Study of the respiratory organs of animals. Study of deep reflexes. When urinating, the posture of the animal is natural, there are no pain sensations. Organs of the urinary system without pathologies

Animal diagnostics is a major clinical discipline in veterinary medicine, providing basic material based on common subjects for further study of specialization. As a science, clinical diagnostics considers the methods of laboratory analysis, instrumental examination of a sick animal.

In clinical diagnostics, it is customary to distinguish three main sections:

• syndromatics and the basis of diagnosis;
• animal research methods;
• features of medical thinking and veterinary deontology.

Veterinary ethics and deontology

Deontology largely regulates the professional behavior of a veterinarian. This science includes:

• principles of veterinary work aimed at increasing the therapeutic effect and minimizing complications;
• veterinary ethics - the principles of interaction between specialists, clients and other objects and subjects of work.

Fundamentals of diagnostics and general methods of animal research

• inspection- visual perception of the general condition;
• percussion- study of the body by the characteristic changes in sound when tapping;
• palpation- diagnostics using the senses of touch and stereometry;
• auscultation- listening to sounds in the internal organs and cavities;
• thermometry- determination of body temperature of the animal.

In addition to thermometry, all these methods are related to physical, or physical. On their basis, a general picture of the state of the animal is compiled, as well as clinical changes in individual organs and systems are revealed. Having a detailed clinical picture, the veterinarian should proceed to an in-depth study of the area of ​​the pathological process using laboratory, instrumental methods or using functional tests.

Any method of studying an animal is aimed at identifying characteristic symptoms diseases, symptom complexes and syndromes for compiling a clinical picture - a set of signs of a disease in an animal, taking into account special studies.

The collected clinical picture, anamnestic data and information from functional studies allow us to put diagnosis- a veterinary report on the condition of the animal and its illness.

Symptoms, syndromes and diagnoses have a complex structure with a multi-level hierarchy and a large list of nomenclature subdivisions. The structure, which is complex at first glance, has a logical system that allows using a combination of various research methods to treat an animal.

Study of individual systems and organs

At this stage of studying clinical diagnostics, a veterinary student gets acquainted with the characteristic syndromes of damage to organ systems. Functional and specific methods of studying pathologies are also studied here.

Laboratory diagnostics of animals

Laboratory research helps to assess the general condition of the animal, as well as focus on a particular pathological process. The development of medicine makes it possible to largely rely on this research method, especially in the process of disease prevention.

In the course of laboratory diagnostics, students get acquainted with:

• the study of blood and plasma;
• animal urine diagnostics;
• the study of feces and the contents of the stomach and pancreas;
• study of pathological secretions.

Instrumental research in veterinary medicine

Instrumental diagnostics of animals makes it possible to identify pathological conditions in many organs and systems, provide more accurate information about the disease and monitor the course of treatment over time.

In practice, veterinarians use various methods and methods of instrumental diagnostics:

• radiography;
• ultrasound procedure;
• tomographic diagnostics.

The urinary bladder of animals is subject to many pathologies, among which the most common are: urolithiasis, cystitis, bladder rupture and tumors. According to the objectivity and informativeness of the study, the first place is occupied by ultrasound diagnostics, which makes it possible to identify deviations in the work and anatomy of this organ.
The mouth is an excellent indicator of the animal's health - with many pathologies, various changes occur in the oral cavity - hyperemia, overlays, unpleasant odor, expiration.

fever(febris) is a complex of protective and adaptive reactions of the body, characterized by a violation of thermoregulation, an increase in body temperature.
The development of fever is due to the effect of pyrogens on chemoreceptors.

The udder (uber) or mammary gland (mamma, glandula lactifera, mastos) of a cow is a complex glandular organ, represented by quarters consisting of glands, milk canals, cisterns, nipples and other parts.

A very common disease among domestic rabbits iseimeriosis. This disease is caused by a group of protozoa of the genus Eimeria. More than 15 species are known in rabbits, 12 species are registered in our country. Usually, several types of eimeria are infected at once.
Celiac enteropathy is a chronic intestinal malabsorption associated with hereditary hypersensitivity to gluten that occurs in Irish Setters.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

"NOVOSIBIRSK STATE AGRARIAN UNIVERSITY"

TOMSK AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE - BRANCH

DEPARTMENT OF SURGERY AND INTERNAL

NON-CONMITABLE DISEASES

COURSE WORK

for clinical diagnostics

On the topic: a complete clinical study of the animal

Performed: 3rd year student 0261 gr.

Kuhalskaya Nadezhda

Checked: Khokhlova Anna Viktorovna

Tomsk 2005

Study plan

1). Animal background information

1. Registration

2. Collection of anamnesis

2). Animal clinical study

BUT. General study

1. Definition of habitus

2. Examination of hair, skin and subcutaneous tissue

3. Examination of visible mucous membranes

4. Examination of lymph nodes

5. Thermometry

B. Special Studies

1. Study of the cardiovascular system

2. Study of the respiratory system

3. Examination of the digestive system

4. Examination of the genitourinary system

5. Study of the nervous system

AT. Additional Research

1. Blood test

2. Urinalysis

3. Examination of feces

Conclusion

Bibliography

one). Animal background information

1. Registration of an animal

Date of animal examination: 03/01/2005

Owner: _______

Owner's address: Tomsk, st._____

Kind of animal: dog.

Animal breed: b/p.

Animal gender: bitch.

Animal age: 8 years.

Animal weight: 10 kg.

Animal color: white.

Animal name: Squirrel.

2. History taking

Anamnesis - This is information about the animal, which is obtained by interviewing the owner. The anamnesis consists of two parts: the anamnesis of life and the anamnesis of the disease.

Anamnesis of life includes information about the origin of the animal, the conditions of its maintenance, feeding, watering, purpose of the animal, past diseases, as well as veterinary treatments and research.

Medical history- This is a set of information that should reflect the development of the disease. It is important to find out when, with what manifestations and under what circumstances the animal fell ill; whether the cause of the disease is known; what kind of medical assistance was provided to the animal and by whom; what medications were used. They learn about the general condition of the animal, find out the appetite, the urge to drink, whether diarrhea, cough, shortness of breath and other disorders have been noted.

Anamnesis of life(anamnesis vitae)

The dog was found in January 2001 at about 3 years of age, so the date of her birth and parental couple are unknown. It is also unknown at what age and what the dog was ill with, whether it was vaccinated and from what. All other information about the past life of the dog before 2001 is also unknown.

Currently, Belka lives in a city apartment, eats from the table and has free access to water. Prevention of helminthic invasions is carried out 1 time in half a year. Walks in winter are limited due to the dog's inability to cope with low temperatures, and in warm seasons walks are carried out 2-3 times a day.

In 2002, a litter was obtained from Belka, in the amount of 4 puppies (2 males and 2 females). Shchennost passed well, without deviations. Childbirth took place without obstetrics, puppies were born healthy and strong. Bela fed the puppies for 1 month with milk, then they switched to self-feeding and soon acquired new owners.

Medical history ( anamnesismorbi)

Until 2005, Belka felt well, no deviations from organs and systems were observed.

Approximately at the end of February, deviations from the organs of vision were discovered: the mucous membrane of the left eye acquired a reddish color, humidity increased, serous discharges appeared, and the sclera acquired a reddish color. A white opaque spot was seen on the cornea, which occupied 1/3 of the lower part of the cornea. The dog was helped: for a week, eye drops of albucid were dripped in the morning and evening. It didn't give any results.

On March 27, the owner of the dog went to the veterinary clinic. The animal was examined and treated: autohemotherapy was performed (novocaine 0.5% - 0.4 ml plus 1 ml of blood) and hydrocortisone eye ointment was prescribed 2-4 times a day per eyelid. Autohemotherapy only accelerated the course of the inflammatory process and was cancelled.

Later, another treatment was prescribed with the following drugs:

1. Levomycetin eye drops - 2 times a day;

2. Tetracycline eye ointment in the morning and evening under the eyelid;

3. Vizin (eye drops) - 1 time per day;

4. Taufon (eye drops) - 3 times a day in both eyes.

This treatment didn't work either. By this time, the eyelid was swollen, it became painful, its temperature rose, the sclera acquired a gray-red color.

Deviations from the oral cavity were also found: the mucous membrane of the gums was reddened, painful and swollen. There is plaque on the teeth, there is a hole in the third incisor on the left side, the tooth rots and staggers, an unpleasant putrefactive odor comes from the oral cavity.

The gums, after the removal of the diseased tooth and tartar, were rubbed for 7 days with tincture of calendula and, in parallel, antibiotic therapy with penicillin was carried out in the morning and evening. This treatment gave a positive result, the dog recovered and began to chew food on both sides of the oral cavity.

2). Animal clinical study

A. General study

1. Definition of habitus

Habitus (habitus) is determined by a combination of external signs that characterize the position of the body in space, fatness, constitution, physique and temperament of the animal at the time of the study.

The position of the body in space. In healthy animals, the body position is naturally upright or naturally recumbent. A forced lying or forced standing position is considered when the animal cannot easily change it.

