Groups of mental processes in psychology. Basic psychological processes and states
Target: form an idea of the basic mental processes and patterns.
Plan:
The concept of the psyche.
Mental processes, mental states, mental phenomena.
Basic mental processes: sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination.
Text:
1.
Psyche - property of highly organized matter ( nervous system and the brain), which consists in the active reflection of the objective world by the subject, in the construction by the subject of a picture of this world inalienable from him and self-regulation on this basis of his behavior and activity.
Reflection - a universal property of matter, which consists in the ability to reproduce the signs and properties of objects that act on matter. The essence of this ability is as follows: reflecting bodies change as a result of the impacts they experience, and the changes are adequate to the impacts (adequate - quite appropriate, identical).
I.P. Pavlov emphasized: "The reflective, mental function of the brain connects the organism with the environment acting on it."
In the process of reflection, a mental image – a model of the reflected world (a model is such a system, the elements of which are in relation to similarity to the elements of another system).
Psychic Reflection Properties:
objectivity how:
External projection of reflection, reference to some reflected reality; a mental phenomenon always has a cause, a real-life object is reflected in the mental image;
a specific psychic reality with general patterns of functioning studied by psychology (“That which reflects reality itself exists in reality, i.e. objectively,” wrote S.L. Rubinshtein). The psyche is a specific reality, in the forms of which extrapsychic reality is reproduced, which retains its integrity under extrapsychic influences, within which transformation takes place, the transformation of the reflected influences and which performs the functions of orienting its carrier in the environment, predicting future influences and regulating the activity of the carrier. Psychic Reality – reflective and the result of reflection. Extrapsychic reality - the reflected and the carrier of psychic reality (the brain and nervous system);
2) subjectivity mental reflection as:
belonging to the subject. "The psychic objectively exists as subjective, i.e. belonging to the subject" (AV Brushlinsky);
originality, uniqueness, individuality of the result of mental reflection - a picture of the world, dependence on the characteristics of the cognizing subject;
3)activity how:
the process of regulating behavior in a mental way (according to A.N. Leontiev);
the result of an active process - the activity of the brain and nervous system;
4) integrity how:
Simultaneous givenness of reflected elements, as well as a reflecting subject in a mental image (according to P.Ya. Galperin);
differentiation of mental image elements into figure and ground.
Levels of mental reflection (according to B.F. Lomov):
1) sensory-perceptual(sensory - related to the work of the senses, perceptual - related to perception);
2) presentation layer(more or less generalized images of objects and events arising from their recollection or productive imagination);
3) verbal-logical- reflection with the help of words or other sign systems, based on thinking.
2.
Mental as a process(the concept of S.L. Rubinshtein).
"The main way of existence of the mental is its existence as a process, since mental phenomena arise and exist in the process of continuous interaction of the individual with the outside world, the incessant flow of influences of the external world on the individual and his response actions. The sensory image is understood as a mental process in its effective terms.
Understanding the psyche as a process includes the requirement to divide all mental phenomena into groups (K.K. Platonov). The criterion for division is the duration of their manifestation.
Groups of mental phenomena (according to K.K. Platonov):
1) mental process;
2) mental state;
3) mental property.
mental process - a mental phenomenon, characterized by a relative homogeneity of the psychological structure, more or less, a short-term phenomenon that has a beginning, a course and an end.
Mental processes are divided into three groups:
1) cognitive processes - provide sensory (sensations and perception) and abstract-logical (thinking, imagination) reflection of reality;
2) processes-regulators - provide the best course of activity or other mental processes: attention, emotions, feelings, will;
3) processes-integrators - unite us with other people (speech) or with ourselves, ensuring the integrity of the individual (memory).
Mental condition - this is:
1) an independent level of mental phenomena, differing from others in relative duration while maintaining homogeneity:
2) the mental process, taken at the stage of its course.
Mental states include: manifestation of feelings (mood, affect, euphoria, anxiety); attention (concentration, distraction); will (decisiveness, confusion); thinking (doubt); imagination (dreams, dreams), etc.
Mental properties - these are mental phenomena that have become persistent, expressing the individuality of the subject. Mental properties tend to repeat (for example, irascibility, thoughtfulness, etc.).
3.
FEELING
Feeling - a simple cognitive mental process of reflecting the individual properties of objects and phenomena, subject to their direct impact on the senses.
Sense organ (analyzer) - this is a nervous apparatus that performs the function of analysis and synthesis of stimuli emanating from the external and internal environment of the body. It consists of three parts:
1. The feeling part is a receptor that converts physical energy into the energy of a nerve impulse.
2. Pathways - ascending and descending nerve pathways.
3. The central part - the cortical center or the projection zone of the analyzer.
Modality - this is a qualitative characteristic of sensations, indicating their relation to the sense organs. By modality, there are: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, taste sensations.
sensory deprivation - deprivation of sensations, which can lead to disorientation, tk. the minimum volume of sensations ensures normal human activity.
Adaptation is an adaptive change in sensitivity to intensity of the acting stimulus. It is based on the processes occurring in sensory systems. There are several types of adaptation:
complete disappearance of sensation under the action of a stimulus for a long time;
dullness of sensations or decreased sensitivity;
dark adaptation - increased sensitivity.
Sensitization – increased sensitivity that may occur when interacting analyzers; during exercise; when changing the internal conditions of the body.
Synesthesia - the phenomenon of duality of sensations related to the individual characteristics of the individual.
In accordance with receptive fields (Sherrington) allocate:
exteroceptive sensations - sensations that are caused by an externally located stimulus. They can be distant - arising under the action of an irritant located far from the receptor, as well as contact - when the stimulus is outside the body, but is in contact with the receptor;
interoceptive sensations - sensations that occur under the influence of an irritant located inside the body;
proprioceptive sensations are sensations that the subject receives from receptors located in the muscles, joints.
latent period - the time between the onset of the action of the stimulus and the appearance of sensation. This period is necessary for the conversion of energy and the passage of the pulse through all parts of the analyzers.
Aftereffect - this is the continuation of sensation after the end of the stimulus. For a visual sensation, a consistent image is a visual sensation resulting from the preservation of a trace from the stimulus due to the inertia of excitation in the senses and nerve centers and persist for some time after the cessation of the stimulus.
For a sensation to occur, the stimulus must be of sufficient intensity. Lower absolute threshold of sensation - This is the minimum amount of stimulus that causes a barely noticeable sensation. Upper absolute threshold of sensation - the magnitude of the stimulus at which the sensation either disappears or changes qualitatively, for example, turns into pain, as is the case with an increase in sound or brightness of light. Differential (difference) threshold of sensations - the minimum increase in the magnitude of the stimulus, accompanied by barely noticeable changes in sensations.
Stimulus - any material agent, external or internal, conscious or unconscious, acting as a condition for subsequent changes in the state of the organism.
Adequate stimulus – genetically correlated with the corresponding analyzer.
Sensitivity is the reciprocal of the threshold.
where E- sensitivity;
NAP- the lower absolute threshold of sensations.
Sensations in a person's life are quite rare, in cases where the reflection of the influences acting on the sense organs does not end with the construction of a perceptual image, i.e. when the reflection does not end with recognition of the influencing object or phenomenon. Sensory knowledge of the subject is provided mainly by perceptual processes (perceptions).
PERCEPTION
Perception - a cognitive mental process of a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.
The main properties of perception:
objectivity- is expressed in the ability of a person to reflect the world not in the form of a set of objects not related to each other, but in the form of objects separated from each other; objectivity is also expressed in the fact that the image formed as a result of perception refers to the causes that cause it. Speaking of objectivity, we have in mind the objectivity of the mental image;
integrity- is expressed in the fact that the image of the perceived object is not given in finished form with all the necessary elements, but is mentally completed to some integral form, i.e. a person synthesizes separately perceived elements of an object into an integral interconnected system. The basis of such a synthesis is the ability of a person to calculate that integral property that is inherent in the entire system and is not inherent in individual elements;
meaningfulness connection between perception and thought. During perception, the subject tries to reflect the essence of the object, to find out what kind of object it is. Perception is not limited to the sensory basis, although it is associated with it. Perceiving the object, we reveal their meaning;
selectivity connection between perception and attention. There is a selective selection of some objects in comparison with others;
categoricality- perception is of a generalized nature: we attribute each perceived object to a certain class and designate it with the word "concept". As a result of perception, the object is recognized (identification of the object);
constancy- the ability to perceive an object relatively constant regardless of changing conditions of perception. In psychology, there are: constancy of form, constancy of magnitude, constancy of color;
apperception- the dependence of perception on past experience, on the general content of human activity and its individual characteristics. A distinction is made between stable apperception - the dependence of perception on stable personality traits (worldview, beliefs, education, etc.) and temporary apperception, which affects situationally arising mental states (emotions, attitudes, etc.).
