taking steroids, NSAIDs, anticonvulsants;
• neoplasms in bone tissue, liver, mammary glands;
• diseases of the endocrine system (Cushing's syndrome, diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism);
• hepatitis;
• an inflammatory process that occurs in the intestine or pancreas;
• blockage of the bile ducts;
• abscess with pus formation.

Biochemical analysis is very important and effective method diagnostics.

Blood sampling must be carried out according to the rules, otherwise the indicators may be inaccurate, and as a result an incorrect diagnosis will be made.

HEMOGLOBIN

Reasons for an increase in hemoglobin concentration:
1. Myeloproliferative diseases (erythremia);
2. Primary and secondary erythrocytosis;
3. Dehydration;

Causes of a decrease in hemoglobin concentration:
1. Iron deficiency anemia (relatively moderate decrease - up to 85 g / l, less often - more pronounced - up to 60-80 g / l);
2. Anemia due to acute blood loss(significant reduction - up to 50-80 g / l);
3. Hypoplastic anemia (significant decrease - up to 50-80 g/l);
4. Hemolytic anemia after hemolytic crisis (significant decrease - up to 50-80 g/l);
5. B12 - deficiency anemia (significant decrease - up to 50-80 g / l);
6. Anemia associated with neoplasia and/or leukemia;
7. Hyperhydration (hydremic plethora).

Reasons for a false increase in hemoglobin concentration:
1. Hypertriglyceridemia;
2. High leukocytosis;
3. Progressive liver diseases;
4. Sickle cell anemia (appearance of hemoglobin S);
5. Multiple myeloma (with multiple myeloma (plasmocytoma) with the appearance of a large number of easily precipitating globulins).

HEMATOCRIT

Reasons for a decrease in hematocrit:
1. Anemia of various origins (may decrease to 25-15%);
2. An increase in the volume of circulating blood (pregnancy, especially the 2nd half, hyperproteinemia);
3. Hyperhydration.

Causes of an increase in hematocrit:
1. Primary erythrocytosis (erythremia) (increases to 55-65%);
2. Erythrocytosis caused by hypoxia of various origins (secondary, rises to 50-55%);
3. Erythrocytosis in neoplasms of the kidneys, accompanied by increased formation of erythropoietin (secondary, increases to 50-55%);
4. Erythrocytosis associated with polycystic and hydronephrosis of the kidneys (secondary, increases to 50-55%);
5. Reducing the volume of circulating plasma (burn disease, peritonitis, repeated vomiting, diarrhea, malabsorption, etc.);
6. Dehydration.
Hematocrit fluctuations are normal.
The ability of the spleen to contract and expand can cause significant changes in hematocrit, especially in dogs.

Causes of a 30% increase in hematocrit in cats and 40% in dogs due to contraction of the spleen:
1. Physical activity immediately before taking blood;
2. Excitement before taking blood.
Reasons for a drop in hematocrit below the standard range due to spleen enlargement:
1. Anesthesia, especially when using barbiturates.
Most full information gives a simultaneous assessment of hematocrit and total protein concentration in plasma.
Interpretation of the data for determining the hematocrit value and the concentration of total protein in plasma:

Normal hematocrit
1. Loss of protein through the gastrointestinal tract;
2. Priteinuria;
3. Serious disease liver;
4. Vasculitis.
b) The normal concentration of total protein in plasma is the normal state.
1. Increasing protein synthesis;
2. Anemia masked by dehydration.

High hematocrit
a) low concentration total protein in plasma - a combination of "reduction" of the spleen with loss of protein.
1. "Reduction" of the spleen;
2. Primary or secondary erythrocytosis;
3. Hypoproteinemia masked by dehydration.
c) High concentration of total protein in plasma - dehydration.

Low hematocrit
a) Low concentration of total protein in plasma:
1. Significant in this moment or recent blood loss
2. Over-hydration.
b) Normal concentration of total protein in plasma:
1. Increased destruction of red blood cells;
2. Decreased production of red blood cells;
3. Chronic blood loss.
c) High concentration of total protein in plasma:
1. Anemia inflammatory diseases;
2. Multiple myeloma;
3. Lymphoproliferative diseases.

AVERAGE RED CELL VOLUME

Macrocytosis (high MCV values) - causes:
1. Hypotonic nature of water and electrolyte balance disorders;
2. Regenerative anemia;
3. Non-regenerative anemia due to impaired immune system and/or myelofibrosis (in some dogs);
4. Myeloproliferative disorders;
5. Regenerative anemia in cats - carriers of the feline leukemia virus;
6. Idiopathic macrocytosis (without anemia or reticulocytosis) in poodles;
7. Hereditary stomatocytosis (dogs, with normal or slightly increased number reticulocytes);
8. Hyperthyroidism in cats (slightly elevated with normal or elevated hematocrit);
9. Newborn animals.

False macrocytosis - causes:
1. Artifact due to erythrocyte agglutination (in immune-mediated disorders);
2. Persistent hypernatremia (when blood is diluted with a liquid before counting the number of red blood cells in an electric meter);
3. Long-term storage of blood samples.
Microcytosis (low MCV values) - causes:
1. Hypertonic nature of the violation of water and electrolyte balance;
2. Iron deficiency anemia due to chronic bleeding in adult animals (about a month after their onset due to the depletion of iron in the body);
3. Iron deficiency alimentary anemia in suckling animals;
4. Primary erythrocytosis (dogs);
5. Long-term therapy with recombinant erythropoietin (dogs);
6. Violations of heme synthesis - prolonged deficiency of copper, pyridoxine, lead poisoning, medicinal substances(chloramphenicol);
7. Anemia in inflammatory diseases (MCV is slightly reduced or in the lower normal range);
8. Portosystemic anastomosis (dogs with normal or slightly reduced hematocrit)
9. Portosystemic anastomosis and hepatic lipidosis in cats (mild decrease in MVC);
10. May be with myeloproliferative disorders;
11. Violation of erythropoiesis in English Springer Spaniels (in combination with polymyopathy and heart disease);
12. Persistent elliptocytosis (in crossbred dogs as a result of the absence of one of the proteins in the erythrocyte membrane);
13. Idiopathic microcytosis in some breeds of Japanese Great Danes (Akita and Shiba) - not accompanied by anemia.

False microcytosis - causes (only when determined in an electronic counter):
1. Severe anemia or severe thrombocytosis (if platelets are taken into account with MCV when counting with an electronic counter);
2. Persistent hyponatremia in dogs (due to erythrocyte shrinkage when diluting blood in vitro to count erythrocytes in an electronic counter).