Fatness. To characterize fatness, inspection and palpation are used. Distinguish good, satisfactory, unsatisfactory fatness, malnutrition and obesity.

Constitution- a set of anatomical and morphological features of the body, formed on the basis of hereditary and acquired properties and determining its functionality and reactivity to endo- and exogenous factors. There are 4 types of constitution: rough, tender, dense and loose.

Body type. Evaluating it, take into account the age and breed of the animal. At the same time, the degree of development of the skeleton and muscle tissue, as well as the proportionality of individual parts of the body and the exterior features of the animal, are taken into account. There are strong, medium and weak physique.

Temperament- the speed and degree of reaction to external stimuli. It is determined by observing the behavior of the animal, the expression of the eyes, the movements of the auricles and the assessment of the speed and degree of reaction to external stimuli. Distinguish between lively and phlegmatic temperament.

At the time of the study, the position of Belka's body was natural recumbent.

The subcutaneous tissue contains a significant amount of fat, which smooths out many bony protrusions and depressions, all contour lines are rounded, the ribs and spinous processes are palpable with difficulty, therefore, fatness is above average.

The squirrel is distinguished by a good development of adipose tissue, the neck is short, the torso is round, the chest is deep and wide, the limbs are short. The muscles are voluminous, the skin is thick, the hair is delicate and sparse, on the basis of this we can say that the constitution is loose.

The physique is average, since the degree of development of the skeleton and muscle tissue is good, individual parts of the body are proportionally developed.

The temperament is lively, because the dog is attentive to everything around and quickly reacts to external stimuli, and is also full of energy and strength.

2. Examination of hairline, skin and subcutaneous tissue

The hairline and skin serve as a kind of mirror reflecting the state of the body. The study of the hairline includes determining the length of the hair, its direction, shine, strength, retention in the skin and elasticity. The hairline and skin of the animal are examined in natural light. First, their physiological properties (color, humidity, smell, temperature and elasticity of the skin) are determined. Then pathological changes are noted. When evaluating the skin, it is necessary to take into account the conditions of keeping, feeding, regularity of cleaning and breed of the animal.

In healthy animals, with proper maintenance and feeding, the skin is evenly covered with smoothly fitting, shiny, elastic, firmly held hair (except for the period of seasonal molting). In the warm season, the hair is shorter, in winter it is longer.

Hairline with shine, short and smooth, evenly covers the entire surface of the skin, no alopecia. When the hair is bent, it straightens quickly, which indicates good elasticity of the hair. When you try to pull out a bunch of hair, only a small amount of them is pulled out, therefore, the hairline is held firmly in the skin.

When collecting the skin in a fold, a slight decrease in turgor is observed, which is noted in old animals. The greasy coating remaining on the crumbs of the fingers indicates a moderate moisture content of the animal's skin. The color on non-pigmented areas of the skin is pale pink, the smell is specific. On palpation of the auricles, nasal mirror and extremities, the skin is moderately warm.

On the surface of the skin in the abdomen there is an accumulation of dead epidermis, the integrity of the skin is not broken.

The subcutaneous tissue is well developed, there are no pathological changes in it.

3. Examination of visible mucous membranes

Visible mucous membranes include the mucous membrane of the eyes (conjunctiva), nasal cavity, mouth and vestibule of the vagina. Their condition is of great clinical importance and complements the data obtained in the study of the skin. The procedure is performed in good (preferably natural) lighting.

When assessing the condition of the mucous membranes, attention is paid to their integrity, moisture, secretion and color.

To examine the conjunctiva in dogs, place the thumb of one hand on the upper eyelid and the other on the lower eyelid. By pressing on the lower eyelid, pull the upper eyelid up. To examine the mucous membrane of the lower eyelid, press on the upper eyelid and pull down the lower one. If the eye is opened correctly, the third eyelid is clearly visible.

When examining the mucous membrane of the eyes, it can be seen that the conjunctiva of the right eye is pale pink, moderately moist, without breaking the integrity, the sclera is white, there are no outflows. The mucous membrane of the left eye is reddened, very moist, without breaking the integrity, the sclera is gray-red. The eyelid is swollen, warm and painful, serous discharges are observed from the eye.

To examine the oral mucosa in dogs, they bring their hand under the lower jaw, cover it and press their fingers on the cheeks. In this case, the animal is forced to open its mouth, and cannot close it, since the cheeks are pressed between the molars.

Opening the oral cavity, it can be seen that the mucous membranes of the lips, cheeks, tongue and hard palate are pale pink, the integrity is preserved, the humidity is moderate, and the mucous membrane of the gums is reddened, painful and swollen.

The mucous membrane of the nasal cavity, due to the slight mobility of the wings of the nose, is inaccessible to direct examination.

Having opened the labia with your fingers, it can be seen that the mucous membrane of the vestibule of the vagina is pale pink in color, moderately moist, without breaking the integrity.

4. Research lymph nodes

Lymph nodes are examined by inspection and palpation. With a significant increase in the lymph nodes, an examination is used. However, the main research method is palpation.

Examine and palpate paired lymph nodes. On palpation, determine the size (not enlarged, enlarged), shape (rounded, oblong), the nature of the surface (smooth, bumpy), consistency (elastic, dense, soft), mobility (mobile, inactive, motionless), soreness (painful, painless) , temperature (without an increase in local temperature, moderately warm, hot, cold).

The size of the lymph nodes in healthy animals varies greatly depending on the breed, age and weight of the animal. In healthy animals, the lymph nodes are smooth, elastic, mobile, painless and moderately warm.

In dogs, only the inguinal lymph nodes are available for examination.

Even the inguinal lymph nodes could not be felt in the studied animal, possibly due to the small size and good fatness of the dog.

5. Thermometry

Thermometry is a mandatory method of clinical research that allows you to assess the condition of the animal, control the course and predict the development of the disease, judge the effectiveness of treatment and identify complications. Thermometry makes it possible to identify many diseases in the prodromal period.

Body temperature is measured with a mercury maximum thermometer with a Celsius scale of 34 to 42 ° C with a division of 0.1 ° C. An electrothermometer is also used, which can be used to measure temperature quickly and with great accuracy. The measurement is carried out in the rectum. In females, the temperature can be measured in the vagina, where it is higher than in the rectum by 0.5 o C.

Under normal conditions, body temperature is constant and depends on the age, sex and breed of the animal, as well as environmental temperature, muscle movements and other factors. In young animals, the body temperature is higher than in adults or old ones; females are higher than males.

In an outpatient study, body temperature in sick animals is measured once; in animals undergoing inpatient treatment - at least twice a day and, moreover, at the same hours: in the morning between 7 and 9 o'clock and in the evening between 17 and 19 o'clock. In seriously ill animals, the temperature is measured more often.

Before insertion, the thermometer is shaken, lubricated with petroleum jelly and carefully inserted, turning along the longitudinal axis, into the rectum and fixed with a clamp for the hair of the croup. After 10 minutes, carefully remove, wipe, determine the body temperature on a scale, shake and place in a jar with a disinfectant solution.

The temperature was measured for 10 days, in the morning (at 7 o'clock) and in the evening (at 19 o'clock). Norm 37.5 - 39.

B. Special studies

1. Study of the cardiovascular system

The cardiovascular system is examined according to a certain scheme: they begin with examination and palpation of the cardiac region, then determine the percussion boundaries of the heart, proceed to its auscultation, examine arterial and venous vessels, and end with functional studies.

Inspection and palpation of the cardiac impulse area. Examination is carried out in good light, starting from the lower third of the chest directly in the region of the 4th - 5th intercostal space. Investigating the heart impulse, it is necessary to take into account the fatness, constitution and training experience of the animal.

The heart impulse can be unexpressed (poorly visible), moderately pronounced (well visible), strongly pronounced and not visible at all. In healthy animals of average fatness, the cardiac impulse is clearly visible; in animals that are well-fed, obese, with long hair - weakly or not visible.

On palpation of the heart area in healthy animals in a calm state, slight fluctuations of the chest are felt. In carnivores, an apex beat is detected, which, in the normal position of the heart in the chest cavity, is noted only on the left.

The method of palpation establishes the heart rate, rhythm, strength, character, location of the heart impulse and pain in the region of the heart. Palpation begins on the left side, and then moves to the right, focusing on the olecranon and humeroscapular joint. Small animals are examined in different poses. They palpate simultaneously with both hands: they stand on the side of the animal and place the palms of both hands with folded fingers on the chest under the olecranon processes on the left and right.

The cardiac impulse can shift forward, backward, to the right, up, and in order to identify the shift, the ribs are counted in the opposite direction, starting from the last (13th).

Belka's cardiac impulse is more intense on the left in the 5th intercostal space below the middle of the lower third of the chest; on the right, the push is weaker and manifests itself in the 4th intercostal space; localized on an area of ​​2 - 3 cm; moderate in strength; rhythmic - heart beats of equal strength against the chest follow at regular intervals. There is no pain in the area of ​​the heart beat.

Percussion of the region of the heart. With the help of percussion, the boundaries of the heart are established, its size, position, and pain in the cardiac region is revealed.