Comparative characteristics of sensation and perception.
I. General.
1. Sensation and perception are cognitive mental processes.
2. Sensation and perception form the sensory stage of knowledge.
3. Common are the conditions for the emergence of sensation and perception (the direct impact of surrounding objects on the senses).
II. Differences:
1. In the process of sensation, individual properties of objects are reflected. In perception, the object is reflected as a whole, in all its variety of properties.
2. As a result of sensations, a more or less vague feeling arises (of sweetness, brightness, loudness, etc.). As a result of perception, a holistic image of the object is formed. Perception includes a complex of various sensations, but perception is not reduced to the sum of sensations, because in the image of perception, those qualities of the object that may not be felt at the moment are completed with the participation of the imagination.
3. Sensations are tied to a specific analyzer, to a specific sensory system. Perception is connected with the complex work of analyzers. Only the modality of the predominant volume of information processed in the process of perception by the sensory system can be singled out. The construction of the image is based on the synthesis of sensations from different modalities.
In domestic psychology, perception is seen as an activity. Perceptual actions that make up perceptual activity have the goal of building an image that is adequate to the objective world. The process of forming a perceptual image includes memory (perceptual standards are stored in it), thinking (due to which the image of a perceived object is corrected with its real state). Thanks to thinking, the constancy of perception is ensured, the effects of illusions and distortions are overcome. Thanks to perceptual actions, a sense of the reality of an object is formed, even when it is partially or completely filled (closed) with other objects.
Perception involves the act of categorization. Perception is of a generalized nature - we attribute each perceived object to a certain class and designate it with a word - a concept. As a result of perception, the object is recognized.
1. Primary categorization. Phenomena are perceptually isolated and appear to have spatial, temporal and quantitative characteristics. At this stage, the “meaning” of an event can only be limited to being an “object,” “sound,” or “movement.”
2. Finding signs. There is a correspondence between the distinctive properties of the category and the features of the object that acts on the organism. However, 'correspondence' can be replaced by 'probability of connection'. Then we are looking for additional features that would help to more accurately assign the object.
3. Confirmation check. Following the search for features comes pre-categorization, followed by a change in the search for features. At this stage, a selective process of “blocking” comes into play, leading to the weakening of irrelevant stimulation.
4. Completion of the check. End of feature search.
The perceptual readiness of a category is expressed in the ease and speed with which a given stimulus belongs to a certain category when various conditions determined by the instruction, past experience, motivation.
Illusions of perception - inadequate reflections of the perceived object and its properties. Currently, the most studied are the illusory effects observed in the visual perception of two-dimensional contour images. These are the so-called "optical-geometric illusions", which consist in the apparent distortion of the metric relationships between image fragments.
Of 2 segments of equal length, the vertical one seems larger (horizontal-vertical illusion).
The two vertical lines are equal, but the right one appears larger (perspective illusion).
Segments of one line appear to be shifted relative to each other.
The phenomenon of brightness contrast belongs to another class of illusions. So, a different strip on a light background seems darker than on a black one.
Sensations and perception provide sensory knowledge, while penetration into the essence of the phenomenon, beyond the limits of immediate reality, is carried out thanks to thinking.
THINKING
Thinking (according to A.V. Brushlinsky) - a form of creative reflection of reality, generating a result that does not exist in reality itself or in the subject itself at the moment.
Saratov State University named after N. G. Chernyshevsky
Psychology faculty
in the discipline "Psychology"
on the topic: Basic psychological processes
Completed by: Berezina D.V.
Saratov 2011
Introduction
1.Basic psychological processes and states
2. Cognitive psychological processes
2.1 Feelings
2.2 Perception
2.3 Thinking
3. Universal mental processes
3.1 Memory
3.2 Attention
3.3 Imagination
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
The topic of the essay is "Psychological processes".
Psychological processes are inherent in every person. Mental processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking and speech. They are essential components of human activity.
Psychological processes are not just involved in activity, but they develop in it. All mental processes are interconnected and represent a single whole. In the absence of any of the mental processes (speech, thinking, etc.), a person becomes inferior. Activity forms mental processes. Any activity is a combination of internal and external behavioral actions and operations. We will consider each type of mental activity separately.
1. Basic psychological processes and states
Traditionally, in Russian psychology, it is customary to distinguish two groups of psychological processes.
Specific, or actually cognitive, processes, which are sensation, perception and thinking. The result of these processes is the knowledge of the subject about the world and about himself, obtained either with the help of the senses, or rationally:
· sensation is the selection of the properties of an object, sensory, sensuality;
· perception is the perception of an object as a whole, as well as perception is the perception of an image, objects;
· thinking is a reflection of the relations between objects, their essential properties for cognition.
Nonspecific, i.e. universal, mental processes - memory, attention and imagination. These processes are also called end-to-end, in the sense that they pass through any activity and ensure its implementation. Universal mental processes are necessary conditions for cognition, but are not reduced to it. Thanks to the universal mental processes, the cognizing, developing subject has the ability to maintain the unity of "his Self" in time:
· memory allows a person to retain past experience;
· attention helps to extract actual (real) experience;
· imagination predicts future experience.
2. Cognitive psychological processes
1 Feelings
So, the process of cognition is the acquisition, retention and preservation of knowledge about the world. Feelings are one of the components of the cognitive process.
Sensations are defined as the process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact on receptors. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. To this, perhaps, we can only add that sensations also reflect the state of the body of the subject himself with the help of receptors located in his body. Sensations are the initial source of knowledge, an important condition for the formation of the psyche and its normal functioning.
The need to constantly receive sensations is well manifested when there are no external stimuli (with sensory isolation). As experiments have shown, in this case, the psyche ceases to function normally: hallucinations occur, thinking is disturbed, a pathology of perception of one's body is noted, etc. Specific psychological problems arise with sensory deprivation, i.e. when the influx of external influences is limited, which is well known on the example of the development of the psyche of people who are blind or deaf, as well as those who see and hear poorly.
Human sensations are extremely diverse, although since the time of Aristotle, only five senses have been talked about for a very long time - sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. In the 19th century knowledge about the composition of sensations has expanded dramatically as a result of the description and study of their new types, such as vestibular, vibrational, "muscular-articular" or kinesthetic, etc.
Properties of sensations
Whatever the sensation, it can be described with the help of several characteristics, properties inherent in it.
Modality is a qualitative characteristic in which the specificity of sensation as a simple mental signal is manifested in comparison with a nervous signal. First of all, such types of sensations as visual, auditory, olfactory, etc. are distinguished. However, each type of sensation has its own modal characteristics. For visual sensations, these can be hue, lightness, saturation; for auditory - pitch, timbre, loudness; for tactile - hardness, roughness, etc.
Localization - a spatial characteristic of sensations, that is, information about the localization of the stimulus in space.
Sometimes (as, for example, in the case of pain and interoceptive, "internal" sensations), localization is difficult, indefinite. In this regard, the “probe problem” is interesting: when we write or cut something, the sensations are localized at the tip of a pen or knife, that is, not at all where the probe contacts the skin and affects it.
Intensity is a classic quantitative characteristic. The problem of measuring the intensity of sensation is one of the main problems in psychophysics.
The basic psychophysical law reflects the relationship between the magnitude of the sensation and the magnitude of the acting stimulus. Psychophysics explains the variety of observable forms of behavior and mental states primarily by differences in the physical situations that cause them. The task is to establish a connection between the body and the soul, the object and the sensation associated with it. The area of irritation causes sensation. Each sense organ has its own boundaries - that means there is an area of sensation. There are such variants of the basic psychophysical law as the logarithmic law of G. Fechner, the power law of S. Stevens, as well as the generalized psychophysical law proposed by Yu. M. Zabrodin.