AVERAGE CONCENTRATION OF HEMOGLOBIN IN ERYTHROCYTES
Mean erythrocyte hemoglobin concentration (MCHC)- an indicator of saturation of erythrocytes with hemoglobin.
In hematology analyzers, the value is calculated automatically or calculated by the formula: MCHC = (Hb (g \ dl) \ Ht (%)) x100
Normally, the average concentration of hemoglobin in erythrocytes in dogs is 32.0-36.0 g/dl, in cats 30.0-36.0 g/dl.

An increase in MCHC (it happens extremely rarely) - causes:
1. Hyperchromic anemia (spherocytosis, ovalocytosis);
2. Hyperosmolar disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism.

False increase in MCHC (artifact) - causes:
1. Hemolysis of erythrocytes in vivo and in vitro;
2. Lipemia;
3. The presence of Heinz bodies in erythrocytes;
4. Agglutination of erythrocytes in the presence of cold agglutinins (when counting in an electric meter).

Decrease in MCHC - reasons:
1. Regenerative anemia (if there are many stress reticulocytes in the blood);
2. Chronic iron deficiency anemia;
3. Hereditary stomatocytosis (dogs);
4. Hypoosmolar disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism.
False MCHC Downgrade- in dogs and cats with hypernatremia (because the cells swell when blood is diluted before counting in an electronic counter).

AVERAGE HEMOGLOBIN CONTENT IN ERYTHROCYTE
Calculation of the average content of hemoglobin in an erythrocyte (MCH):
MCH = Hb (g / l) / number of red blood cells (x1012 / l)
Normal in dogs is 19-24.5 pg, in cats 13-17 pg.
The indicator does not have independent significance, since it directly depends on the average volume of an erythrocyte and the average concentration of hemoglobin in an erythrocyte. It usually correlates directly with the value of the mean volume of erythrocytes, with the exception of cases when macrocytic hypochromic erythrocytes are present in the blood of animals.

Anemia has been classified according to erythrocyte parameters, taking into account the average erythrocyte volume (MCV) and the average concentration of hemoglobin in the cell (MCHC) - see below.

NUMBER OF ERYTHROCYTES
Normally, the content of erythrocytes in the blood in dogs is 5.2 - 8.4 x 1012 / l, in cats 6.6 - 9.4 x 1012 / l.
Erythrocytosis - an increase in the content of red blood cells in the blood.

Relative erythrocytosis- due to a decrease in the volume of circulating blood or the release of red blood cells from the blood depots ("reduction" of the spleen).

Absolute erythrocytosis- an increase in the mass of circulating red blood cells due to increased hematopoiesis.

Erythrocytopenia is a decrease in the number of red blood cells in the blood.

Classification of anemia by erythrocyte parameters, taking into account the average erythrocyte volume (MCV) and the average concentration of hemoglobin in the cell (MCHC)

b) Macrocytic normochromic anemia:
1. Regenerative anemia (the average concentration of hemoglobin in the erythrocyte is not always reduced);
2. In infections caused by feline leukemia virus without reticulocytosis (usually);
3. Erythroleukemia (acute myeloid leukemia) and myelodysplastic syndromes;
4. Non-regenerative immune-mediated anemia and/or myelofibrosis in dogs;
5. Macrocytosis in poodles (healthy mini-poodles without anemia);
6. Cats with hyperthyroidism (weak macrocytosis without anemia);
7. Folate deficiency ( folic acid) - rarely.

c) Macrocytic hypochromic anemia:
1. Regenerative anemia with marked reticulocytosis;
2. Hereditary stomatocytosis in dogs (often mild reticulocytosis);
3. Increased osmotic instability of erythrocytes of Abyssinian and Somali cats (reticulocytosis is usually present);

d) Anemia microcytic or normocytic hypochromic:
1. Chronic iron deficiency (months in adult animals, weeks in sucklings);
2. Portosystemic shunts (often without anemia);
3. Anemia in inflammatory diseases (usually normocytic);
4. Hepatic lipidosis in cats (usually normocytic);
5. Normal condition for Japanese Akita and Shiba dogs (no anemia);
6. Long-term treatment with recombinant human erythropoietin (moderate anemia);
7. Copper deficiency (rare);
8. Drugs or agents that inhibit gemma synthesis;
9. Myeloproliferative disorders with impaired iron metabolism (rarely);
10. Pyridoxine deficiency;
11. Familial disorder of erythropoiesis in English Springer Spaniels (rare);
12. Hereditary elliptocytosis in dogs (rare).

NUMBER OF PLATELETS

Thrombocytosis is an increase in the number of platelets in the blood.

The reasons:
I. Thrombocytopenia associated with a decrease in the formation of platelets (insufficiency of hematopoiesis).
a) acquired
1. Cytotoxic damage to the red bone marrow:
- cytotoxic anticancer chemotherapeutic drugs;
 introduction of estrogens (dogs);
- cytotoxic drugs: chloramphenicol (cats), phenylbutazone (dogs), trimetoptim-sulfadiazine (dogs), albendazole (dogs), griseofulvin (cats), probably thiacetarsemide, meclofenamic acid and quinine (dogs);
- cytotoxic estrogens produced by tumors from Sertoli cells, interstitial cells and granulosa cell tumors (dogs);
 increase in the concentration of cytotoxic estrogens with functioning cystic ovaries (dogs).
2. Infectious agents:
- Ehrlichia canis (dogs);
- parvovirus (dogs);
 infection with feline leukemia virus (FLK-infection);
- panleukopenia (cats - rarely);
- Infection with the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV infection).
3. Immune-mediated thrombocytopenia with death of megakaryocytes.
4. Irradiation.
5. Myelophthisis:
- myelogenous leukemia;
- lymphoid leukemia;
- multiple myeloma;
- myelodysplastic syndromes;
- myelofibrosis;
- osteosclerosis;
- metastatic lymphomas;
- Metastasizing mast cell tumors.
6. Amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia (rarely);
7. Long-term use of recombinant thrombopoietin;
8. Absence of endogenous thrombopoietin.
b) hereditary
1. Moderate cyclic thrombocytopenia with an undulating decrease and increase in platelet production in gray collies with hereditary cyclic hematopoiesis;
2. Thrombocytopenia with the appearance of macroplatelets in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (asymptomatic).
II. Thrombocytopenia due to increased destruction of platelets:
1. Immune-mediated:
 primary autoimmune (idiopathic) - idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (may be combined with autoimmune hemolytic anemia - Evans syndrome) - common in dogs, more often in females, breeds: cocker spaniels, pygmy and toy poodles, old English and german shepherds;
 secondary in systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis;
 secondary in allergic and drug-allergic;
 secondary in infectious diseases accompanied by deposition of antigen-antibody-complement complexes on the surface of platelets (with ehrlichiosis, rickettsiosis);
 secondary in chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
2. Haptenic - associated with hypersensitivity to certain drugs (drug-toxic) and uremia;
3. Isoimmune (posttransfusion thrombocytopenia);
4. Infectious processes (viremia and septicemia, some inflammations).
III. Thrombocytopenia due to increased platelet utilization:
1. DIC;
2. Hemangiosarcoma (dogs);
3. Vasculitis (for example - with viral peritonitis in cats);
4. Other disorders causing damage to the endothelium;
5. Inflammatory processes (due to damage to the endothelium or an increase in the concentration of inflammatory cytokines, especially the adhesion factor and platelet aggregation);
6. Bites of snakes.
IV. Thrombocytopenia associated with increased platelet sequestration (deposition):
1. Sequestration in the hemangioma;
2. Sequestration and destruction in the spleen with hypersplenism;
3. Sequestration and destruction in the spleen with splenomegaly (with hereditary hemolytic anemia, autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, spleen lymphoma, congestion in the spleen, myeloproliferative diseases with splenomegaly, etc.);
4. Hypothermia.
V. Thrombocytopenia associated with external bleeding:
1. Acute bleeding(minor thrombocytopenia);
2. Massive blood loss associated with poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides (pronounced thrombocytopenia in dogs);
3. With transfusion of platelet-poor donated blood or erythrocyte mass in animals that have suffered a large blood loss.
Pseudothrombocytopenia - can be when using automatic counters for counting platelets.