The boundaries of the heart are determined on a standing animal on the left. When examining, there should be silence in the room, the distance from the wall to the animal is 1 - 1.5 m. The thoracic limb of the animal is brought forward as much as possible. In small animals it is better to use digital percussion. When determining the upper limit, percussion beats should be strong or of medium strength, since it is necessary to establish a change in sound in the area where the heart is covered by the lungs; when determining the rear boundary - weak force.

The upper border of the heart begins to be determined along the posterior edge of the scapula from half the height of the chest, percussing from top to bottom along the intercostal space (approximately 4th). At first, a clear pulmonary sound is heard, which later turns into a dull one. This area is called relative cardiac dullness and is the upper border of the heart. Where the heart is not covered by the lungs and is adjacent directly to the chest wall, the percussion sound is dull; this area is called absolute cardiac dullness.

The posterior border is determined with the thoracic limb maximally retracted forward. They begin to percuss along the intercostal spaces up and down from the zone of absolute dullness or from the olecranon towards the upper point of the maklok at an angle of 45 °. Percussion is performed to the point of transition of a dull or dull sound to a clear pulmonary one and by counting the ribs (from the last rib) the posterior border of the heart is established.

In carnivores, 3 percussion borders of the heart are determined: anterior - along the anterior edge of the 3rd rib; upper - 2 - 3 cm below the line of the shoulder joint; the posterior border reaches the 6th, sometimes the 7th rib.

During percussion of the region of the heart in Belka, the anterior border of the heart is marked along the anterior edge of the 3rd rib; the upper limit is slightly below the humeroscapular joint (zone of relative cardiac dullness); the posterior border reaches the 6th rib. The zone of absolute dullness of the heart is located in the 4th intercostal space.

Auscultation of the heart. During auscultation, it is necessary to observe silence in the room; the animal should be at a distance of 1.5 - 2 m from the wall. Animals are listened to before and after exercise; small - in various positions. With mediocre auscultation, the optimal zone for listening to heart sounds is the area located 1 to 2 fingers above the olecranon.

The heart rhythm is characterized by the alternation of the first tone, a small pause, the second tone and a long pause, i.e. correct change of systole and diastole. During auscultation of the heart, it is necessary to clearly distinguish the first tone from the second, which makes it possible to establish in which phase of the cardiac cycle certain sound phenomena occur. To distinguish the first tone from the second, you need to remember that the first tone coincides with the heart impulse, with the arterial pulse and with the pulsation of the carotid arteries.

The mitral valve optimum point is located in the 5th intercostal space above the horizontal line in the middle of the lower third of the chest; aortic semilunar valves - in the 4th intercostal space under the line of the scapular-shoulder joint, and the pulmonary artery - in the 3rd intercostal space on the left and the tricuspid valve - in the 4th intercostal space on the right above the horizontal line in the middle of the lower third of the chest.

During auscultation of Belka's heart, loud, clear tones are noted, both on the left and on the right side. Since the dog is small and very well-fed, it is impossible to listen to the optimum points of the heart valves. Murmurs and other disturbances in the heart are not observed.

Study of the arterial pulse. Vessels are examined by inspection, palpation and auscultation (large vessels). By inspection, the degree of filling and pulsation of superficially located arteries in the head, neck and limbs is determined. In healthy animals, the pulsation of the arteries is not visible.

The main research method is palpation. On palpation, the frequency, rhythm and quality of the pulse are determined: the tension of the arterial wall, the degree of filling of the vessel with blood, as well as the size and shape of the pulse wave. The pulse is examined on vessels accessible to palpation: the crumbs of several fingers are applied to the skin above the artery and pressed until a pulsation begins to be felt.

In carnivores, the femoral artery (a. femoralis) on the inner surface of the thigh, the brachial artery (a. brachialis) on the medial surface of the humerus above the elbow joint and the saphenous artery (a. saphena) between the Achilles tendon and the deep flexor of the fingers above the tarsal joint are examined.

In healthy animals, the pulse rate corresponds to the number of heartbeats. The pulse rate depends on a number of reasons - age, sex, constitution, conditions of keeping and feeding, muscle load of the animal. A significant increase in the pulse can be observed in nervous and timid animals.

The pulse was measured daily on the brachial artery for 10 days. The pulse is rhythmic, moderate filling, soft in tension, of medium size, moderately decreasing in shape.

Measurement of arterial blood pressure. There are 2 methods: direct (bloody) and indirect (bloodless). Blood pressure is measured more often with a mercury or spring pressure gauge connected to a cuff and an inflation device.

The value of arterial blood pressure is proportional to the stroke (systolic) volume of the heart and the peripheral resistance of the arterial bed. The maximum (systolic) arterial blood pressure in animals is in the range of 100 - 155, and the minimum (diastolic) - in the range of 30 - 75 mm Hg. Art. The difference between the maximum and minimum arterial blood pressure is the pulse pressure, which normally ranges from 50 to 100 mm Hg. Art.

When measuring Belka's blood pressure, it was 130 - 40 mm Hg. Art.

Examination of veins. The degree of filling of the veins is determined by the relief pattern of the saphenous veins of the head, limbs and conjunctiva, which, when overflowed, act as a network. In healthy animals, the filling of the veins is moderate, at the base of the neck in the jugular groove a moderate pulsation is visible.

The peculiarity of the venous pulse is determined by the nature of the oscillations of the jugular vein. There are negative, positive venous pulse and venous undulation.

The degree of filling of the saphenous veins is moderate, at the base of the neck in the jugular groove a moderate pulsation is visible.

Auscultation test with apnea(according to Sharabrin). The animal is artificially suspended for 30–45 s, and immediately after apnea, the heart is auscultated. In healthy animals, the pulse quickens somewhat.

During the test, there is a slight increase in the number of heartbeats, which quickly return to normal.

2. Examination of the respiratory system

The plan for a clinical study of the respiratory system is as follows: the nasal cavity, paranasal cavities, larynx, trachea, thyroid gland, chest in the area of ​​the lungs. Apply inspection, palpation, percussion and auscultation.

Study of the upper respiratory tract. The study begins with an examination of the nasal planum and nostrils, paying attention to symmetry, shape and contours. Pay attention to the strength, uniformity and symmetry of the exhaled air stream (both nostrils are compared), as well as its smell, humidity and temperature. They also pay attention to discharge from the nasal cavity, determine their origin. In the future, an examination of the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity is carried out using lighting devices.

In the study of the upper respiratory tract, no abnormalities were found: the nasal openings are moderately enlarged, the nasal discharge is insignificant. The stream of exhaled air from both nostrils is uniform, odorless, of moderate strength, humidity and temperature.

Examination of the larynx and trachea. External examination of the larynx and trachea is carried out by inspection, palpation and auscultation. During an external examination, one can notice a lowering of the head, stretching of the neck and difficulty breathing, sometimes swelling is found in the larynx and trachea due to inflammation and swelling of the surrounding tissues. When examining the trachea, a change in its shape, curvature, deformation, fractures and ruptures of the rings are determined.

Palpation establishes sensitivity, temperature in the larynx and trachea, the presence of tangible noises in their lumen.

Auscultation of the larynx and trachea can be carried out by mediocre and direct methods. Normally, they listen to the sound of stenosis, reminiscent of the pronunciation of the letter "X", with auscultation of the larynx, this sound is called laryngeal, and with auscultation of the trachea - tracheal breathing.

When amplifying sounds, you may experience:

1. Strengthening of laryngeal and tracheal breathing with inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea.

2. Stridor like whistling or hissing with stenosis of the lumen of the larynx and trachea.

3. Wheezing, which, depending on the nature of the exudate during inflammation of the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea, can be dry or wet.

Internal examination of the larynx is carried out by direct examination of it. It is possible in short-faced dogs, cats and birds. To do this, the animal's oral cavity is widely opened, the tongue is pulled to the side, grabbing it through gauze and fixing it outside with two fingers of the other hand, and raise the larynx.

When examining the larynx, pay attention to the color and condition of its mucous membrane, the condition of the glottis and its ligaments.

Bimanual palpation of the larynx and trachea revealed no enlargement and swelling, no temperature deviations or pain. No extraneous noises were detected on direct auscultation.

Cough study. When evaluating a cough, its strength, frequency, duration, soreness and time of onset (at rest, on movement, in the fresh air, indoors) are noted.

If there is no involuntary cough at the time of the study, then it is caused artificially. In dogs, the chest is compressed, or it is strongly percussed, or tapped with the palm of the hand.

Distinguish cough high and low, loud, deaf, wet, dry, hoarse and barking.

The pain of coughing is determined by the behavior of the animal. Empty swallowing movements, stretching of the neck, shaking the head, stamping of the chest limbs, groans and other signs of anxiety are observed.

Thyroid research. In animals, the thyroid gland consists of two flat lobes connected by a bridge, and is located on the sides of the first three tracheal rings. It is examined by inspection and palpation. The gland is palpated simultaneously with both hands, with sliding movements, while paying attention to its size, consistency, mobility and sensitivity.

Changes in the state of the gland include an increase, tuberosity and compaction of its lobes.

During examination, Belka's thyroid gland was not palpated.