Duration is the temporal characteristic of sensation. It is defined functional state sense organ, but mainly by the time of action of the stimulus and its intensity. The sensation occurs later than the stimulus begins to act, and does not disappear immediately with its termination. The period from the beginning of the action of the stimulus to the onset of sensation is called the latent (hidden) period of sensation. It is not the same for different types of sensations (for tactile - 130 ms, for pain - 370 ms, for taste - 50 ms) and can change dramatically in diseases of the nervous system.
After the termination of the stimulus, its trace remains for some time in the form of a sequential image, which can be either positive (corresponding to the characteristics of the stimulus) or negative (having opposite characteristics, for example, colored in an additional color). We usually do not notice positive sequential images because of their short duration. The appearance of successive images can be explained by the phenomenon of retinal fatigue.
Auditory sensations, like visual sensations, can also be accompanied by successive images. The most comparable phenomenon in this case is “ringing in the ears”, i.e. unpleasant feeling, which is often accompanied by exposure to deafening sounds.
2.2 Perception
Representatives of psychology interpret perception as a kind of integral configuration - gestalt. Integrity - according to Gestalt psychology - is always the selection of a figure against the background. Details, parts, properties can only be separated from the whole image later. Gestalt psychologists have established many laws of perceptual organization that are completely different from the laws of associations, according to which elements are linked into an integral structure (the laws of proximity, isolation, good form, etc.). They convincingly proved that the integral structure of the image affects the perception of individual elements and individual sensations. The same element, being included in different images of perception, is perceived differently. For example, two identical circles appear different if one is surrounded by large circles and the other by small circles, etc.
The main features of perception are distinguished:
) integrity and structure - perception reflects a holistic image of an object, which, in turn, is formed on the basis of generalized knowledge about the individual properties and qualities of an object. Perception is able to capture not only separate parts of sensations (individual notes), but also a generalized structure woven from these sensations (entire melody);
) constancy - the preservation of certain properties of the image of an object that seem constant to us. So, an object known to us (for example, a hand), remote from us, will seem to us exactly the same size as the same object that we see close. The property of constancy is involved here: the properties of the image approximate the true properties of this object. Our perceptual system corrects the inevitable errors caused by the infinite variety of surroundings and creates adequate images of perception. When a person puts on glasses that distort objects and enters an unfamiliar room, he gradually learns to correct the distortions caused by the glasses, and finally stops noticing these distortions, although they are reflected on the retina. So, the constancy of perception that is formed in the process of objective activity is a necessary condition for a person's orientation in a changing world;
) the objectivity of perception is an act of objectification, i.e., the assignment of information received from the outside world to this world. There is a certain system of actions that provides the subject with the discovery of the objectivity of the world, and the main role is played by touch and movement. Objectivity also plays an important role in the regulation of behavior. Thanks to this quality, we can distinguish, for example, a brick from a block of explosives, although they will be the same in appearance;
) meaningfulness. Although perception arises as a result of the direct action of the stimulus on the receptors, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. Perception is thus connected with thinking and speech. We perceive the world through the prism of meanings. To consciously perceive an object means to mentally name it and attribute the perceived object to a certain group, class of objects, to generalize it in a word. For example, when we look at a watch, we do not see something round, shiny, etc., we see a specific object - a watch. This property of perception is called categorization, that is, the assignment of the perceived to a certain class of objects or phenomena. This connection between perception and thinking appears especially clearly under difficult conditions of perception, when hypotheses about the belonging of an object to a class are consistently put forward and tested. In other cases, according to G. Helmholtz, unconscious conclusions “work”; sensation perception thinking memory
5) activity. During the process of perception, the motor components of the analyzers are involved (hand movements during touch, eye movements during visual perception, etc.). In addition, it is necessary to be able to actively move your body in the process of perception;
) property of apperception. The perceptual system actively "builds" the image of perception, selectively using not all, but the most informative properties, parts, elements of the stimulus. At the same time, information from memory, past experience is also used, which is attached to sensory data (apperception). In the process of formation, the Image itself and the actions to build it are constantly being corrected through Feedback, the image is compared with the reference.
Thus, perception depends not only on irritation, but also on the perceiving object itself - a particular person. Perception always affects the personality of the perceiver, his attitude to the perceived, needs, aspirations, emotions at the time of perception, etc. Perception, therefore, is closely related to the content of a person’s mental life.
2.3 Thinking
For example - the highest stage of information processing by a person or animal, the process of establishing links between objects or phenomena of the surrounding world; or - the process of reflecting the essential properties of objects, as well as the connections between them, which leads to the emergence of ideas about objective reality. The debate over the definition continues to this day.
In pathopsychology and neuropsychology, thinking is one of the highest mental functions. It is considered as an activity that has a motive, a goal, a system of actions and operations, a result and control.
Thinking is the highest stage of human knowledge, the process of reflection in the brain of the surrounding real world, based on two fundamentally different psychophysiological mechanisms: the formation and continuous replenishment of the stock of concepts, ideas and the derivation of new judgments and conclusions. Thinking allows you to gain knowledge about such objects, properties and relationships of the surrounding world that cannot be directly perceived using the first signal system. The forms and laws of thinking are the subject of consideration of logic, and the psychophysiological mechanisms - respectively - of psychology and physiology. (from the point of view of physiology and psychology - this definition is more accurate)
3. Universal mental processes
Cognitive psychology, considering memory both as a function and as a process at the same time and trying to explain the patterns of its functioning, presents it as an evolving, multi-level storage system (sensory register, short-term memory, long-term memory). Memory as a system of processes for organizing information for the purpose of memorization, preservation and reproduction can also be considered as a substructure of intelligence - system interaction cognitive abilities and knowledge available to the individual.
Being the most important characteristic of all mental processes, memory ensures the unity and integrity of the human personality.
Separate types memories are allocated in accordance with three main criteria:
) according to the nature of mental activity that prevails in activity, memory is divided into motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical;
) by the nature of the goals of the activity - into involuntary and arbitrary;
) according to the duration of fixation and preservation of the material - for short-term, long-term and operational.
3.2 Attention
Attention is one of the sides of human consciousness. In any conscious activity of people, it manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent: whether a person listens to music or peers into a drawing of a detail. Attention is included in the process of perception, in the process of memory, thinking, imagination. The presence of attention in human activity makes it productive, organized and active.
The problem of attention was first developed within the framework of the psychology of consciousness. The main task was considered to be the study of the inner experience of a person. But as long as introspection remained the main research method, the problem of attention eluded psychologists. Attention served only as a "stand", a tool for their mental experiments. Using objective experimental method, W. Wundt discovered that simple reactions to visual and auditory stimuli depend not only on the characteristics of external stimuli, but also on the attitude of the subject to the perception of this stimulus. He called the simple entry of any content into consciousness perception (perception), and the focusing of clear consciousness on individual contents - attention, or apperception. For such followers of Wundt as E. Titchener and T. Ribot, attention has become the cornerstone of their psychological systems (Dormyshev Yu. B., Romanov V. Ya., 1995).
At the beginning of the century, this situation changed dramatically. Gestalt psychologists believed that the objective structure of the field, and not the intentions of the subject, determine the perception of objects and events. Behaviorists rejected attention and consciousness as the main concepts of the psychology of consciousness. They tried to completely abandon these words, because they mistakenly hoped that they could develop some more precise concepts that would allow, using strict quantitative characteristics, to objectively describe the corresponding psychological processes. However, forty years later, the concepts of "consciousness" and "attention" returned to psychology (Velichkovsky B.M., 1982).
It took psychologists decades of experimental work and observation to describe the concept of attention. In modern psychology, it is customary to single out the following criteria for attention:
) external reactions - motor, vegetative, providing conditions for better signal perception. These include turning the head, fixing the eyes, facial expressions and posture of concentration, holding the breath, vegetative components of the orienting reaction;
) concentration on the performance of a certain activity. This criterion is the main one for "activity" approaches to the study of attention. It is associated with the organization of activities and control over its implementation;
) increase in the productivity of cognitive and executive activities. In this case, we are talking about increasing the effectiveness of "attentive" action (perceptual, mnemonic, mental, motor) in comparison with "inattentive";
) selectivity (selectivity) of information. This criterion is expressed in the ability to actively perceive, memorize, analyze only part of the incoming information, as well as in responding only to a limited range of external stimuli;
) clarity and distinctness of the contents of consciousness that are in the field of attention. This subjective criterion was put forward within the framework of the psychology of consciousness. The entire field of consciousness was divided into the focal area and the periphery. Units of the focal area of consciousness appear to be stable, bright, and the contents of the periphery of consciousness are clearly indistinguishable and merge into a pulsating cloud. indefinite form. Such a structure of consciousness is possible not only with the perception of objects, but also with memories and reflections.