The reasons:
1. Formation of platelet aggregates;
2. In cats, since their platelets are very large in size, and the device cannot reliably distinguish them from erythrocytes;
3. In Cavalier King Charles Spaniels, macroplatelets are normally present in their blood, which the device does not distinguish from small erythrocytes.

LEUKOCYTE COUNT

A decrease or increase in leukocytes in the blood can be both due to certain types of leukocytes (more often), and general, while maintaining the percentage of certain types of leukocytes (less often).
An increase or decrease in the number of certain types of leukocytes in the blood can be absolute (with a decrease or increase in the total content of leukocytes) or relative (with a normal total content of leukocytes).
The absolute content of certain types of leukocytes in a unit of blood volume can be determined by multiplying the total content of leukocytes in the blood (x109) by the content a certain kind white blood cells (%) and dividing the resulting number by 100.

LEUKOCYTE BLOOD FORMULA

Cells Percentage of all white blood cells
Dogs Cats
Myelocytes 0 0
Metamyelocytes (young) 0 0 - 1
Stab neutrophils 2 - 7 1 - 6
Segmented neutrophils 43 - 73 40 - 47
Eosinophils 2 - 6 2 - 6
Basophils 0 - 1 0 - 1
Monocytes 1 - 5 1 - 5
Lymphocytes 21 - 45 36 - 53
When evaluating the leukocyte formula, it is necessary to take into account the absolute content of certain types of leukocytes (see above).
Shift to the left - a change in the leukogram with an increase in the percentage of young forms of neutrophils (stab neutrophils, metamyelocytes, myelocytes).

The reasons:
1. Acute inflammatory processes;
2. Purulent infections;
3. Intoxication;
4. Acute hemorrhages;
5. Acidosis and coma;
6. Physical overstrain.

Regenerative left shift- the number of stab neutrophils is less than the number of segmented neutrophils, the total number of neutrophils is increased.
Degenerate shift to the left- the number of stab neutrophils exceeds the number of segmented neutrophils, the total number of neutrophils is normal or there is leukopenia. The result of increased demand for neutrophils and/or increased destruction of neutrophils, leading to destruction of the bone marrow. A sign that the bone marrow cannot meet the increased need for neutrophils in the short term (several hours) or long term (several days).
Hyposegmentation- shift to the left, due to the presence of neutrophils, which have condensed nuclear chromatin of mature neutrophils, but a different nuclear structure compared to mature cells.

The reasons:
 Pelger-Huin anomaly (hereditary trait);
 transient pseudoanomaly in chronic infections and after the administration of certain drugs (rarely).

Shift to the left with rejuvenation- in the blood there are metamyelocytes, myelocytes, promyelocytes, myeloblasts and erythroblasts.

The reasons:
1. Chronic leukemia;
2. Erythroleukemia;
3. Myelofibrosis;
4. Metastases of neoplasms;
5. Acute leukemia;
6. Coma states.

Shift to the right (hypersegmentation)- change in the leukogram with an increase in the percentage of segmented and polysegmented forms.

The reasons:
1. Megaloblastic anemia;
2. Diseases of the kidneys and heart;
3. Conditions after blood transfusion;
4. Recovery from chronic inflammation(reflects the increased residence time of cells in the blood);
5. Exogenous (iatrogenic) rise in the level of glucocorticoids (accompanied by neutrophilia; the reason is a delay in the migration of leukocytes into the tissue due to the vasoconstrictive effect of glycocorticoids);
6. Endogenous ( stressful situations, Cushing's syndrome) rise in the level of glucocorticoids;
7. Old animals;
8. Dogs with a hereditary defect in cobalamin absorption;
9. Folate-deficient cats.

NEUTROPHILS

Neutrophilia (neutrophilia)- an increase in the content of neutrophilic leukocytes in the blood above the upper limits of the norm.
May develop as a result of increased production of neutrophils and / or their release from the bone marrow; reducing the migration of neutrophils from the bloodstream into tissues; decrease in the transition of neutrophils from the regional to the circulating pool.

a) Physiological neutrophilia- develops with the release of adrenaline (the transition of neutrophils from the regional to the circulating pool decreases). Most often causes physiological leukocytosis. More pronounced in young animals. The number of lymphocytes is normal (may increase in cats), there is no shift to the left, the number of neutrophils increases by no more than 2 times.

The reasons:
1. Physical activity;
2. Seizures;
3. Fright;
4. Excitation.
b) Stress neutrophilia - with increased endogenous secretion of glucocorticoids or with their exogenous administration. Causes stress leukocytosis. Glucocorticoids increase the release of mature leukocytes from the bone marrow and delay their transition from blood to tissue. The absolute number of neutrophils rarely increases by more than two, compared with the norm, the shift to the left is absent or weak, often there is lymphopenia, eosinopenia and monocytosis (more often in dogs). Over time, the number of neutrophils falls, but lymphopenia and eosinopenia persist as long as the concentration of glucocorticoids in the blood remains elevated.