Examination of the chest wall. In animals, the chest begins to be examined at some distance in order to see both halves at the same time (in small animals, they are examined from above). They establish its shape and mobility, as well as the respiratory rate (in dogs 14 - 24 per minute), type, rhythm, strength, symmetry of respiratory movements and the nature of shortness of breath. Evaluating these indicators, you need to take into account the type of animal, gender, age, breed, constitution, fatness.

The chest is rounded, moderately elongated, makes symmetrical, uniform and equal movements; chest type of breathing.

Determination of the frequency of respiratory movements. To determine the respiratory rate in animals at rest, count the number of breaths or exhalations in 1 minute. In this case, methods of examination, palpation, auscultation are used. Determined by the stream of air, chest excursions, the movement of the wings of the nose, sighs, along the lower contour of the abdomen. The indicator can be influenced by extraneous noise, pain, insect bites in these cases, the calculation is carried out several times, and then the average value is calculated.

The respiratory rate depends on the type of animal, its sex, age, breed, productivity, muscle work, arousal, pregnancy, fitness and season.

Respiratory rate was measured daily for 10 days.

Breathing study. Dyspnea is shortness of breath that changes in frequency, rhythm, depth, and type. To register shortness of breath, the inspection method is used: they pay attention to the excursion of the chest, the condition of the nostrils, intercostal muscles, abdominal walls, anus, the appearance of the firing chute.

Shortness of breath can be both physiological and pathological, occur only at rest or only during exercise. It is important to determine in which phase of breathing the shortness of breath occurs; depending on this, inspiratory and expiratory dyspnea are distinguished.

There is no dyspnea on examination.

Percussion of the chest. In the study of the lungs, two types of percussion are used: topographic, with the help of which the boundaries of the lungs are determined, and comparative - to identify foci of inflammation, tumors, cavities, accumulation of fluid and gases, and air in the parenchyma.

When conducting topographic percussion, they percuss along the intercostal spaces using the legato method along auxiliary lines. The posterior border of the lungs is determined by three horizontal lines: drawn through the maklok, ischial tuberosity, and through the humeroscapular joint. The boundaries are established by the transition of a clear lung sound to a dull, blunted or tympanic sound.

Having determined the boundaries of the lungs, proceed to the percussion of the lung field of the chest. In healthy animals, in all parts of the lung field, the sound is clearly pulmonary with various options. The lung field is percussed staccato, starting behind the scapula, from top to bottom along the intercostal spaces.

The projection of the lungs on the chest has the form of a triangle, the upper border of which runs horizontally, below the spinal column; the anterior border descends vertically along the line of the anconeus; the posterior crosses the line of the maklock in the 11th, the line of the ischial tuberosity in the 9th and the line of the shoulder joint in the 8th intercostal space.

Auscultation of the chest. Starting auscultation, the lateral surfaces of the chest are mentally divided into regions, first by two horizontal lines - the upper, middle, lower, and then three vertical lines, one of which passes behind the shoulder blades, the other through the anterior edge of the last rib, and the third - between them.

Auscultation begins with the middle third of the chest, then the middle back region, after which they listen to the upper middle and lower regions, and lastly the prescapular. At least five or six acts of inhalation and exhalation are heard in each area, comparing the results of auscultation in symmetrical areas.

On auscultation, during inspiration and at the beginning of expiration, a soft blowing noise is heard, reminiscent of the pronunciation of the letter "F". This noise is called vesicular (alveolar).

In dogs, respiratory noise is the most intense, close to bronchial breathing.

Pay attention to additional respiratory sounds: wheezing, crepitus, pleural friction noise, splashing noise in the pleural cavity, as well as the noise of a pulmonary fistula, etc.

With instrumental auscultation, the normal alternation of inhalation and exhalation is captured.

Functional method for studying the respiratory organs.

Breath holding test the nasal openings and oral cavity of the animal are covered with a napkin or towel and the time of its calm behavior without breathing is taken into account: in animals with sufficient lung capacity, it is from 30 to 40 seconds.

When carrying out this method of studying the functional ability of the lungs, the time of calm behavior was 21 seconds. Given the size and age, the result is satisfactory.

3. Study of the digestive system

When examining the digestive system, attention is paid to the intake of food and water, the state of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, the abdomen, stomach, intestines, defecation and feces, liver, and additional instrumental, functional and laboratory methods are used.

Appetite determined by the results of the survey and observation of the animal during feeding. At the same time, they use the usual feed, when feeding which they find out how energetically or with what deviations their intake occurs.

Reception of food and water. When studying the intake of food, attention is paid to how quickly the animal eats it, what movements of the lips, lower jaw and tongue it makes. They note the energy and speed of chewing and swallowing, movements in the pharynx and esophagus, the method of taking water and liquid food, and the sounds generated during this.

Chewing food. In animals, it has specific characteristics and also depends on the physical and gustatory properties of the feed.

The appetite is good, the animal eats the food vigorously, practically without chewing it. Pain during chewing is not observed, swallowing is painless. The demand for water is slightly increased.

Examination of the mouth and oral cavity. During an external examination, attention is paid to the condition of the lips and cheeks, the symmetry of the oral fissure, the presence of involuntary movements of the lips, salivation, and itching. To study the organs of the oral cavity, it must be widely opened and illuminated. Examine the condition of the mucous membrane, tongue, teeth, the contents of the oral cavity and smell.

On examination, the mouth is closed, the lips are pressed together. Opening the oral cavity, it can be seen that the mucous membranes of the lips, cheeks, and tongue are pale pink, integrity is preserved, and the humidity is moderate. The mucous membrane of the gums is reddened, painful and swollen. There is a yellowish coating on the teeth, there is a hole in the third incisor on the left side, the tooth rots and staggers, an unpleasant putrefactive odor comes from the oral cavity.

Throat examination. The pharynx is located between the nasal and oral cavities on one side, the entrance to the esophagus and larynx on the other side and lies under the esophagus.

During external examination without the use of instruments, attention is paid to the position of the head and neck, a change in volume in the pharynx, a violation of the integrity of tissues, as well as salivation, empty swallowing movements, and a painful reaction of the animal when swallowing. An internal examination is possible without the use of special devices, it is enough to open the mouth of the animal well enough, press down the root of the tongue with a spatula and, in good light, examine the pharynx and tonsils.

External palpation of the pharynx is as follows: the fingers of both hands gradually squeeze the pharynx, while the fingers are placed perpendicular to each other and to the surface of the neck in the region of the upper edge of the jugular groove, behind the branches of the lower jaw and above the larynx.

During an internal examination, attention is paid to the nature of the mucous membrane, the presence of swelling and overlays, wounds, neoplasms, etc.

The position of the neck is natural, with palpation of the pharynx, pain is not observed. An internal examination of the pharynx was not performed due to the anxiety of the animal.

Examination of the esophagus. The esophagus is used to carry the food coma to the stomach. It is divided into cervical, thoracic, and abdominal parts. The initial section of the esophagus is located dorsally from the larynx and trachea, in the region of the fifth cervical vertebra it passes to the left side of the trachea and goes into the chest cavity, through the mediastinum it reaches the diaphragm and through it enters the stomach.

Examine the esophagus by inspection, palpation and special methods. Only the cervical part of the esophagus is available for examination by general methods.

Inspection establishes difficult passage of swallowed food, an increase in volume in the esophagus, the presence of neoplasms, etc.

During palpation with the left hand, the ventral part of the esophagus is supported on the right side, and with the right hand, its cervical part is palpated along the jugular groove. The soreness of the esophagus and surrounding tissues, the presence of foreign bodies, crepitus, etc. are established.

On examination and palpation of the cervical part of the esophagus, no changes and pain are observed, the food lump passes easily and freely.

Study of the abdomen. General methods are used: inspection, palpation, auscultation.

The abdomen is examined alternately from both sides and behind the animal. Set the shape of the abdomen, its volume, lower contours, symmetry; pay attention to sighs and hungry pits.

Palpation begins from the lateral surfaces and gradually moves to the internal, using all methods of palpation: first superficial, and, if necessary, others. Local temperature is determined by palpation, soreness, increased tension of the abdominal walls, accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity are revealed. In small animals, bimanual palpation is used.

Percussion and auscultation are effective in examining the abdominal organs, especially with the accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity and impaired intestinal motility.

The abdomen is sagging, a little tense, there is no pain.

Stomach research. The stomach lies in the left hypochondrium at the level of the 9th - 12th intercostal space in the region of the xiphoid process.

Examine by deep palpation, establishing the position of the stomach, its filling, reveal soreness, neoplasms and foreign objects. Normal percussion is a dull tympanic sound.

Deep palpation is painless, there is not a large amount of contents in the stomach. Digital percussion reveals a faint tympanic sound.

Intestinal research. In carnivores, the small and large intestines are almost the same in diameter.

Duodenum from the stomach it goes to the right hypochondrium and right iliac, then turns to the left, goes around the caecum and goes medially to the left kidney towards the stomach, where it passes into the jejunum, which forms many loops.

Ileum flows into the large intestine at the border of the caecum and colon, at the level of the 1st - 2nd lumbar vertebrae.