Not all phenomena of attention are associated with consciousness. The remarkable Russian psychologist H. H. Lange divided the objective and subjective aspects of attention. He believed that in our consciousness there is, as it were, one brightly lit place, moving away from which mental phenomena darken or turn pale, less and less conscious. Attention, considered objectively, is nothing but the relative dominance of a given representation at a given moment in time; subjectively, it means to be focused on this impression (N. N. Lange, 1976).
Within the framework of various approaches, psychologists focus on certain manifestations of attention: on vegetative reactions of information selection, control over the performance of an activity, or a state of consciousness. However, if we try to generalize the entire phenomenology of attention, we can come to the following definition.
Attention is the implementation of the selection of the necessary information, the provision of electoral programs of action and the preservation constant control behind their flow (Luriya A. R., 1975).
The main properties of attention are the focus of attention on certain objects and phenomena (in particular, external and internal), the degree and amount of attention.
The degree of attention is a characteristic of its intensity. As a subjective experience, it is evaluated
3.3 Imagination
The product or result of the process of imagination are images of the imagination. They may arise in accordance with instructions, instructions from another subject, based on viewing photographs, paintings, movies, listening to music, perceiving individual sounds and noises, or through a description of an event, thing, character, or association with something. . Only one list of ways to produce images of the imagination shows its close connection with other mental processes that have a figurative nature (sensation, perception, memory, ideas, thinking).
Imagination is based on past experience, and therefore the images of the imagination are always secondary, that is, they are “rooted” in the previously experienced, perceived, felt by a person. But unlike memory processes, the task of preserving and accurately reproducing information is not set here. In the imagination, experience is transformed (generalized, supplemented, combined, acquires a different emotional coloring, its scale changes).
Unlike mental images (concepts, judgments, conclusions), the control function is significantly reduced here. The imagination is relatively free, because it is not constrained by the task of assessing the correctness of what our consciousness or subconscious produces.
Many researchers as hallmark the process of imagination is called novelty. But it should be noted that the novelty here is not absolute, but relative. The image of the imagination is new in relation to what is seen, heard, perceived at some point in time or point of view, approach to the interpretation of a person. There is more of this novelty in the processes of creation, but less in the recreating imagination.
Finally, visualization of images is related to imagination, they can be attributed to any modality (visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, etc.).
Basic Functions of the Imagination
Goal-setting - the future result of the activity is created in the imagination, it exists only in the mind of the subject and directs his activity to obtain the desired.
Anticipation (anticipation) - modeling the future (positive or negative consequences, the course of interaction, the content of the situation) by summarizing the elements of past experience and establishing cause-and-effect relationships between its elements; in the imagination, the future is born from the past.
Combination and planning - creating an image of the desired future by correlating the elements of perception and past experience with the results of the analytical and synthetic activity of the mind.
Substitution of reality - a person may be deprived of the opportunity to really act or be in a certain situation, then by the power of his imagination he is transferred there, performs actions in his imagination, thereby replacing the real reality with an imaginary one.
Penetration into the inner world of another person - on the basis of a description or demonstration, the imagination is able to create pictures of what has been experienced (experienced at a given moment in time) by another being, thereby making it possible to join him inner world; this function serves as the basis for understanding and interpersonal communication.
Thus, imagination is an integral part of human activity and life, social interaction and cognition.
Conclusion
In the abstract, we considered two groups of psychological processes: specific, or actually cognitive, processes, which are sensation, perception and thinking; non-specific, i.e., universal, mental processes - memory, attention and imagination.
Thus, sensations are defined as the process of reflecting individual properties of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact on receptors. The physiological basis of sensation is a nervous process that occurs when a stimulus acts on an analyzer adequate to it. To this, perhaps, we can only add that sensations also reflect the state of the body of the subject himself with the help of receptors located in his body. Sensations are the initial source of knowledge, an important condition for the formation of the psyche and its normal functioning.
Perception is a reflection of integral objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses. In the course of perception, there is an ordering and unification of individual sensations into integral images of things. Unlike sensations, which reflect the individual properties of the stimulus, perception reflects the object as a whole, in the aggregate of its properties.
Thinking is the process of modeling the systematic relations of the surrounding world on the basis of unconditional provisions. However, in psychology there are many other definitions.
Memory is the memorization, preservation and subsequent reproduction by the individual of his experience. In memory, the following main processes are distinguished: memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting. These processes are formed in activity and determined by it.
Memory is the most important, defining characteristic of the mental life of a person. The role of memory cannot be reduced to fixing what “was in the past”. After all, no action in the "present" is unthinkable outside the processes of memory; the flow of any, even the most elementary, mental act necessarily implies the retention of each of its elements for "coupling" with the subsequent ones. Without the ability for such cohesion, development is impossible: a person would remain "forever in the position of a newborn."
Attention is the concentration of consciousness and its focus on something that has a particular meaning for a person. Orientation refers to the selective nature of this activity and its preservation, and concentration refers to deepening into this activity and distracting from the rest. From this definition it follows that attention does not have its own product, it only improves the result of other mental processes. Attention is inseparable from other mental processes and states.
Imagination refers to the "universal" mental processes. Imagination is the mental process of creating an image of an object by transforming reality or ideas about it. Imagination supplements perception with elements of past experience, a person's own experiences, transforms the past and present through generalization, connection with feelings, sensations, ideas.
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INTRODUCTION 3
1. MENTAL PROCESSES AND THEIR CONTENT.4
1. 1. General concept of sensations 6
1. 2. Perception 7
1. 3. Thinking process 8
1. 4. Imagination 9
1. 5. The concept of memory and its classification 10
CONCLUSION 12
REFERENCES 13
INTRODUCTION
The psyche arose and was formed as the ability of living organisms to actively interact with the outside world on the basis of neurophysiological coding of vital influences and ways of interacting with them, as the ability of organisms to adapt to the environment.
The human psyche is a reflective-regulatory activity that ensures its active interaction with the outside world on the basis of the appropriation of universal human experience. The psyche provides selective contacts of the subject with reality, depending on the system of his needs and recognition in the environment of what satisfies these needs. The psyche is a signal reflection of reality: the external signs of phenomena serve for a person as a signal of their meaning and meaning.
The human psyche acquires special form- a form of consciousness generated by the social way of its existence. However, consciousness does not exhaust the entire essence of the psyche. Along with it, a person also has biologically formed mental structures(the sphere of his innately unconscious activity), and vast scope life-long acquired automatisms (the sphere of the subconscious).
The main phenomena of the psyche are the mental processes of the formation of ideal (mental) images and the processes of mental regulation of activity.
Mental phenomena are inextricably interrelated, but traditionally they are divided into three groups: mental processes, mental states, and mental properties of the individual.
In more detail, we will consider cognitive mental processes, which are basic phenomena. These include the following processes: sensation, perception, thinking, imagination and memory.
1. MENTAL PROCESSES AND THEIR CONTENT.
Speaking of mental processes, we distinguish cognitive, emotional processes, and we can also talk about volitional processes. However, by distinguishing thought or intellectual, emotional and volitional processes, we do not establish any disjunctive division by this, in the same way as psychology did, which divided the psyche, or consciousness, into intellect, feeling and will. One and the same process can be and, as a rule, can be intellectual, emotional, and volitional. The emotional process, for example, is never really reduced to "pure", i.e. abstract, emotionality; it always includes in some kind of unity and interpenetration not only emotional, but also intellectual moments, just as the intellectual process of thinking usually includes emotional moments to one degree or another, and is not reduced to "pure", i.e. e. abstract, isolated intellectuality. For us, this is not about the fact that emotion is in unity and interconnection with thinking or thinking with emotion, but that thinking itself as a real mental process is already a unity of the intellectual and emotional, and emotion is a unity of the emotional and intellectual.