The reasons:
1. Increased endogenous secretion of glucocorticoids:
- pain;
- prolonged emotional stress;
- abnormal body temperature;
hyperfunction of the adrenal cortex (Cushing's syndrome).
2. Exogenous administration of glucocorticoids.
in) Inflammatory neutrophilia- often the main component of inflammatory leukocytosis. Often there is a shift to the left - strong or slight, the number of lymphocytes is often reduced.

Causes of extremely high neutrophilia (over 25x109/l) with high leukocytosis (up to 50x109/l):
1. Local severe infections:
- pyometra, pyotherax, pyelonephritis, septic peritonitis, abscesses, pneumonia, hepatitis.
2. Immune-mediated disorders:
- immune-mediated hemolytic anemia, polyarthritis, vasculitis.
3. Tumor diseases
- lymphoma, acute and chronic leukemia, mast cell tumor.
4. Diseases accompanied by extensive necrosis
 within 1-2 days after surgery, trauma, pancreatitis, thrombosis and biliary peritonitis.
5. First 3 weeks after administration of a toxic dose of estrogen (dogs, subsequently developing generalized hypoplasia or aplasia of the bone marrow and panleukopenia).

Leukemoid reaction of the neutrophilic type - sharp increase the number of neutrophilic leukocytes in the blood (above 50x109 / l) with the appearance of a large number of hematopoietic elements, up to myeloblasts. It resembles leukemia in terms of the degree of increase in the number of leukocytes or in cell morphology.

The reasons:
1. Acute bacterial pneumonia;
2. Malignant tumors with multiple bone marrow metastases (with and without leukocytosis):
- cancer of the parenchyma of the kidney;
- cancer prostate;
- breast cancer.

Neutropenia- decrease in the absolute content of neutrophils in the blood below the lower limit of the norm. Often it is absolute neutropenia that is the cause of leukopenia.
a) Physiological neutropenia- in dogs of the Belgian Tervuren breed (together with a decrease in the total number of leukocytes and the absolute number of lymphocytes).
b) Neutropenia associated with a decrease in the release of neutrophils from the red bone marrow (due to dysgranulopoiesis - a decrease in the number of progenitor cells or a violation of their maturation):

1. Myelotoxic effects and suppression of granulocytopoiesis (without a shift in the leukocyte formula):
 some forms of myeloid leukemia, some myelodysplastic syndromes;
- myelophthisis (with lymphocytic leukemia, some myelodysplastic syndromes, myelofibrosis (often associated with anemia, less often with leukopenia and thrombocytopenia), osteosclerosis, in the case of lymphomas, carcinomas and mast cell tumors);
- in cats, infections caused by feline leukemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus (together with leukopenia);
- toxic effect on endogenous (hormone-producing tumors) and endogenous estrogen in dogs;
- ionizing radiation;
- anticancer drugs (cytostatics and immunosuppressants);
- some medicinal substances (chloramphenicol)
- infectious agents early stage viral infection (infectious hepatitis and parvovirus of dogs, panleukopenia of cats, Ehrlichia canis infection in dogs);
- lithium carbonate (delayed maturation of neutrophils in the bone marrow in cats).
2. Immune neutropenia:

- isoimmune (post-transfusion).

c) Neutropenia associated with redistribution and sequestration in organs:

1. Splenomegaly of various origins;
2. Endotoxic or septic shock;
3. Anaphylactic shock.

d) Neutropenia associated with increased utilization of neutrophils (often with a degenerative shift of the leukocyte formula to the left):

1. Bacterial infections (brucellosis, salmonellosis, tuberculosis);
2. Severe purulent infections (peritonitis after intestinal perforation, abscesses that opened inside);
3. Septicemia caused by gram-negative bacteria;
4. Aspiration pneumonia;
5. Endotoxic shock;
6. Toxoplasmosis (cats)

e) Neutropenia associated with increased destruction of neutrophils:

1. Hypersplenism;
2. Severe septic conditions and endotoxemia (with a degenerative shift to the left);
3. DIC.

f) Hereditary forms:

1. Hereditary deficiency of absorption of cobolamine (dogs - together with anemia);
2. Cyclic hematopoiesis (in blue marble collies);
3. Chediak-Higashi syndrome (in persian cats with partial albinism - light yellow eyes and smoky blue coat).

In addition to the above cases, neutropenia can develop immediately after acute blood loss. Neutropenia accompanying non-regenerative anemia indicates a chronic disease (eg, rickettsiosis) or a process associated with chronic blood loss.

Agranulocytosis- a sharp decrease in the number of granulocytes in the peripheral blood up to their complete disappearance, leading to a decrease in the body's resistance to infection and the development of bacterial complications.

1. Myelotoxic - develops as a result of the action of cytostatic factors, is combined with leukopenia, thrombocytopenia and, often, with anemia (i.e., with pancytopenia).
2. Immune
- haptenic (idiosyncrasies to medicinal substances) - phenylbutazone, trimethoprim / sulfadiazine and other sulfonamides, griseofulvin, cephalosporins;
 autoimmune (with systemic lupus erythematosus, chronic lymphocytic leukemia);
- isoimmune (post-transfusion).

EOSINOPHILES

Eosinophilia - an increase in the level of eosinophils in the blood.

The reasons:

Eosinopenia - a decrease in the content of eosinophils in the blood below the lower limit of normal. The concept is relative, since they may be absent normally in healthy animals.

The reasons:

1. Exogenous administration of glucocorticoids (sequestration of eosinophils in the bone marrow);
2. Increased adrenocorticoid activity (Cushing's syndrome primary and secondary);
3. Initial phase infectious-toxic process;
4. Severe condition of the patient in the postoperative period.

BASOPHILES

LYMPHOCYTES

Absolute lymphocytosis - an increase in the absolute number of lymphocytes in the blood above the normal range.

The reasons:

1. Physiological lymphocytosis - an increased content of lymphocytes in the blood of newborns and young animals;
2. Adrenaline rush (especially cats);
3. Chronic viral infections (relatively rare, more often relative) or viremia;
4. Reaction to vaccination in young dogs;
5. Chronic antigenic stimulation due to bacterial inflammation(with brucellosis, tuberculosis);
6. Chronic allergic reactions (type IV);
7. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia;
8. Lymphoma (rare);
9. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Absolute lymphopenia is a decrease in the absolute number of lymphocytes in the blood below the normal range.