Cecum forms 2 - 3 bends and is suspended on a short mesentery in the region of the 2nd - 4th lumbar vertebrae to the right of the median cavity.

Colon from the confluence of the iliac, it first goes cranially, like an ascending (right) knee, then from the right kidney it turns to the left, forming a short transverse knee. Behind the left kidney, the intestine turns caudally and, as descending (left), the knee goes into the pelvic cavity, where it passes into the rectum.

Rectum lies in the pelvic cavity between the spine and genitals and ends with the anus.

The main and most effective method of external examination of the intestine is palpation. The site of intussusception, coprostasis, tumor is detected by the bimanual method, a foreign object is detected, the degree of intestinal filling, the nature of its contents, etc. are determined.

With bimanual palpation of the intestine, a slight tension of the intestinal loops is observed, there is no painlessness.

Defecation research. Characterize the act of defecation, paying attention to its frequency, duration, posture of the animal, as well as to whether the defecation is free or difficult, painful or not.

Defecation lasts about 30 seconds, frequency 1-2 times a day, painless, natural posture.

Study of the liver. In carnivores, the liver is located on the right and on the left adjacent to the costal wall and is located almost in the center of the anterior abdominal cavity. On examination, pay attention to the area of ​​the hypochondria, comparing their volume.

It is better to percuss the liver in a digital way, holding the animal in a standing position, sitting or on its side. Explore both right and left.

On examination, no protrusion of the right hypochondrium was found. With jerky palpation, the liver is not detected, which indicates that the liver is not enlarged and does not extend beyond the costal arches. With digital percussion, a dull sound reaches the 13th rib on the right, and on the left in the 11th intercostal space.

Study of the spleen. The spleen is located in the depth of the left hypochondrium, its outer surface is adjacent to the chest, and the inner surface lies on the stomach.

Palpation is carried out on the left side, putting the animal on its side.

In the studied animal, the spleen is not palpable, therefore, it is not enlarged.

4. Examination of the genitourinary system

The conclusion about the state of the urinary system is usually made on the basis of the results of the study of urination, kidneys, ureters, bladder and laboratory analysis of urine.

Urination study. Pay attention to the posture of the animal during urination, its frequency (3-4 times a day) and time. Posture when urinating depends on the sex and type of animal.

The posture during the act of urination in the studied animal is typical for females of this species: the dog squats during urination, urine is excreted quickly and painlessly. The frequency of urination is increased 6-8 times a day.

Study of the kidneys. The kidneys are often examined by inspection, palpation and percussion. Of particular importance are the results of a laboratory analysis of urine. Thanks to the inspection for suspected kidney disease, first of all, you can get an idea of ​​​​the severity of the animal's condition.

With the help of palpation determine the position, shape, size, consistency and sensitivity of the kidneys. It is possible to detect an increase or decrease in their volume, a change in the surface, limited mobility, increased sensitivity, etc. In dogs, the left kidney is located in the anterior corner of the left hungry fossa under the 2nd - 4th lumbar vertebrae, and the right kidney is found only in rare cases under the 1st - 3rd lumbar vertebrae.

Kidneys in healthy animals are not detected by percussion, since they are not adjacent to the abdominal wall.

Palpation was carried out on a standing animal with both hands, while the left kidney was found in the anterior corner of the left hungry fossa under the 3rd lumbar vertebra, and the right kidney could not be palpated. On palpation, pain and enlargement were not detected.

Study of the bladder. In small animals, the bladder is examined by examination, palpation and percussion in the lateral, dorsal or standing position, determining its localization, volume, consistency, ability to contract, and tumors and stones are also detected.

The study of the bladder was carried out through the abdominal wall by deep palpation in the area of ​​the pubic bones. At the same time, some tension of the bladder was found.

5. Study of the nervous system

The nervous system has a leading function in the life of the body. In clinical practice, due to the imperfection of research methods, as well as due to the characteristics of the animal organism, only pronounced changes can matter. Therapy of nervous disorders should be aimed both at normalizing the activity of altered nervous structures and at eliminating the etiological factor.

The nervous system is examined according to the following plan:

1) the behavior of the animal;

2) skull and spine;

3) sense organs;

4) skin sensitivity;

5) motor sphere;

6) reflex activity;

7) vegetative department.

1) Observation of animal behavior. Pay attention to the reaction of the animal caused by the approach of a person (calm or aggressive); exposure to external stimuli: hail, harsh light, noise, etc.

When approaching the dog, the reaction is calm, tail wagging and ear play are observed. When a stranger appears in the apartment, the behavior becomes aggressive.

2) Examination of the skull and spinal column. Apply inspection, palpation and percussion.

Inspection of the skull establish a change in the shape of his bones: protrusions, neoplasms and traumatic injuries. Palpation of the skull determines its sensitivity, temperature, integrity and compliance of the bone plates during their thinning. In small animals, the skull is percussed with a fingertip.

During examination and sliding palpation of the skull, no abnormalities were found.

Examination of the spinal column determine various kinds of curvature: up (humpback, kyphosis), down (sagging back - lordosis), in the lateral direction (scoliosis).

The spinal column is palpated with three fingers of the right hand (thumb, index and middle), starting from the cervical vertebrae and ending with the vertebrae of the tail root, paying attention to the pain reaction of the animal and the deformity of the vertebrae.

During percussion of the spinal column with a percussion hammer, inflicting medium-strength blows along the vertebrae, while paying attention to the pain reaction of the animal and the mechanical excitability of the muscles.

Palpation and percussion of the spinal column gave no pain response, no curvature.

3) Study of the sense organs. Determine the state of the organs of vision, hearing, smell and taste.

The study of the organs of vision. Inspection determines the condition of the eyelids, conjunctiva, eyeball - its position, mobility, pay attention to the transparency of the cornea and the media of the eye, the condition of the pupil, mesh and visual nipple.

The reaction of the pupil to a light stimulus is determined by closing the examined eye with a hand for 2-3 minutes. The eye is then opened and the pupil rapidly constricts to normal size.

When examining the cornea, various kinds of lesions are revealed - wounds, inflammations, neoplasms, etc. Corneal lesions include protrusions and opacities. A corneal leukoma is a white, opaque spot or scar resulting from inflammation or injury.

A white opaque spot was found on the cornea of ​​the studied animal.

The study of the organs of hearing. At a short distance behind the dog, habitual sounds were created. The dog reacted to these sounds by moving its ears and turning its head.

Study of the olfactory organs. The squirrel was brought to his nose, without touching him, his favorite food (whiskas). She quickly pounced on him, therefore, the sense of smell is preserved.

Taste research. The animal was offered food of good and poor quality. The dog chose good quality food, but refused bad bark, which indicates the preservation of taste.

4) Investigation of the sensitive sphere. Sensitivity is divided into superficial (skin, mucous membranes), deep (muscles, ligaments, bones, joints) and interoceptive (internal organs).

Tactile sensitivity in the studied animal is preserved: with light touches in the area of ​​the withers, there is a contraction of the skin and playing with the ears.

When the needle is touched to the limb, its twitching is observed, which indicates the preservation of pain sensitivity.

When pushing the chest limbs forward, Belka gives the limbs a natural position, therefore, deep sensitivity is also preserved.

5) The study of the motor sphere. When assessing the motor sphere, muscle tone and passive movements, coordination of movements, the ability to actively move, involuntary movements and mechanical excitability of the muscles are examined.

The movements of the studied animal are coordinated, coordinated and free. There is no mechanical excitability of the muscles.

6) Study of surface reflections. These include reflexes of the skin and mucous membranes.

The following skin reflexes have been investigated :

Withers reflex: with a light touch on the skin in the withers region, a contraction of the subcutaneous muscle is observed.

abdominal reflex: when touching the abdominal wall, there is a strong contraction of the abdominal muscles.

anal reflex: when touching the skin of the anus, there is a contraction of the external sphincter.

tail reflex: when touching the skin of the tail from the inside, Belka presses it to the crotch.

ear reflex: when the skin of the external auditory canal is irritated, Belka turns his head.

Reflexes of the mucous membranes:

Conjunctival reflex: when touching the mucous membrane of the eye with a finger, closure of the eyelids and lacrimation are observed.

Corneal reflex: when touching the cornea, eyelids close and lacrimation is observed.

Sneeze reflex: snorting is observed when the nasal mucosa is irritated with alcohol.

Study of deep reflexes:

Knee Reflex: with a light blow with the edge of the palm on the direct ligaments of the patella, the limb unbends at the knee joint.

Achilles reflex: when hitting the Achilles tendon - slight flexion of the tarsal joint with simultaneous flexion of the sole.

7) Study of the autonomic nervous system. To identify disorders of the autonomic nervous system, the reflex method is used in clinical practice.

Using the method of reflexes, it is possible to establish the state of the autonomic nervous system (normotonia, vagotonia or sympathicotonia).

Dagnini-Ashner's ocular-cardiac reflex. At the beginning, in Beli, in a state of complete rest, the number of heart contractions was counted, which amounted to 93 beats per minute, then they lightly pressed the fingers of both hands on the eyeballs for 30 seconds and counted the heart contractions again. The heartbeat increased by 7 beats, which indicates sympathicotonia.