Thus, when we analyze sequentially intellectual, or cognitive, emotional and volitional processes, we are talking about the characteristics of single and at the same time diverse mental processes according to the intellectual, emotional or volitional component that prevails in each such process. Each mental process can be characterized in relation to each of them. We characterize it as intellectual, emotional or volitional according to the predominant component in it, which in this case leaves its defining imprint on the process as a whole.
Mental processes, including certain psychophysical functions as components, in turn are included in certain specific forms of activity, within which and depending on which they are formed. So, psychology can and should study the process of thinking in the general laws of its course, which distinguish the thought process, for example, from the elementary associative process. In reality, this thought process is usually carried out in the course of some specific activity - practical labor activity that solves a certain production problem, the activity of an inventor rationalizing this production process, in the theoretical work of a scientist solving some problem, or, finally, in the educational activity of the student, who in the process of learning acquires the knowledge already acquired by science. Being actually carried out in various types of concrete activity, mental processes are formed in it. And only by studying them in the real context of this activity, it is possible to reveal not only more particular, but also the most general patterns of mental processes as really meaningful patterns.
The meaning of traditional functional psychology, which interprets all complex mental processes as functions, was to present them as manifestations that depend solely on internal conditions, on the immanent characteristics of the organism, spirit, and personality. The fundamental prerequisites - conscious or unconscious - of such a functional psychology are biologization ideas that all mental functions are a product of the immanent maturation of the organism, or idealistic theories, according to which various, ever higher manifestations of the psyche are the result of the self-development of the spirit. In reality, the course of mental processes and their specific features depend on the specific material conditions in which they occur. Therefore, the true overcoming of the main vices of functional psychology is achieved not by reservations about this or that understanding of functions, illegally trying to identify them with what is no longer a function in any sense, and not by talking about interfunctional relationships, but only by including them in the plan of psychological research. activity in which the psyche and specific features of various mental functions and processes are actually formed.
1. 1. General concept of sensations
Sensation is a mental process of direct, sensual reflection of the elementary (physical and chemical) properties of reality. Sensation - the sensitivity of a person to the sensory influences of the environment. All complex mental activity of a person is based on sensations.
Feeling is an elementary but basic mental process. This is not a passive imprint of the physical properties of reality, but an active mental process of human interaction with the world.
Mental processes are processes of active mastery of the world. A person's feelings are mediated by his knowledge, that is, the socio-historical experience of mankind. Expressing this or that property of things and phenomena in the word (“red”, “cold”), we thereby elementarily generalize these properties.
Sensations reflect not only the specific properties of objects and phenomena, but also their intensity, duration and spatial localization. The images of sensations are objectified.
Human sensations are interconnected, associated, just as various properties of reality are interconnected. Sensation is a channel of sensual connection of an organism with reality.
Human life activity is based on the continuous reception and analysis of information about the physical and chemical characteristics of the external environment and the internal states of the organism. This process is carried out through the functioning of specialized neurophysiological
some mechanisms - analyzers that provide reception and analysis of sensory, sensual influences. The information received by the analyzers is called sensory (from Latin sensus - feeling), and the process of its reception and primary processing is called sensory activity.
1. 2. Perception
Cognizing the surrounding reality, interacting with it, we meet with the objective world. Objects are identified by us by the totality of their characteristic features.
Perception is a direct, sensual reflection of objects and phenomena in a holistic form as a result of awareness of their identifying features.
Perceptual images are built on the basis of various sensations. However, they are not reduced to the simple sum of these sensations. Perception is associated with the identification, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, with their assignment to a certain category according to the corresponding signs, grounds.
Only by including an object or phenomenon in a certain system, embracing it with an appropriate concept, can we correctly interpret it.
Being a sensual stage of cognition, perception is inextricably linked with thinking, has a motivational orientation, and is accompanied by an emotional response.
Associated with the identification process, perception includes the processes of comparison, correlation of a given object with typical standards stored in memory. In the process of ontogeny, perceptual learning takes place.
People selectively highlight what they are used to and want to see. Familiar objects are perceived at the same time (simultaneously), unfamiliar objects are perceived in a structurally deployed, step-by-step manner (successively). In the latter case, a hypothesis about the essence of the object is first put forward, a decision is made about its categorization, nominalization, and then its features are critically evaluated.
The mental development of a person is associated with the development of a culture of perception - an educated, aesthetically developed person is able to enjoy the grace of form, color and sound harmony of the environment.
The process of perception is a perceptual action. Its effectiveness depends on what features of the object will be singled out by the subject as the initial supporting elements.
The most important component of each type of perception is motor processes (movement of the eye along the contour of an object, movement of a hand along the surface of an object, movement of the larynx that reproduces an audible sound).
1. 3. Thinking process
Cognizing and transforming the world, a person reveals stable, regular connections between phenomena. Patterns, internal connections of phenomena are reflected in our consciousness indirectly - in the external signs of phenomena, a person recognizes signs of internal, stable relationships.
Noticing the connections between phenomena, establishing the universal nature of these connections, a person actively masters the world, rationally organizes his interaction with it. Generalized and indirect (sign) orientation in a sensually perceived environment allows the archaeologist and investigator to restore the real course of past events, and the astronomer to look not only into the past, but also into the distant future.
Not only in science and professional activity, in all everyday life, a person constantly uses knowledge, concepts, general ideas, generalized schemes, reveals the objective meaning and personal meaning of the phenomena surrounding him, finds a reasonable way out of various problem situations, solves problems that arise before him tasks. In all these cases, he carries out mental activity - a generalized orientation in the world.
Thinking is a mental process of generalized and mediated reflection of stable, regular properties and relations of reality, essential for solving cognitive problems, schematic orientation in specific situations.
Thinking forms the structure of individual consciousness, its semantic (conceptual) field, the classification and evaluation standards of the individual, his generalized assessments.
The system of personal meanings interacts in the thinking of an individual with the objective meaning of phenomena, with an understanding of the essence of specific phenomena as a variety of a certain class of phenomena. In an elementary form, understanding manifests itself already when objects are recognized, when they are assigned to a certain category. To understand something means to include something new in the system of existing connections.
1. 4. Imagination
Imagination is a figurative-informational modeling of reality based on the recombination of memory images. Thanks to the imagination, a person foresees the future and regulates his behavior, creatively transforms reality.
Imagination is a specifically human manifestation of mental activity, formed in labor activity: any labor activity requires prior awareness of the goal, that is, the formation of a mental model of the future result of the activity. Imagination provides a leading reflection of reality, in which the past is extrapolated (projected) into the future.
Imagination allows a person to make decisions with a lack of initial information, to form high-probability assumptions in problem situations. Imagination - the ability of a person to reconstruct reality, generate self-images - create images from oneself.
It ensures the formation of figurative representations according to descriptions, creative design and fantasizing. All this testifies to the integrative essence of the process of imagination: it unites the sensual, rational and mnemonic spheres of the human psyche.
Images that arise in the process of imagination activate the emotional sphere of a person, mobilize his energy to achieve future results. Through imagination, the future determines human behavior. Every act of thinking involves imagination. It is only thanks to him that abstraction becomes possible, such methods of cognition as extrapolation and interpolation, a thought experiment. Deep penetration into reality requires a free attitude of consciousness to the elements of reality.
Imagination provides integrity and constancy of perception. It orients a person in the boundless spaces of the future and makes it possible to reconstruct pictures of the distant past.
A person's ability to foresee and deeply experience imaginary ethical situations is the basis of his moral behavior.
The environment is a multi-layered problematic world for a person, the awareness of which is impossible without a sufficiently developed imagination. It provides a person with a sign mastery of the world and underlies the ideal reflection of reality.
1. 5. The concept of memory and its classification
The impressions that a person receives about the world around them leave a certain trace, are preserved, consolidated, and, if necessary and possible, are reproduced. These processes are called memory. “Without memory,” wrote S. L. Rubinshtein, “we would be creatures of the moment. Our past would be dead to the future. The present, as it flows, would irrevocably disappear into the past.
Memory is the basis of human abilities, it is a condition for learning, acquiring knowledge, developing skills and abilities. Impossible without memory normal functioning neither individual nor society. Thanks to his memory and its improvement, man stood out from the animal kingdom and reached the heights at which he is now. And the further progress of mankind without the constant improvement of this function is unthinkable.