The reasons:

1. An increase in the concentration of endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids (with simultaneous monocytosis, neutrophilia and eosinopenia):
- treatment with glucocorticoids;
- Primary and secondary Cushing's syndrome.
2. Viral diseases(canine parvovirus enteritis, feline panleukopenia, canine distemper; infection with feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus, etc.);
3. The initial stages of the infectious-toxic process (due to the migration of lymphocytes from the blood into the tissues to the foci of inflammation);
4. Secondary immune deficiencies;
5. All factors that can cause a decrease in the hematopoietic function of the bone marrow (see leukopenia);
6. Immunosuppressants;
7. Irradiation of the bone marrow and immune organs;
8. Chronic uremia;
9. Heart failure (circulatory failure);
10. Loss of lymphocyte-rich lymph:
- lymphangiectasia (loss of afferent lymph);
- rupture of the thoracic duct (loss of efferent lymph);
- lymphatic edema;
 chylothorax and chylascite.
11. Violation of the structure of the lymph nodes:
- multicentric lymphoma;
- generalized granulomatous inflammation
12. After stress for a long time, together with eosinopenia - a sign of insufficient rest and poor prognosis;
13. Myelophthisis (together with a decrease in the content of other leukocytes and anemia).

MONOCYTES

Monocytosis - an increase in the number of monocytes in the blood.

The reasons:

1. Infectious diseases:
 recovery period after acute infections;
- fungal, rickettsion infections;
2. Granulomatous diseases:
- tuberculosis;
- brucellosis.
3. Blood diseases:
- acute monoblastic and myelomonoblastic leukemia;
- chronic monocytic and myelomonocytic leukemia.
4. Collagenoses:
- systemic lupus erythematosus.
5. Acute inflammatory processes (with neutrophilia and shift to the left);
6. Chronic inflammatory processes (with a normal level of neutrophils and / or without a shift to the left);
7. Necrosis in tissues (inflammatory or in tumors);
8. Increase in endogenous or exogenous glucocorticoids (in dogs, together with neutrophilia and lymphopenia);
9. Toxic, superosseous inflammatory or severe viral infections (canine parvovirus enteritis) - together with leukopenia.
Monocytopenia - a decrease in the number of monocytes in the blood. Monocytopenia is difficult to assess due to low content monocytes in the blood are normal.
A decrease in the number of monocytes is observed with hypoplasia and aplasia of the bone marrow (see leukopenia).

PLASMACYTES

Causes of the appearance of plasma cells in peripheral blood:

1. Plasmacytoma;
2. Viral infections;
3. Long-term persistence of the antigen (sepsis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, autoimmune diseases, collagenoses);
4. Neoplasms.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

Accelerate ESR:

1. The formation of coin columns and agglutination of erythrocytes (the mass of settling particles increases) due to the loss of a negative charge on the surface of erythrocytes:
- increase in the concentration of certain blood proteins (especially fibrinogen, immunoglobulins, haptoglobin);
- blood alkalosis;
the presence of anti-erythrocyte antibodies.
2. Erythropenia.
3. Reduced plasma viscosity.
Diseases and conditions accompanied by accelerated ESR:
1. Pregnancy, postpartum period;
2. Inflammatory diseases of various etiologies;
3. Paraproteinemias (multiple myeloma- especially pronounced ESR up to 60-80 mm/hour);
4. Tumor diseases (carcinoma, sarcoma, acute leukemia, lymphoma);
5. Diseases of the connective tissue (collagenoses);
6. Glomerulonephritis, kidney amyloidosis occurring with nephrotic syndrome, uremia);
7. Severe infectious diseases;
8. Hypoproteinemia;
9. Anemia;
10. Hyper- and hypothyroidism;
11. Internal bleeding;
12. Hyperfibrinogenemia;
13. Hypercholesterolemia;
14. Side effects of drugs: vitamin A, methyldopa, dextran.

leukocytosis, increase in ESR and the corresponding changes in the leukocyte formula are a reliable sign of the presence of infectious and inflammatory processes in the body.

Slow down ESR:

1. Blood acidosis;
2. Increasing plasma viscosity
3. Erythrocytosis;
4. Pronounced change the shape and size of erythrocytes (crescent, spherocytosis, anisocytosis - since the shape of the cells prevents the formation of coin columns).
Diseases and conditions accompanied by a slowdown in ESR:
1. Erythremia and reactive erythrocytosis;
2. Pronounced phenomena of circulatory failure;
3. Epilepsy;
4. Sickle cell anemia;
5. Hyperproteinemia;
6. Hypofibrinogenemia;
7. Obstructive jaundice and parenchymal jaundice (presumably due to the accumulation of bile acids in the blood);
8. Taking calcium chloride, salicylates and mercury preparations.

According to clinical analysis, blood cells (erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets) are studied. Through this analysis, it is possible to determine general condition animal health.

red blood cells

red blood cells: the normal number of erythrocytes is: in dogs 5.2-8.4 * 10 ^ 12,
in cats 4.6-10.1 * 10^12 per liter of blood. In the blood, there can be both a lack of red blood cells and an increase in their number.

1) Lack of red blood cells is called erythropenia.

Erythropenia can be absolute or relative.

1.Absolute erythropenia- violation of the synthesis of red blood cells, their active destruction, or large blood loss.
2.Relative erythropenia- This is a decrease in the percentage of red blood cells in the blood due to the fact that the blood thins. Usually, such a picture is observed when, for some reason, a large amount of fluid enters the bloodstream. The total number of red blood cells in this condition in the body remains normal.

AT clinical practice The most common classification of anemia is:

• iron deficiency
• aplastic
• Megaloblastic
• sideroblastic
• chronic diseases
• Hemolytic

1. Anemia due to increased destruction of red blood cells
   a. aplastic anemia - a disease of the hematopoietic system, expressed in a sharp inhibition or cessation of growth and maturation of cells in the bone marrow.
   b. Iron-deficiency anemia considered as a symptom of another disease or as a condition, rather than as a separate disease, and occurs when the body has an insufficient supply of iron.
   c. Megaloblastic anemia - rare disease due to malabsorption of vitamin B12 and folic acid.
   d. Sideroblastic anemia- with this anemia, there is enough iron in the animal's body, but the body is not able to use this iron to produce hemoglobin, which is needed to deliver oxygen to all tissues and organs. As a result, iron begins to accumulate in red blood cells.

2) Erythrocytosis

1. Absolute erythrocytosis- an increase in the number of red blood cells in the body. This pattern is observed in sick animals with chronic diseases of the heart and lungs.