B. Additional research

1. Blood test

Kind of animal dog Floor bitch Age 8 years

Suit white Nickname Squirrel

Animal owner _______

Structural features of erythrocytes rounded erythrocytes.

ESR according to the Panchenkov method in 30 minutes was 1.5 mm.

Reserve alkalinity 50 vol. % CO 2 .

Bilirubin 0,12.

Additional Research were not carried out.

Conclusion

A blood test revealed a decrease in the content of erythrocytes and immature forms of leukocytes, which indicates the presence of inflammation in the body.

2. Urinalysis

Kind of animal dog Floor bitch Age 8 years

Suit white Nickname Squirrel

Animal owner _______

physical properties.

1. Quantity 100 ml.

2. Color light yellow.

3. Transparency transparent.

4. Consistency watery.

5. Smell specific.

6. Specific gravity 1, 01.

Chemical research

1. pH 6.

2. Protein 0, 30.

3. Albumoses missing.

4. Glucose missing.

5. Blood pigments missing.

6. Bilirubin missing.

7. Urobilin missing.

8. Indican missing.

9. Acetone was not carried out.

10. Bile pigments are present.

Microscopy of sediment.

1. Unorganized precipitation crystals of calcium oxalate, uric acid, tripel phosphate.

2. Organized precipitation a small number of leukocytes and epithelial cells.

Conclusion

Normally, there is a small amount of leukocytes and epithelial cells, crystals of calcium oxalate, uric acid and tripel phosphate.

3 .Examination of feces

Kind of animal dog Floor bitch Age 8 years

Suit white Nickname Squirrel

Animal owner _______

physical properties.

Quantity 50 g.

Shape and consistency semi-liquid.

Humidity moderately humid.

Color brown.

Smell fetid.

Grinding average.

digestibility good.

Pathological impurities missing.

Helminths and their parts.

Mature helminths missing.

Chemical research.

pH 5.

Protein was not carried out.

blood pigments missing.

bile pigments missing.

Bilirubin positive.

Microscopic examination.

Feed residues fine.

Inorganic constituents missing.

Pathological impurities missing.

Helminth eggs missing.

Fat missing.

Additional research.

Starch missing.

Slime (+ – – –).

Conclusion.

Conclusion

During the study, the dog showed deviations from the organs of vision: the mucous membrane of the left eye was reddened, very moist, without breaking the integrity, the sclera was gray-red. The eyelid is swollen, warm and painful, serous discharges are observed from the eye.

On the part of the oral cavity, gingivitis was found: the mucous membrane of the gums is reddened, painful and swollen. There is plaque on the teeth, there is a hole in the third incisor on the left side, the tooth rots and staggers, an unpleasant putrefactive odor comes from the oral cavity. We managed to cope with this problem: the tooth was pulled out, the plaque was removed, the gums were cured.

A blood test revealed a decrease in the content of erythrocytes and immature forms of leukocytes, which indicates the presence of inflammation in the body.

When examining feces for bilirubin, a blue-green color appeared, which indicates the presence of bilirubin, which should not normally be present. All other parameters are within the normal range.

No other deviations were found. All vital organs and systems are normal. We can say that the dog is in good condition.

Bibliography

1. B.V. Usha, I.M. Belyakov "Clinical diagnostics of internal non-communicable diseases of animals". Moscow "Kolos", 2003

2. E.S. Voronin "Workshop on clinical diagnosis of animal diseases". Moscow "Kolos", 2003

3. D.G. Carlson, D.M. Giffin's Home Veterinary Guide for Dog Owners. Moscow "Tsentrpoligraf", 2004.

4. I.V. Khrustalev, N.V. Mikhailov "Anatomy of pets" Moscow "Kolos", 1997

5. S.P. Shkil, A.I. Popova “Clinical diagnostics. Guidelines for the implementation of the course work.

6. A. Lineva "Physiological indications of the norm of animals." "Aquarium" FGUIPPV, 2003

7. THEM. Belyakov, M.A. Feldstein "Propaedeutics of internal non-communicable diseases of animals", 1984

Animal disease manifestations or symptoms are detected through examinations, which involve the use of a variety of methods. They are divided into general, special (instrumental), laboratory and functional.

General methods are subdivided in turn into inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry. They are called general because they are used in the study of almost every patient, regardless of the nature of the disease.

Inspection. Carried out with the naked eye in good light or with the use of reflectors, endoscopic instruments. Inspection can be group and individual, general and local, external and internal.

A group examination is carried out when examining a large number of animals and with its help, sick or suspicious individuals are isolated for further comprehensive examination. Each sick animal admitted for treatment is subjected to an individual examination. General examination is carried out on the left and right, front and rear, and, if possible, also from above. At the same time, the habitus, the condition of the hairline, skin, the presence of superficial damage, the symmetry of various parts of the body are determined. Local examination allows you to explore the areas of localization of the disease process and can be external or internal (through lighting devices).

Palpation (palpatio). The touch method is based on touch. Feel first healthy parts of the body, and then the affected ones. At the same time, palpation should not cause pain to the animal or resemble tickling. Distinguish superficial and deep palpation.

Superficial examine the skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles, joints, tendons and ligaments. By tightly applying the palm, for example, the temperature and humidity of the tissues are established, the state of the heart beat is assessed, the presence of tangible noises. The consistency and soreness of the tissues is determined by pressing the fingertips with increasing force until the animal responds. By stroking with the palm, the nature of the surface is established, and with the fingers, the shape and integrity of the bones and joints are determined. By gathering the skin into a fold, its elasticity is established and zones of increased pain sensitivity (hyperalgesia) are revealed.

Deep palpation examines the organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavity by determining their location, size, shape, consistency, pain. Deep palpation can be external and internal. The deep outer include:

Penetrating palpation, when they press with the fingers or fist on the abdominal wall and examine a specific organ, such as the liver, scar, etc.

In small animals, foals and calves, bimanual palpation is used, i.e. two hands. In this case, it is possible to grasp the organ and determine its condition.

Through jerky or balloting palpation, it is possible to detect the accumulation of transudate in the abdominal cavity, to establish the presence of a fetus in the uterus. In this case, the pushes carried out on one side of the abdominal wall are caught by the palm on the other side.

Deep internal palpation is carried out in large animals through the rectum (rectal examination) of large animals in order to obtain data on the state of the organs located in the pelvic and abdominal cavities.

Percussion (percussio). Research through percussion. In this case, it is possible to determine the physical condition of the organ, its boundaries, as well as pain in the percussion area. Striking the surface of the body causes oscillatory movements of superficial and deep-lying tissues, which are perceived by the researcher as sound. Percussion is carried out in a closed small room with silence. Distinguish between direct and mediocre, as well as digital and instrumental percussion.

Direct percussion is carried out with the tip of one or two (index and middle) fingers bent in the second phalanx. Impacts are applied directly to the surface being examined. The sound in this case is weak and fuzzy. Therefore, this type of percussion is used only in the study of air cavities limited by bones (frontal, maxillary sinuses). Sometimes these cavities are tapped by applying light blows with the butt of the percussion mallet.

With mediocre percussion, blows are applied not to the surface under study, but to a finger or pessimeter pressed against the skin. In this case, the sound turns out to be louder and clearer, since it consists of a blow to a finger or a plessimeter, vibrations of the chest or abdominal wall and a column of air in the organ under study.

Small animals and young animals are examined with mediocre digital percussion. The index or middle finger of the left hand is firmly applied to the skin, and jerky blows are applied with the fingers of the right hand.

Mediocre instrumental percussion is carried out in large animals using a plessimeter and a hammer of various sizes and shapes, they will be shown to you in practical classes. The plessimeter is tightly applied to the examined area of ​​the body. The hammer is held with the index finger and thumb of the other hand without pinching the end of the handle. The blows are applied to the plessimeter perpendicularly, while they must be paired, short and jerky.

With topographic percussion, the blows should be of medium or weak strength, and the hammer is somewhat delayed on the plessimeter (legato percussion). The study is carried out, as a rule, along auxiliary lines.

During percussion, in order to establish pathological changes in organs and tissues, percussion is carried out with strong, short and abrupt strokes (staccato percussion). At the same time, the plessimeter is moved in the area of ​​the organ projection onto the body surface from top to bottom and from front to back.

Auscultation (auscultatio). Research by listening and evaluating the sounds generated during the work of a number of internal organs. Auscultation should be carried out, if possible, indoors and in complete silence. Listening is carried out directly by the ear or by means of special instruments.

With direct listening, the ear is applied to the body of the animal covered with a sheet, and safety precautions must be strictly observed. Thus, it is possible to auscultate large animals in a standing position. Listening to small and large recumbent animals is quite difficult.

Mediocre auscultation is carried out using stethoscopes, phonendoscopes or stethophonendoscopes. These instruments create a closed speaker system that makes sounds appear louder and more distinct. Listening begins from the center of the projection of the organ on the surface of the body (during auscultation of the lung - in the middle of the percussion triangle behind the scapula, the heart - in the place of the greatest severity of the cardiac impulse), and then sequentially assess the sounds in other areas.