Memory can be defined as the ability to receive, store and reproduce life experience. Man has three types of memory, much more powerful and productive than animals: arbitrary, logical and mediated. The first is associated with a broad volitional control of memorization, the second with the use of logic, the third with the use of various means of memorization, mostly presented in the form of objects of material and spiritual culture. More precisely and strictly than it was done above, human memory can be defined as psychophysiological and cultural processes that perform the functions of remembering, preserving and reproducing information in life. These functions are basic for memory. They differ not only in their structure, initial data and results, but also in the fact that different people developed differently. There are people who, for example, have difficulty remembering, but on the other hand they reproduce well and keep the material they memorized in their memory for quite a long time. These are individuals with developed long-term memory. There are people who, on the contrary, quickly remember, but also quickly forget what they once remembered. They have stronger short-term and operational types of memory.
The classification of types of memory according to the nature of psychological activity includes: motor, emotional, figurative and verbal-logical.
CONCLUSION
Mental processes are individual manifestations of a person's mental activity, (conditionally) isolated as relatively isolated objects of research. Each mental process has a common object of reflection and a single reflective-regulatory specificity.
Mental processes are forms of reflection by the subject of objective reality in the course of the activity of the central nervous system and act as primary regulators of behavior.
Cognitive mental processes include mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. These include sensation, perception, representation, memory, imagination, thinking, speech, and attention. Thanks to these processes, a person receives information about the world around him and about himself.
Mental processes are expressed in specific content: the function of sensitivity - in sensations, memory processes - in reproduced images of representation. The elementary content associated with functions forms, as it were, the composition of mental life; more complex formations that arise in mental processes - images of perception, representations, etc. - constitute its qualitatively new content. All mental processes, as well as functions, are considered by us in unity with their specific content.
Mental processes act as primary regulators of human behavior. Mental processes have a definite beginning, course, and end, i.e., they have certain dynamic characteristics, which primarily include parameters that determine the duration and stability of the mental process. On the basis of mental processes, certain states are formed, knowledge, skills and abilities are formed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Vygotsky L. S. Development of higher mental functions.- M.: Izd. APN RSFSR, 1987.
2. Gromova E.A. Emotional memory and its mechanisms. - M. Education, 1980.
3. Nemov R. S. General psychology: A textbook for university students. M.: Humanitarian publishing center VLADOS, 2005.
4. General, social and legal psychology: Textbook for universities / M. Enikeev. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2007.
5. Psychology. Textbook for humanitarian universities / Ed. V. N. Druzhinina. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
6. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology: In 2 volumes. T.1. –M.: Pedagogy, 1989.
7. Smirnov A. A. Problems of the psychology of memory .- M .: Education. 1982.
This section will consider following topics Keywords: mental processes from the point of view of cybernetic science, theory of signals and mental processes, information structure of nervous processes and mental images.
The concept of mental processes
Definition
Mental processes are certain structural elements that can be isolated from the psyche as a whole; dynamic reflection of reality in various forms mental phenomena.
The peculiarity of mental processes is their short duration.
All mental processes can be divided into cognitive, emotional and volitional.
What is included in each section, we can see in Figure 1.
Figure 1. "Types of mental processes"
Let's consider in more detail each of their types.
Cognitive mental processes:
- Sensation is a certain process of reflection of individual properties of the external world. Feeling is the simplest mental process. The ability to sense is present in all living organisms that have a nervous system. Conscious sensations are characteristic only for living beings that have a brain. The mechanism of sensation formation will be discussed in subsection 4.3. "Information Structure of Nervous Processes and Mental Images".
- Perception is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. The main properties of perception: integrity, objectivity, constancy, meaningfulness, selectivity.
- Representation is the process of reflecting the phenomena of the external world, recreated on the basis of previous experience. Main properties of views:
- fragmentation - in the presented image, any of its features are often absent;
- instability;
- variability - when a person is enriched with new experience and knowledge, there is a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world.
- object-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality;
- visual-figurative thinking occurs when presenting objective images;
- abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts.
The main mental operations include: analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, abstraction, concretization, systematization (or classification).
- Memory is a form of mental reflection, the main functions of which are: consolidation, preservation and reproduction of experience. Memory processes include:
- memorization is such a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what matters to a person or aroused his interest and greatest emotions;
- preservation - the process of processing and retaining information;
- reproduction - the process of retrieving stored material from memory;
- Forgetting is the process of getting rid of long-received, rarely used information.
Emotional mental processes are experiences by a person of his attitude to objects and phenomena of reality, to what he cognizes, to himself and other people.
The psyche is complex and diverse in its manifestations. Generally there are three major groups mental phenomena:
1) mental processes;
2) mental states;
3) mental properties.
mental processes - dynamic reflection of reality in various forms of mental phenomena. The mental process is the course of a mental phenomenon that has a beginning, development and end. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that the end of one mental process is closely connected with the beginning of another. Hence - the continuity of mental activity in the state of wakefulness of a person. Mental processes are called as external influences on the nervous system, and irritations emanating from the internal environment of the body. All mental processes are divided into cognitive, emotional and strong-willed(Fig. 5).
Rice. 5. Classification of mental processes
Cognitive mental processes play an important role in human life and activity. Thanks to them, a person reflects the objective world around him, cognizes it and, on the basis of this, orients himself in the environment and acts consciously.
In a complex mental activity, various processes are connected and form a single whole that provides an adequate reflection of reality and the implementation of various types of activity.
mental states - this is a relatively stable level of mental activity determined at a given time, which is manifested by increased or decreased activity of the individual. Each person experiences various mental states every day (Fig. 6). In one mental state, mental or physical work is easy and productive, in another it is difficult and inefficient. Mental states are of a reflex nature, arising under the influence of a certain environment, physiological factors, time, etc.
Rice. 6. Classification of mental states
Mental properties of a person are stable formations that provide a certain qualitative and quantitative level of activity and behavior that is typical for a given person. Each mental property is formed gradually in the process of reflection and is fixed by practice. It is therefore the result of reflective and practical activity. The mental properties of a person are diverse (Fig. 7), and they must be classified in accordance with the grouping of mental processes on the basis of which they are formed.
Rice. 7. Classification of mental properties
1. Cognitive mental processes
Cognitive mental processes are the channels of our communication with the world. The incoming information about specific phenomena and objects undergoes changes and turns into an image. All human knowledge about the surrounding world is the result of the integration of individual knowledge obtained with the help of cognitive mental processes. Each of these processes has its own characteristics and its own organization. But at the same time, proceeding simultaneously and harmoniously, these processes imperceptibly for a person interact with each other and as a result create for him a single, integral, continuous picture of the objective world.
1. Feeling - the simplest cognitive mental process, during which there is a reflection of individual properties, qualities, aspects of reality, its objects and phenomena, the connections between them, as well as the internal states of the body that directly affect the human senses. Sensation is the source of our knowledge of the world and ourselves. The ability to sense is present in all living organisms that have a nervous system. Conscious sensations are characteristic only for living beings that have a brain. the main role sensations is to quickly bring to the central nervous system information about the state of both the external and internal environment of the body. All sensations arise as a result of the action of stimuli-irritants on the corresponding sense organs. In order for a sensation to arise, it is necessary that the stimulus that causes it reach a certain value, called absolute lower threshold of sensation. Each type of sensation has its own thresholds.
But the sense organs have the ability to adapt to changing conditions, so the thresholds of sensations are not constant and can change when moving from one environment to another. This ability is called sensation adaptation. For example, during the transition from light to dark, the sensitivity of the eye to various stimuli changes tenfold. The speed and completeness of adaptation of various sensory systems not the same: in tactile sensations, when smelling, a high degree of adaptation is noted, and the lowest degree is observed with pain sensations, since pain is a signal of a dangerous violation in the work of the body, and fast adaptation pain can be fatal.
The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a classification of sensations, presented in fig. eight.
Exteroceptive sensations- these are sensations arising from the influence of external stimuli on human analyzers located on the surface of the body.
proprioceptive sensations These are sensations that reflect the movement and position of parts of the human body.
Interoceptive sensations These are sensations that reflect the state of the internal environment of the human body.
By the time the sensations occur relevant and irrelevant.
For example, a sour taste in the mouth from a lemon, a feeling of so-called "factual" pain in an amputated limb.