2. Relative erythrocytosis- observed when the total number of erythrocytes in the body is not increased, but due to blood clotting, the percentage of erythrocytes per unit volume of blood increases. The blood becomes thicker when the body loses a lot of water.

Hemoglobin

Hemoglobinis part of red blood cells and serves to carry gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide) with the blood.

Normal amount of hemoglobin: in dogs 110-170 g/l and in cats 80-170 g/l

1. A decrease in hemoglobin in erythrocytes indicates

anemia.

2. Elevated hemoglobin may be associated with diseases

blood or increased hematopoiesis in the bone marrow with some

diseases: - chronic bronchitis,

bronchial asthma,

congenital or acquired heart defects,

Polycystic kidney disease and others, as well as after taking certain medications, for example,

steroid hormones.

Hematocrit

Hematocritshows the percentage of plasma and formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes and

platelets) of the blood.

1. An increased content of formed elements is observed during dehydration of the body (vomiting, diarrhea) and

some diseases.

2. A decrease in the number of blood cells is observed with an increase in circulating blood - such

can be with edema and when a large amount of fluid enters the bloodstream.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

Normally, in dogs and cats, the erythrocyte sedimentation rate is 2-6 mm per hour.

1. A faster settling is observed in inflammatory processes, anemia and some other diseases.

2. Slow sedimentation of erythrocytes occurs with an increase in their concentration in the blood; with an increase in bile

pigments in the blood, indicating liver disease.

Leukocytes

In dogs, the normal number of leukocytes is from 8.5-10.5 * 10^9 / l of blood, in cats 6.5-18.5 * 10^9 / l. There are several types of leukocytes in the blood of an animal. And in order to clarify the state of the body, the leukocyte formula is derived - the percentage different forms leukocytes.

1) Leukocytosis- an increase in the content of leukocytes in the blood.
1. Physiological leukocytosis - an increase in the number of leukocytes for a little and not for a long time, usually due to the influx of leukocytes into the blood from the spleen, bone marrow and lungs during eating, physical activity.
2. Medicamentous (protein-containing serum preparations, vaccines, antipyretic drugs, ether-containing drugs).
3.Pregnant
4.Newborn(14 days of life)
5. Reactive (true) leukocytosis develops during infectious and inflammatory processes, this happens due to increased production of leukocytes by hematopoietic organs

2) Leukopenia- this is a decrease in the number of leukocytes in the blood, develops with viral infections and exhaustion, with lesions of the bone marrow. Usually, a decrease in the number of leukocytes is associated with a violation of their production and leads to a deterioration in immunity.

Leukogram- percentage various forms leukocytes (eosinophils; monocytes; basophils; myelocytes; young; neutrophils: stab, segmented; lymphocytes)

1.Eosinophils are phagocytic cells that absorb antigen-antibody immune complexes (mainly immunoglobulin E). In dogs, it is normal 3-9%, in cats 2-8%.

1.1.Eosinophilia - this is an increase in the number of eosinophils in the peripheral blood, which may be due to the stimulation of the proliferation of the eosinophilic germ of hematopoiesis under the influence of the resulting antigen-antibody immune complexes and in diseases accompanied by autoimmune processes in the body.

1.2. eosinopenia Is it a decrease or complete absence eosinophils in peripheral blood. Eosinopenia is observed in infectious and inflammatory-purulent processes in the body.

2.1.Monocytosis - an increase in the content of monocytes in the blood is most common with

A) infectious diseases: toxoplasmosis, brucellosis;
b) high monocytes in the blood are one of the laboratory signs severe infectious processes - sepsis, subacute endocarditis, some forms of leukemia (acute monocytic leukemia),
c) also malignant diseases lymphatic system- lymphogranulomatosis, lymphomas.

2.2 Monocytopenia- a decrease in the number of monocytes in the blood and even their absence can be observed with damage to the bone marrow with a decrease in its function (aplastic anemia, B12 deficiency anemia).

3. Basophils filled with granules that contain various mediators that cause inflammation when released into the surrounding tissue. Basophil granules contain large amounts of serotonin, histamine, prostaglandins, leukotrienes. It also contains heparin, thanks to which basophils are able to regulate blood clotting. Normally, cats and dogs have 0-1% basophils in the leukogram.

3.1 Basophilia- this is an increase in the content of basophils in the peripheral blood, observed when:

a) decreased thyroid function,
b) diseases of the blood system,
c) allergic conditions.

3.2 Basopenia- this decrease in the content of basophils in the peripheral blood is observed when:
a) acute inflammation of the lungs,
b) acute infections,
c) Cushing's syndrome,
d) stressful influences,
e) pregnancy,
f) increased function of the thyroid gland.

4. Myelocytes and metamyelocytes- precursors of leukocytes with a segmental nucleus (neutrophils). They are localized in the bone marrow and therefore normal with clinical analysis blood is determined. Appearance
precursors of neutrophils in a clinical blood test is called a shift of the leukocyte formula to the left and can be observed when various diseases accompanied by absolute leukocytosis. High quantitative indicators myelocytes and metamyelocytes seen in myeloid leukemia. Their main function is protection against infections by chemotaxis (directed movement to stimulating agents) and phagocytosis (absorption and digestion) of foreign microorganisms.

5. Neutrophils as well as eosinophils and basophils, belong to blood granulocytic cells, since characteristic feature data of blood cells is the presence of granularity (granules) in the cytoplasm. Neutrophil granules contain lysozyme, myeloperoxidase, neutral and acid hydrolases, cationic proteins, lactoferrin, collagenase, aminopeptidase. It is thanks to the contents of the granules that neutrophils perform their functions.

5.1. Neutrophilia- an increase in the number of neutrophils (stab is normal in dogs 1-6%, in cats 3-9%; segmented in dogs 49-71%, in cats 40-50%) in the blood.

The main reason for the increase in neutrophils in the blood is the inflammatory process in the body, especially with purulent processes. By increasing the absolute number of neutrophils in the blood during an inflammatory process, one can indirectly judge the extent of inflammation and the adequacy of the immune response to the inflammatory process in the body.

5.2 Neutropenia- decrease in the number of neutrophils in the peripheral blood. The reason for the decrease in neutrophils in peripheral blood, there may be inhibition of bone marrow hematopoiesis of an organic or functional nature, increased destruction of neutrophils, depletion of the body against the background of long-term diseases.

The most common neutropenia occurs when:

a) Viral infections, some bacterial infections(brucellosis), rickettsion infections, protozoal infections (toxoplasmosis).

b) Inflammatory diseases that are severe and acquire the character of a generalized infection.

c) Side effects of certain medications (cytostatics, sulfonamides, analgesics, etc.)

d) Hypoplastic and aplastic anemia.

e) Hypersplenism.

f) Agranulocytosis.

g) Severe underweight with the development of cachexia.