Thermometry (thermometria). A method based on measuring the body temperature of an animal. Thermometry is mandatory when examining sick or suspicious animals. Carried out by means of thermometers of various designs (mercury, electric, registering infrared radiation of the body).

In veterinary practice, mainly the maximum veterinary mercury thermometer with a division scale from 34 to 42C is used. They measure body temperature in animals in the rectum (in birds in the cloaca) for 5-7 minutes. After each examination, the thermometer must be cleaned and disinfected.

Special (instrumental) research methods are also divided into several subgroups: endoscopic methods (using various lighting devices - these are rhinoscopy, laryngoscopy, pharyngoscopy, cystoscopy; or by obtaining an image on an x-ray screen - fluoroscopy); graphic methods involve obtaining a document, it can be a graph, photograph, radiograph, etc.; the subgroup of other methods is very diverse, and this includes the most widely used in veterinary medicine probing, catheterization, puncture, biopsy of various organs and tissues, and others. It should be borne in mind that the list of special methods is not limited to this scheme, there are many more of them, and with the development of science and technology, the number of methods will inevitably increase.

Laboratory methods involve the study of blood, urine, feces, expiration, punctures, secrets. The list of indicators determined in biological fluids, tissues and excrement is very large - several tens of thousands, it is constantly increasing.

Functional research methods are used to assess the function of the body systems as a whole or individual organs. In veterinary medicine, the methods of functional study of the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, nervous systems, urinary organs (kidneys), endocrine organs and hematopoietic organs are most developed.

animal clinical habit diagnostic

P.A. Parshin

Methods of clinical examination

sick animal

Moscow

CONTENT

Introduction 3

The subject of clinical diagnostics, its goals and objectives 3

Development of clinical diagnostics 4

Clinical Research Methods 5

3.1. General methods of clinical research 5

3.2. Special research methods 9

3.3. Laboratory research methods 9

The concept of diagnosis 10

Rules for working and handling animals during their research 13

Case history 15

Outline of the overall clinical trial and by systems 16

Introduction

In the modern conditions of animal husbandry, where the main role is given to zoo veterinarians in ensuring the creation of healthy and highly productive herds of animals, advanced knowledge on the clinical diagnosis of infectious and non-communicable diseases is especially needed. The general morbidity and mortality of animals is mainly associated with their biological exploitation in extreme conditions: limited production areas, lack of exercise, violation of the rules of feeding and zoohygienic standards for keeping and caring for animals.

When studying the course of the basics of clinical diagnostics, students need to acquire knowledge when working with sick animals, master the methods of clinical examination, and learn how to evaluate the results obtained.

Given the great need for this methodological manual on the basics of clinical diagnostics for students of the Faculty of Animal Science and Agribusiness, the team of authors tried to create it in accordance with the program for this discipline.

This manual should help students learn the main sections of clinical diagnostics and master the schemes of general animal research and individual systems. This will allow them to acquire skills in the systematic order of research, the correct formulation of clinical signs of the main animal diseases, and the competent presentation of data in the documentation.

1. The subject of clinical diagnostics, its goals and objectives

Clinical diagnostics (from the Greek diagnosticon - capable of recognizing) is the most important section of clinical veterinary medicine that studies modern methods and successive stages of recognizing diseases and the condition of a sick animal.

It develops methods for studying normally and pathologically functioning systems and individual organs in order to identify factors that cause a particular disease in animals, and to provide them with medical care and preventive measures on a scientific basis. Methods of clinical diagnostics are widely used in the definition and study of internal non-communicable diseases. They are fully used in the diagnosis of infectious and parasitic diseases.

Modern conditions of animal husbandry require comprehensive and in-depth knowledge from zoo veterinarians for constant monitoring of the health of animals, their level of metabolism and productivity. Under these conditions, the basis of the activities of zoo veterinarians is diagnostic and preventive work. For the organization of not only therapeutic, but also preventive and veterinary and sanitary measures, it is important to study the condition of animals and their performance. Knowledge of clinical diagnostics allows you to be able to analyze the results of research and, on this basis, draw a conclusion about the state of health of the animal.

The task of clinical diagnostics includes the study of rational methods of approach and methods of fixing sick animals to ensure the safety of working with them. The main attention is paid to the development of the methods and order of research necessary to obtain comprehensive information about the condition of a sick animal. This complex cognitive process includes the study of the causes and conditions for the onset of the disease, the patterns of development of the pathological process, the place of its localization, the nature of morphological and functional disorders and the clinical manifestation of these changes in the body with symptoms that determine the clinical picture of the animal's disease.

Products of high biological value and veterinary and sanitary quality in the maximum quantity and at the lowest cost of labor and money can only be obtained from healthy animals. Therefore, early diagnosis of animal diseases, especially subclinical forms, occupies a leading place in the complex of zootechnical and veterinary and sanitary measures carried out in livestock farms.

Percussion of the lungs in various animal species

Through percussion establish:

1) topography of the lungs;

2) the physical condition of the lungs and pleural cavity;

3) soreness of the costal wall and deeper lying organs.

Let's start with topographic percussion of the lungs, i.e. establishing the boundaries of the body. First of all, you need to know that only the posterior border of the lungs is of diagnostic value, since the upper and anterior are not the anatomical boundaries of the organ. The upper border of the lung is considered to be a horizontal line at a palm-width distance in large animals and 2-3 fingers in small animals from the spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae. The anterior border is considered to be the line from the posterior angle of the scapula down along the anconeus line.

To determine the posterior border of the lung on the chest, mentally draw three horizontal lines.

The first is along the maklok line.

The second - along the line of the ischial tuberosity (in cattle, lines 1 and 2 coincide).

The third - along the line of the scapular-shoulder joint. Percussion is carried out strictly along the marked lines from front to back, i.e. begin immediately behind the scapula and move caudally along the intercostal space. In this case, mediocre instrumental percussion is used in the study of large animals and mediocre digital - in the study of small animals or young animals. The blows are not strong, the hammer lingers on the plessimeter (legato percussion).

The posterior border of the lung is determined by the transition of a clear pulmonary sound to any other (tympanic, dull). The last intercostal space, where a clear pulmonary sound is established, is considered the posterior border. So, in cattle and small cattle, the posterior border of the lung along the maklok line in the 11th intercostal space on the left and the 10th intercostal space on the right, and along the line of the scapular-shoulder joint - in the 8th intercostal space on both sides. In the horse: along the line of the maklok - 16, along the line of the ischial tuberosity - 14, along the line of the scapular-shoulder joint - 10th intercostal space.

The general displacement of the posterior border of the lung caudally or rollback of the lung indicates its increase. The most significant (on 1-2 ribs) it occurs in acute and chronic alveolar emphysema. A less pronounced shift is observed with interstitial emphysema. With pneumothorax, when air enters the pleural cavity, the posterior border passes along the line of attachment of the diaphragm or rolls away from it by 2-4 cm.

Partial displacement of the posterior border (along 1 or 2 lines) also indicates damage to the lung parenchyma and is noted with focal (vicarious) emphysema. It should also be borne in mind that the general and partial rollback of the lung can be one- or two-sided.

The displacement of the posterior border of the lung cranially (forward) most often does not indicate the pathology of the lung tissue itself. This condition is observed with pathology from the organs located in the abdominal cavity (gastric dilatation, tympania, hepatomegaly, neoplasms in the kidneys, hydronephrosis) or in females with deep pregnancy.

Assessment of the physical condition of the parenchyma is carried out by percussion of the pulmonary field. In most animals, there is only one lung percussion field - this is the area located behind the scapula (in the horse it is called the percussion triangle). Cattle have two of them: one is located behind the shoulder blade, and the other is in front of the shoulder blade. This prescapular percussion field is small, it is found in front of the scapular-shoulder joint, above the tubercle for 5-8 cm. In this case, the thoracic limb should be moved back.

Percussion technique in assessing the physical condition of the lung tissue: conduct instrumental mediocre percussion; inflict strong, short and jerky blows (stokkato percussion); percussion is carried out along the intercostal spaces from top to bottom, starting immediately behind the scapula, then they are shifted caudally by 1 intercostal space, then another 1 intercostal space - and so on throughout the percussion field of the lungs.

A percussion blow penetrates to a depth of up to 7 cm. Considering that the thickness of the chest wall in large animals is 3-4 cm, it is actually possible to examine the organ to a depth of the same 3-4 cm, i.e. only superficial lesions are found.

When percussion of the pulmonary field in healthy animals, only one is found - a clear pulmonary sound. In pathology, other sounds can also be detected: dull, dull, tympanic, a sound with a metallic tinge, the sound of a cracked vessel (pot).

Dull and dull sounds have the same origin and differ from each other only in the degree of expression. A dull sound indicates the absence of air in the lung tissue or the accumulation of significant amounts of fluid in the pleural cavity. It is quiet, short and low.