Rice. eight. Classification of sensations (according to Ch. Sherrington)
All sensations have the following characteristics:
¦ quality- an essential feature of sensations, which makes it possible to distinguish one of their types from others (for example, auditory from visual);
¦ intensity- a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the acting stimulus;
¦ duration- the temporal characteristic of sensations, determined by the time of exposure to the stimulus.
2. Perception - this is a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. The ability to perceive the world in the form of images is only in humans and some of the highest representatives of the animal world. Together with the processes of sensation, perception provides direct orientation in the surrounding world. It involves the selection of the main and most significant features from the complex of fixed features with simultaneous distraction from the non-essential ones (Fig. 9). Unlike sensations, which reflect individual qualities of reality, perception creates an integral picture of reality. Perception is always subjective, since people perceive the same information differently depending on their abilities, interests, life experience, etc.
Rice. 9. Classification of types of perception
Consider perception as an intellectual process of successive, interconnected acts of searching for features necessary and sufficient for the formation of an image:
The primary selection of a number of features from the entire flow of information and the decision that they belong to one specific object;
Search in memory for a complex of signs close to the sensations;
Assigning the perceived object to a certain category;
Search additional features confirming or refuting the correctness of the decision;
The final conclusion about which object is perceived.
To the main properties of perception relate: integrity- internal organic interconnection of parts and the whole in the image;
objectivity- an object is perceived by a person as a separate physical body isolated in space and time;
generality- assignment of each image to a certain class of objects;
constancy- the relative constancy of the perception of the image, the preservation of the object of its parameters, regardless of the conditions of its perception (distance, lighting, etc.);
meaningfulness- understanding the essence of the perceived object in the process of perception;
selectivity- preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception.
Perception happens outward directed(perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and internally directed(perception of one's own states, thoughts, feelings, etc.).
According to the time of occurrence, perception is relevant and irrelevant.
Perception can be erroneous(or illusory) such as visual or auditory illusions.
The development of perception is very important for learning activities. Developed perception helps to quickly assimilate a larger amount of information with a lower degree of energy costs.
3. Submission - this is a mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of previous experience. Ideas arise not by themselves, but as a result of practical activity.
Since ideas are based on past perceptual experience, the main classification of ideas is based on classifications of types of sensations and perceptions (Fig. 10).
Rice. ten. Classification of types of representations
Main view properties:
fragmentation- in the presented image, any of its features, sides, parts are often absent;
instability(or impermanence)- the representation of any image sooner or later disappears from the field of human consciousness;
variability- when a person is enriched with new experience and knowledge, there is a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world.
4. Imagination - This is a cognitive mental process, which consists in the creation of new images by a person based on his ideas. Imagination is closely related to the emotional experiences of a person. Imagination differs from perception in that its images do not always correspond to reality, they may contain, to a greater or lesser extent, elements of fantasy, fiction. Imagination is the basis of visual-figurative thinking, which allows a person to navigate the situation and solve problems without direct practical intervention. It especially helps in those cases when practical actions are either impossible, or difficult, or inexpedient.
Rice. eleven. Classification of types of imagination
When classifying types of imagination, they proceed from the main characteristics - degree of volitional effort and degree of activity(Fig. 11).
Recreating imagination manifests itself when a person needs to recreate the representation of an object according to its description (for example, when reading a description of geographical places or historical events, as well as when meeting literary characters).
Dream is the imagination directed towards the desired future. In a dream, a person always creates an image of what is desired, while in creative images the desire of their creator is not always embodied. A dream is a process of imagination that is not included in creative activity, i.e., does not lead to an immediate and direct receipt of an objective product in the form artwork inventions, products, etc.
Imagination is closely related to creativity. creative imagination characterized by the fact that a person transforms his ideas and creates independently new image- not in a familiar image, but completely different from it. In practical activity, the process of artistic creativity in cases where the reconstruction of reality by realistic methods no longer suits the author. Turning to unusual, bizarre, unrealistic images makes it possible to enhance the intellectual, emotional and moral impact of art on a person.
Creation is an activity that generates new material and spiritual values. Creativity reveals the need of the individual for self-expression, self-actualization and realization of their creative potential. In psychology, there are creative activity criteria:
¦ creative is such an activity that leads to a new result, a new product;
¦ since a new product (result) can be obtained by chance, the process of obtaining a product itself (a new method, technique, method, etc.) must also be new;
¦ the result of creative activity cannot be obtained using a simple logical conclusion or action according to a known algorithm;
¦ creative activity, as a rule, is aimed not so much at solving a problem already set by someone, but at an independent vision of the problem and the identification of new, original solutions;
¦ creative activity is usually characterized by the presence of emotional experiences preceding the moment of finding a solution;
¦ creative activity requires special motivation.
Analyzing the nature of creativity, G. Lindsay, K. Hull and R. Thompson tried to find out what hinders the manifestation of creative abilities in humans. They found that interferes with creativity not only insufficient development of certain abilities, but also the presence of certain personality traits, for example:
- a tendency to conformism, i.e., the desire to be like others, not to differ from most people around;
- Fear of appearing stupid or funny;
- fear or unwillingness to criticize others because of the idea formed since childhood about criticism as something negative and offensive;
- excessive conceit, i.e., complete satisfaction about one's personality;
- the prevailing critical thinking, i.e., aimed only at identifying shortcomings, and not at finding ways to eradicate them.
5. Thinking - this is the highest cognitive process, the generation of new knowledge, a generalized and indirect reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relations. The essence of this cognitive mental process is the generation of new knowledge based on the transformation of reality by a person. This is the most complex cognitive process, the highest form of reflection of reality (Fig. 12).
Rice. 12. Classification of types of thinking
subject-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality.
Visual-figurative thinking occurs when presenting objective images.
abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts. Thinking wears motivated and purposeful nature, all operations of the thought process are caused by the needs, motives, interests of the individual, his goals and objectives.
¦ Thinking is always individually. It makes it possible to understand the patterns of the material world, cause-and-effect relationships in nature and social life.
The source of mental activity is practice.
The physiological basis of thinking is reflex activity of the brain.
¦ Exclusively important feature thinking is inseparable connection with speech. We always think in words, even if we don't speak them out loud.
Active research into thinking has been going on since the 17th century. Initially, thinking was actually identified with logic. All theories of thinking can be divided into two groups: the first are based on the hypothesis that a person has innate intellectual abilities that do not change over the course of life, the second on the idea that mental abilities are formed and developed under the influence of life experience.
To the main mental operations relate:
analysis- mental division of the integral structure of the reflection object into constituent elements;
synthesis- reunification of individual elements into a coherent structure;
comparison- establishing relationships of similarity and difference;
generalization- selection of common features based on the combination of essential properties or similarities;
abstraction- highlighting any side of the phenomenon, which in reality does not exist as an independent one;
specification- distraction from common features and highlighting, emphasizing the particular, single;
systematization(or classification)- mental distribution of objects or phenomena in certain groups, subgroups.
In addition to the types and operations listed above, there are thinking processes:
judgment- a statement containing a specific thought;
inference- a series of logically connected statements leading to new knowledge;
definition of concepts- a system of judgments about a certain class of objects or phenomena, highlighting their most common features;
induction- derivation of a particular judgment from a general one;
deduction- the derivation of a general judgment from particular ones.
Basic quality thinking characteristics these are: independence, initiative, depth, breadth, speed, originality, criticality, etc.
The concept of intelligence is inextricably linked with thinking.
Intelligence is the totality of all mental capacity enabling a person to solve various problems. In 1937, D. Wexler (USA) developed tests for measuring intelligence. According to Wexler, intelligence is the global ability to act intelligently, think rationally, and cope well with life's circumstances.
L. Thurstone in 1938, exploring intelligence, singled out its primary components:
counting ability- the ability to operate with numbers and perform arithmetic operations;
verbal(verbal) flexibility- the ability to find the right words to explain something;
verbal perception- ability to understand spoken and written language;
spatial orientation- the ability to imagine various objects in space;
memory;
reasoning ability;
the speed of perception of similarities and differences between objects.
What determines intelligence development? Intelligence is influenced by both hereditary factors and the state of the environment. The development of intelligence is influenced by:
Genetic conditioning - the influence of hereditary information received from parents;
Physical and mental state of the mother during pregnancy;
Chromosomal abnormalities;
Ecological living conditions;
Features of the child's nutrition;
The social status of the family, etc.