6. Lymphocytes- These are blood cells, one of the types of leukocytes that are part of the immune system. Their function is to circulate in the blood and tissues in order to provide immune protection against foreign agents that enter the body. In dogs, the normal leukogram is 21-40%, in cats 36-50%

6.1. Lymphocytosis - this increase in the number of lymphocytes is usually observed in viral infections, pyoinflammatory diseases.
1. Relative lymphocytosis called an increase in the percentage of lymphocytes in leukocyte formula n at their normal absolute value in the blood.

2. Absolute lymphocytosis, in contrast to the relative one, is connected With an increase in the total number of lymphocytes in the blood and occurs in diseases and pathological conditions accompanied by increased stimulation of lymphopoiesis.

The increase in lymphocytes is most often absolute and occurs with the following diseases and pathological conditions

a) Viral infections,

b) Acute and chronic lymphocytic leukemia,

c) Lymphosarcoma,

d) Hyperthyroidism.

6.2. Lymphocytopenia- decrease in lymphocytes in the blood.

Lymphocytopenia, as well as lymphocytosis, is divided into relative and absolute.

1. Relative lymphocytopenia - this is a decrease in the percentage of lymphocytes in the leukoformula at a normal level of the total number of lymphocytes in the blood, it can occur in inflammatory diseases accompanied by an increase in the number of neutrophils in the blood, for example, in pneumonia or purulent inflammation.

2.Absolutelymphocytopenia is a decrease in the total number of lymphocytes in the blood. It occurs in diseases and pathological conditions accompanied by inhibition of the lymphocytic hematopoietic germ or all hematopoietic germs (pancytopenia). Also, lymphocytopenia occurs with increased death of lymphocytes.

platelets

Platelets are essential for blood clotting. Tests may show an increase in platelet count - this is possible with certain diseases or increased activity bone marrow. There may be a decrease in the number of platelets - this is typical for some diseases.

Maybe it was just curiosity that got the best of me, but most likely the concern about the condition of my four-legged friend made me then sort out this “Egyptian cuneiform”. So, what can the results of the tests of his pet tell the owner of a dog? I would like to emphasize that this entire note is purely educational in nature and cannot be used in any way to make a diagnosis. Only a veterinarian can diagnose your pet and cure it!

And it should also be remembered that the values ​​\u200b\u200bof the indicators that are considered to be the “norm” are averaged. Normal values ​​​​may differ significantly depending on the sex, age, size of the animal. In addition, the individual characteristics of the dog should be taken into account: the diseases she has suffered, the medical preparations, her diet, etc. - all this also has a significant impact on the results of the analyzes. In other words, only qualified specialist. And we will just try to figure out what indicators are measured during the analysis, what are the norms for these indicators, and what the deviation of the values ​​from the norm in one direction or another may indicate.

General urinalysis in dogs

When conducting a general analysis of urine, indicators such as color, transparency, urine reaction and its relative density (specific gravity) are evaluated.

Fine urine color yellow, it is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the urine. If urine becomes more light color(polyuria), then this indicates a decrease in the concentration of dissolved substances, if the concentration increases, then the urine acquires a rich yellow hue (diuresis). The color of urine may change under the influence of certain drugs.

A significant change in the color of urine may indicate serious illnesses, such as, for example, hematuria (red-brown urine), bilirubinemia (beer-colored urine), myoglobinuria (black urine), leukocyturia (milky white urine).

Urine absolutely healthy dog perfectly normal transparent. If the conclusion says that the urine is cloudy, then this may indicate the presence of a large amount of salts, bacteria or epithelium in it.

Urine reactionis its acidity level. Fluctuations in this indicator are due to the animal's diet: a meat diet gives an acidic urine reaction, and a vegetable one gives an alkaline one. If the diet is mixed, then predominantly acidic metabolic products are formed, therefore, a slightly acidic reaction of urine is considered the norm. It should be borne in mind that the reaction of urine must be determined immediately upon delivery to the laboratory, since urine decomposes rather quickly and its pH shifts to the alkaline side due to the release of ammonia.

Specific gravityurine is determined by comparing the density of urine with the density of water. This indicator reflects the functional ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine, based on which it is estimated renal function in an animal. The normal value is the density of urine in the range of 1.02-1.035.

Chemical analysis of urine

When conducting a chemical analysis, the level of protein, glucose, ketone bodies, bilirubin and urobilinogen in the urine is assessed.

Protein

The norm is the content of protein in the urine in an amount of up to 0.3 g / l. An increased amount of protein in the urine is called proteinuria. Proteinuria may be caused by chronic infections or destructive processes in the kidneys, urinary tract infections or urolithiasis, and hemolytic anemia.

Glucose

In the urine of a healthy dog, glucose should not be normal. Glycosuria (the presence of glucose in the urine) may be due to either high concentration glucose in the blood or a violation of the processes of glucose filtration and its reabsorption in the kidneys. This may indicate diseases such as diabetes and acute renal failure.

Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid, acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid. Average per day with urine adult dog from 20 to 50 mg of ketone bodies are released, which are not detected in one-time analyzes, therefore the absence of ketone bodies in the urine is considered the norm. When detecting ketone bodies in the urine, it is necessary to determine the presence of sugar in the urine. If sugar is detected, the diagnosis of diabetic acidosis (or even coma, depending on the symptoms and condition of the animal) is usually made.

If ketone bodies are found in the urine, but there is no sugar, then the cause may be acidosis associated with starvation, or with gastrointestinal disorders, or with severe toxicosis.

Bilirubin and urobilinogen are bile pigments that can appear in the urine.

The urine of healthy dogs contains a minimal amount of bilirubin, it is not detected by the usual qualitative tests most often used in practice. Therefore, the absence of bile pigments in the urine is considered the norm. The presence of bilirubin in the urine indicates liver damage or impaired bile outflow, while direct (bound) bilirubin increases in the blood.

Urobilinogen is produced in small intestine from bilirubin excreted in bile. positive reaction on urobilinogen is not very informative for differential diagnosis, because observed not only with various liver lesions, but also with diseases of the gallbladder, as well as enteritis, constipation, etc.

Microscopy of urine sediment

In the urine sediment, both elements of organic origin (leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells and cylinders) can be present - this is the so-called organized sediment, and elements of inorganic origin (salts) - this is an unorganized urine sediment.

The presence of red blood cells in the urine is called hematuria. If at the same time there is a change in the color of urine, then we are talking about macrohematuria; if the color of urine remains normal, and erythrocytes are found only under a microscope - about microhematuria. The presence of unchanged erythrocytes in the urine is characteristic of lesions of the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

Hemoglobinuria called the presence of hemoglobin in the urine, which is due to intravascular hemolysis. Urine at the same time changes color to coffee. There are no erythrocytes in the urine sediment.

Leukocytes in the urine of a healthy animal are contained in a minimal amount - no more than 1-2 in the field of view of the microscope. Increased leukocyte count in urine pyuria) indicates inflammatory processes either in the kidneys (pyelonephritis) or in the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

epithelial cellsalmost always present in the urine sediment. It is considered normal if their number in the field of view of the microscope does not exceed 5 pieces. The origin of epithelial cells is different. Squamous epithelial cells that enter the urine, for example, from the vagina, have no diagnostic value. But the appearance in the urine of a large number of transitional epithelial cells (they line the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, prostate ducts) may indicate inflammation of these organs, and even possible neoplasms of the urinary tract.

A cylinder is a protein that has coagulated in the renal tubules, as a result of which it takes the shape of the tubules themselves (a “cast” of a cylindrical shape is obtained). The absence of cylinders in the urine sediment is considered the norm, since single cylinders per day can be found in the urine of a healthy animal. Cylindruria(the presence of cylinders in the urine sediment) is a symptom of kidney damage.

Unorganized urine sediment consists of salts that precipitate either as crystals or as amorphous masses. The composition of salts largely depends on the pH of the urine. So, for example, with an acid reaction of urine, uric acid, urates, oxalates are found in it. If the urine reaction is alkaline, it may contain calcium, phosphates.

Normally, urine in the bladder is sterile. However, during urination, microbes from lower section urethra enter the urine, in a healthy dog ​​their number does not exceed 10,000 in 1 ml. Under bacteriuria is understood as the detection of bacteria in an amount exceeding the norm, which indicates the presence of a urinary tract infection.

Complete blood count in dogs

Hemoglobin is a blood pigment in red blood cells that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide. An increase in hemoglobin levels can occur due to an increase in the number of red blood cells ( polycythemia), may be due to excessive physical activity. Also, an increase in hemoglobin levels is characteristic of dehydration and thickening of the blood. Decreased hemoglobin levels indicate anemia.

Erythrocytes are non-nuclear blood elements containing hemoglobin. They make up the bulk of the blood cells. An increased number of red blood cells ( erythrocytosis) may be due to bronchopulmonary pathology, heart defects, polycystic or neoplasms of the kidneys or liver, as well as dehydration. A decrease in the number of red blood cells can be caused by anemia, large blood loss, chronic inflammatory processes, and overhydration.

Sedimentation rate of erythrocytes (SOE) in the form of a column when settling blood depends on their quantity, "weight" and shape, as well as on the properties of plasma - the amount of proteins in it and viscosity. An increased ESR value is characteristic of various infectious diseases, inflammatory processes, and tumors. An increased ESR value is also observed during pregnancy.

platelets are platelets formed from bone marrow cells. They are responsible for blood clotting. An increased content of platelets in the blood can be caused by diseases such as polycythemia, myeloid leukemia, inflammatory processes. Also, the platelet count may increase after some surgical operations. A decrease in the number of platelets in the blood is characteristic of systemic autoimmune diseases (lupus erythematosus), aplastic and hemolytic anemia.

Leukocytesare white blood cells produced in the red bone marrow. They perform a very important immune function: they protect the body from foreign substances and microbes. There are different types of leukocytes. Each species has a specific function. Diagnostic value has a change in the number of individual types of leukocytes, and not all leukocytes in total.

An increase in the number of leukocytes ( leukocytosis) can be caused by leukemia, infectious and inflammatory processes, allergic reactions, long-term use of certain medications.

Decrease in the number of leukocytes ( leukopenia ) may be due to infectious pathologies of the bone marrow, hyperfunction of the spleen, genetic abnormalities, anaphylactic shock.

Leukocyte formula is the percentage of different types of leukocytes in the blood.

1. Neutrophils- these are leukocytes responsible for fighting inflammatory and infectious processes in the body, as well as for removing their own dead and dead cells. Young neutrophils have a rod-shaped nucleus, the nucleus of mature neutrophils is segmented. In the diagnosis of inflammation, it is the increase in the number of stab neutrophils (stab shift) that matters. Normally, they make up 60-75% of the total number of leukocytes, stab - up to 6%. An increase in the content of neutrophils in the blood (neutrophilia) indicates the presence of an infectious or inflammatory process in the body, intoxication of the body, or psycho-emotional arousal. A decrease in the number of neutrophils (neutropenia) can be caused by some infectious diseases (most often viral or chronic), bone marrow pathology, and genetic disorders.

3. Basophils- leukocytes involved in immediate type hypersensitivity reactions. Normally, their number is no more than 1% of the total number of leukocytes. An increase in the number of basophils (basophilia) may indicate an allergic reaction to the introduction of a foreign protein (including food allergy), chronic inflammatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract, and blood diseases.

4. Lymphocytesare the main cells of the immune system that fight viral infections. They destroy foreign cells and altered own cells of the body. Lymphocytes provide the so-called specific immunity: they recognize foreign proteins - antigens, and selectively destroy the cells containing them. Lymphocytes secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins) into the blood - these are substances that can block antigen molecules and remove them from the body. Lymphocytes make up 18-25% of the total number of leukocytes.

Lymphocytosis (an increase in the level of lymphocytes) may be due to viral infections or lymphocytic leukemia. A decrease in the level of lymphocytes (lymphopenia) can be caused by the use of corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, as well as malignant neoplasms, or kidney failure, or chronic liver disease, or immunodeficiency states.

5. Monocytes- These are the largest leukocytes, the so-called tissue macrophages. Their function is the final destruction of foreign cells and proteins, foci of inflammation, destroyed tissues. Monocytes are the most important cells of the immune system that are the first to encounter an antigen. Monocytes present antigen to lymphocytes for the development of a full-fledged immune response. Their number is 0-2% of the total number of leukocytes.

The average values ​​of the norm of indicators determined by the general blood test of dogs are shown in the table.

Biochemical blood test of dogs

In a biochemical analysis of the blood of dogs, the content of certain substances in the blood is determined. The table below provides a list of these substances, average blood levels of these substances in dogs, and possible reasons for the increase and decrease in the amount of these substances in the blood.