Attempts to create single system The "dimensions" of human intelligence encounter many obstacles, since intelligence includes the ability to perform mental operations of completely different quality. The most popular is the so-called IQ(abbreviated as IQ), which allows you to correlate the level of intellectual capabilities of an individual with the average indicators of his age and professional groups.
There is no consensus among scientists about the possibility of obtaining real assessment intelligence with the help of tests, since many of them measure not so much innate intellectual abilities as knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the learning process.
6. Mnemic processes. At present, there is no unified, complete theory of memory in psychology, and the study of the phenomenon of memory remains one of the central tasks. Mnemic processes, or memory processes, are studied by various sciences that consider the physiological, biochemical and psychological mechanisms of memory processes.
Memory- this is a form of mental reflection, which consists in fixing, preserving and subsequent reproduction of past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.
Among the first psychologists who began experimental studies mnemonic processes, was the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus, who, investigating the process of memorizing different phrases, deduced a number of laws of memorization.
Memory connects the past of the subject with his present and future - this is the basis of mental activity.
To memory processes include the following:
1) memorization- such a process of memory, as a result of which the new is consolidated by linking it with the previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what matters to a person or aroused his interest and greatest emotions;
2) preservation– the process of processing and retaining information;
3) reproduction– the process of retrieving stored material from memory;
4) forgetting- the process of getting rid of long-obtained, rarely used information.
One of the most important characteristics is memory quality, which is due to:
The speed of memorization(number of repetitions required to retain information in memory);
the speed of forgetting(the time during which the memorized information is stored in memory).
There are several grounds for classifying the types of memory (Fig. 13): by the nature of the mental activity that prevails in the activity, by the nature of the goals of the activity, by the duration of consolidation and preservation of information, etc.
Rice. 13. Classification of types of memory
The work of different types of memory obeys some general laws.
The Law of Understanding: the deeper the comprehension of what is remembered, the easier the latter is fixed in memory.
Law of Interest: interesting things are remembered faster because less effort is spent on it.
Installation law: memorization is easier if a person sets himself the task of perceiving the content and remembering it.
Law of First Impression: the brighter the first impression of what is remembered, the stronger and faster its memorization.
Context law: information is easier to remember when it is correlated with other simultaneous impressions.
The law of the volume of knowledge: the more extensive knowledge on a particular topic, the easier it is to remember new information from this area of knowledge.
The law of the volume of stored information: the greater the amount of information for simultaneous memorization, the worse it is remembered.
Deceleration law: any subsequent memorization inhibits the previous one.
End law: what is said (read) at the beginning and end of a series of information is better remembered, the middle of the series is remembered worse.
The law of repetition: repetition improves memory.
In psychology, in connection with the study of memory, two terms can be found that are very similar friend on the other - "mnemonic" and "mnemonic", the meanings of which are different. Mnemic means "pertaining to memory", and mnemonic- "related to the art of memorization", i.e. mnemonics are memorization techniques.
The history of mnemonics is rooted in Ancient Greece. AT ancient Greek mythology speaks of Mnemosyne, the mother of the nine muses, the goddess of memory, memories. Mnemonics received special development in the 19th century. in connection with the laws of associations that have received theoretical justification. For better memorization, various mnemonic techniques. Let's give examples.
Association method: the more various associations arise when storing information, the easier the information is remembered.
Link method: combining information into a single, integral structure with the help of key words, concepts, etc.
Place method based on visual associations; having clearly imagined the subject of memorization, one must mentally combine it with the image of the place, which is easily retrieved from memory; for example, in order to remember information in a certain sequence, it is necessary to break it down into parts and associate each part with a certain place in a well-known sequence, for example, the route to work, the arrangement of furniture in the room, the arrangement of photographs on the wall, etc.
A well-known way of remembering the colors of the rainbow, where the initial letter of each word of the key phrase is the first letter of the word denoting the color:
to each - to red
hunter - about range
and does - and yellow
h nat - h green
G de- G blue
With goes– With blue
f azan – f purple
7. Attention - this is an arbitrary or involuntary orientation and concentration of mental activity on some object of perception. The nature and essence of attention cause controversy in psychological science; there is no consensus among psychologists regarding its essence. The complexity of explaining the phenomenon of attention is due to the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form, it is always “attention to something”. Some scientists believe that attention is not an independent process, but is only a part of any other psychological process. Others believe that this is an independent process that has its own characteristics. Indeed, on the one hand, attention is included in all psychological processes, on the other hand, attention has observable and measurable characteristics (volume, concentration, switchability, etc.), which are not directly related to other cognitive processes.
Attention is a necessary condition for mastering any kind of activity. It depends on the individual typological, age and other characteristics of a person. Depending on the activity of the individual, three types of attention are distinguished (Fig. 14).
Rice. fourteen. Classification of types of attention
involuntary attention is the simplest form of attention. He is often called passive or forced since it arises and is maintained independently of human consciousness.
Arbitrary attention controlled by a conscious purpose, connected with the will of man. It is also called volitional, active or deliberate.
Post-voluntary attention also has a purposeful character and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the activity itself becomes so interesting that it practically does not require volitional efforts from a person to maintain attention.
Attention has certain parameters and features, which are largely a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. To basic properties of attention usually include the following:
concentration- this is an indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a particular object, the intensity of communication with it; concentration of attention implies the formation of a temporary center (focus) of all psychological activity of a person;
intensity- characterizes the efficiency of perception, thinking and memory in general;
sustainability- the ability to maintain high levels of concentration and intensity of attention for a long time; determined by the type of nervous system, temperament, motivation (novelty, importance of needs, personal interests), as well as external conditions human activities;
volume- a quantitative indicator of objects that are in the focus of attention (for an adult - from 4 to 6, for a child - no more than 1-3); the amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and on the possibilities short term memory of the individual, the characteristics of the perceived objects and the professional skills of the subject himself also matter;
distribution- the ability to focus on several objects at the same time; at the same time, several focuses (centers) of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes at the same time without losing any of them from the field of attention;
switching - the ability to more or less easily and fairly quickly move from one type of activity to another and focus on the latter.
2. Emotions and feelings
Emotions and feelings are called experiences by a person of his attitude to objects and phenomena of reality, to what he cognizes, to himself and other people.
Emotion- this is a direct reflection of the existing relationship, an experience associated with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction of needs. Emotions are involved in all mental processes in any human condition. They are able to anticipate events that have not yet occurred and may arise in connection with ideas about previously experienced or imaginary situations.
Feeling- a more complex, established attitude of a person to what he knows and does. As a rule, feeling includes a whole range of emotions. Feelings are peculiar only to a person, they are socially conditioned, give completeness and brightness to our perception, so emotionally colored facts are remembered longer. At different peoples and in different historical epochs, feelings are expressed in different ways.
Emotions and feelings are inextricably linked with the physiological state of the human body: with some, a person feels a surge of strength, an increase in energy, and with others, a decline, stiffness. Emotions and feelings are always purely individual. Some of them are congenital, some are acquired in vivo as a result of training and education. The more complex a living being is organized, the higher the step on the evolutionary ladder it occupies, the richer the range of emotions and feelings that it is able to experience. The oldest in origin, the simplest and most common among living beings, emotional experiences are pleasure derived from the satisfaction of organic needs, and displeasure if the corresponding needs remain unsatisfied.
In psychology, there are several basic, or fundamental, emotions: joy, surprise, suffering, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame.
Depending on the combination of speed, strength and duration of feelings, the following are distinguished types of emotional states: mood, passion, affect, enthusiasm, stress, frustration (a state of disorganization of the consciousness and activity of the individual due to a severe nervous shock).
Emotions and feelings are inseparable from a person's personality. In emotional terms, people differ from each other in many ways: emotional excitability, duration, stability, strength and depth of emotional experiences that arise in them, dominance of positive or negative emotions.
Perfection of higher emotions and feelings means personal development person. Such development can be carried out in several directions:
Inclusion in the emotional sphere of new objects, people, events, etc.;
Increasing the level of conscious control of their feelings;
Gradual inclusion in the moral sphere more and more high values and norms, such as conscience, decency, sense of duty, responsibility, etc.
So the creation mental images environment is carried out through cognitive mental processes, which are fastened into a single, integral cognitive mental activity of a person. The image of the surrounding world is the most complex mental formation, in the formation of which various mental processes are involved.