A dull sound is somewhat stronger, higher and clearer than a dull sound, since it occurs if gases are present in the lung or pleural cavity along with liquid. Usually this is observed at the very beginning of the development of the disease or vice versa, at the end of the disease. Dull and dull sounds are established in the syndrome of infiltrative compaction of the lung tissue and the syndrome of fluid accumulation in the pleural cavity, which we will discuss in more detail later.

Tympanic sound is produced by percussion of air-filled cavities. It is loud, low and long. Tympanic sound is detected with pneumothorax (accumulation of gas in the pleural cavity), putrefactive pleurisy, the formation of cavities in the lung (cavities filled with air).

In addition, tympanic sound is found in alveolar and interstitial emphysema, when the alveoli are torn with the formation of significant air spaces or such cavities are formed in the interalveolar tissue. If such a cavity has dense, smooth walls and the air pressure in it is high, then a sound with a metallic tint can be established. It is installed in chronic alveolar or interstitial emphysema, valvular pneumothorax, diaphragmatic hernia.

The sound of a cracked vessel is a kind of rattling sound. It is installed in the presence of smooth-walled cavities in the lungs that communicate with large bronchi. It should be borne in mind that such a sound can also be obtained by loosely applying the plessimeter to the chest wall, especially in animals of poor fatness.

Auscultation of the lungs

Basic (physiological) and adnexal (pathological) breath sounds. Auscultation of the lungs allows you to detect sound phenomena that occur in the lungs during breathing, evaluate their nature, strength, localization and relation to the phases of breathing. Listening in large animals can be carried out directly, but mediocre auscultation is much more convenient, using a phonendoscope, stethoscope or stethophonendoscope.

Auscultation is recommended to start from the areas where the breath sounds are best expressed, and then move on to places where breathing is less pronounced (draw a triangle with areas that are sequentially listened to). In cattle, one should also listen to the prescapular pulmonary percussion field. At each point, it is enough to listen to 3-4 respiratory movements (inhale-exhale), after which you should move the phonendoscope capsule to another place.

It is advisable to listen to the lungs in two steps. Initially, an approximate auscultation of the entire region of the lungs on the right and left is carried out. This allows you to get information about the condition of the entire lung and the presence of any abnormalities. Next, it is necessary to listen in detail to the areas where pathological sound phenomena are noted or where changes can be assumed based on the results of examination, palpation and percussion.

When auscultating the lungs, it is necessary to first determine the nature of the main (physiological) noise, and then the presence of possible adnexal (pathological) noises.

Basic (physiological) breath sounds. Above the lungs in healthy animals, two respiratory sounds are heard: vesicular and physiological bronchial. Bronchial murmur is absent on the chest in horses and camels; its presence in these animals always indicates lung pathology.

Vesicular breathing is heard over most of the surface of the lung and can also be called alveolar, because. occurs in the alveoli of the lung as a result of the rapid straightening of their walls when air enters during inhalation and their decline during exhalation. At the same time, the walls of the alveoli come into tension and, oscillating, produce a sound characteristic of vesicular respiration.

Vesicular noise has the following features:

1. It is soft in character, reminiscent of the sound when the letter "F" is pronounced and at the same time the air is slightly drawn in.

2. It is heard throughout the entire period of inhalation and only at the beginning of exhalation. This happens because inhalation is the active phase of breathing, in which the walls of the alveoli gradually straighten out. Exhalation is passive, the walls of the alveoli quickly subside and therefore the vesicular noise is heard only at the very beginning of exhalation.

In healthy animals, vesicular breathing on the chest is heard with unequal strength. It is most intense just behind the scapula in the middle part of the lung percussion field. In the horse, the vesicular murmur is gentle, soft, and weak. In large and small cattle it is rather rough and loud, in sheep and goats it is also heard on the shoulder blade. In dogs and cats - the most intense, sharp and close to bronchial breathing. It should also be borne in mind that the vesicular noise in young animals is louder and rougher than in adults, and even more so in older animals.

There are weakening and strengthening of vesicular respiration, which, in turn, can be physiological and pathological. Physiological weakening is a consequence of a deterioration in the conduction of sounds, for example, with above-average fatness or obesity of the animal. At the same time, breathing is weakened evenly over the entire surface of the lung. Physiological enhancement of vesicular respiration occurs during exercise, as well as in the presence of a thin chest wall (in young animals).

Pathological weakening of vesicular respiration occurs in diseases of both the lungs and the pleura. A pronounced uniform weakening occurs with emphysema, tk. the elasticity of the lung tissue decreases and the alveoli are filled with air. With focal (lobular) pneumonia, at the beginning of lobar pneumonia, part of the alveoli is turned off from the breath and breathing also weakens. The same picture is observed in the syndrome of fluid accumulation in the pleural cavity, when fluid accumulates (exudate - exudative pleurisy, transudate - dropsy, blood - hemothorax). Weakening, up to the complete absence, of vesicular breathing is observed with pneumothorax (accumulation of air in the pleural cavity), with chest injuries, especially with fractures of the ribs.

Pathological increase in vesicular respiration may be the result of a compensatory mechanism on the part of a healthy lung. This happens with unilateral croupous pneumonia, exudative pleurisy, hydro- or hemothorax, i.e. on the affected side, breathing is weakened, and on the healthy side, on the contrary, it is increased.

If there is a sharp and uneven narrowing of the lumen of the small bronchi and bronchioles due to inflammatory edema of their mucous membrane (bronchitis, bronchopneumonia), then breathing is heard both on inhalation and on exhalation. It acquires a rough, hard character and is called hard breathing. Bronchial physiological breathing is a kind of laryngotracheal, audible on the chest in the bronchi. This is a coarse respiratory noise resembling the sound "X m", which is heard both on inhalation and exhalation. Bronchial physiological respiration is heard in all animals (with the exception of a horse and a camel) in the region of the shoulder girdle up to 3-4 intercostal spaces, and in dogs - throughout the chest.

Adnexal (pathological) breath sounds. Adnexal (pathological) noises include sounds that are formed in excess of the main respiratory noises in the lungs. There are bronchopulmonary accessory noises that form in the lungs - wheezing, crepitation, crepitating wheezing, pathological bronchial breathing and extrapulmonary (pleural) noises that form outside the lungs - these are friction and splash noises.

Bronchopulmonary adnexal breath sounds. Adnexal (pathological) bronchopulmonary murmurs include, first of all, wheezing. These are additional breath sounds that occur in the airways of the lungs in pathology. They are formed in the following cases:

1) the presence of liquid content in the bronchi, alveoli or pathological cavities;

2) violation of bronchial patency (bronchospasm, swelling of the mucous membrane);

3) damage to the walls of the alveoli, or bronchioles.

According to the mechanism of formation and sound perception, wheezing is divided into dry and wet.

Dry rales are formed only in the bronchi. They occur when the lumen of the bronchi narrows or when there is a viscous secret in them, located in the form of threads, films and jumpers. Air, passing through these areas, forms eddies, cycles, etc. what is perceived as whistling, buzzing, buzzing, etc.

Dry rales are divided into low and high. Low ones are buzzing and buzzing, they are formed in large and medium bronchi. High - it's luminous, occur in the small bronchi and bronchioles. Dry rales are heard in both phases of breathing - on inhalation and exhalation, after physical exertion they become louder.

Moist rales occur when fluid accumulates in the airways (exudate, transudate, bronchial secretion, blood). They are caused by the formation of rapidly bursting air bubbles when air passes through a liquid secret. The sound accompanying the rupture of air bubbles on the surface of the liquid is heard during auscultation as wheezing. Wet rales are heard mainly on inspiration, because. during inhalation, the airflow velocity is the highest.

The size of the resulting air bubbles depends on the diameter (caliber) of the bronchi or the size of the pathological cavity in which wheezing is formed. If wet rales occur in the alveoli, bronchioles and the smallest bronchi, then they resemble the sound of bursting bubbles in a glass of carbonated water and are called fine bubbling. These rales are heard with bronchopneumonia, soaking of the lung with blood (pulmonary infarction), at the beginning of pulmonary edema (phase of auscultatory manifestations).

With the formation of moist rales in the bronchi of medium caliber or small cavities, they are perceived as the sound of air bubbles blown through the liquid through a thin straw. Such wheezes are called medium bubbling. They are detected in pneumonia with multiple small abscesses, pulmonary edema.

If rales are formed in the large bronchi, in the pulmonary caverns, which contain effusion fluids, then loud and prolonged sounds are heard, which are called large bubbling rales. They are detected most often with pulmonary hemorrhage, macrobronchitis.

The nature of both dry and wet rales can change under the influence of coughing, during the development of the pathological process. So, for example, with bronchitis, dry, wet, then again dry can be heard alternately.

Crepitus - the sound formed in the alveoli during inflammation, similar to a crackle or crunch. They listen to crepitus more often with inflammation of the lung, as a result of which the walls of the alveoli are compacted and covered from the inside with a layer of sticky exudate. In this case, on exhalation, the alveoli collapse and stick together. On inspiration (at its height), the walls of the alveoli are sticking and is accompanied by the formation of a peculiar sound resembling a crack.

Crepitant rales resemble a crunch, crackle. They are sharp, rough and appear with emphysema. In this case, damage to the walls of the alveoli and bronchioles occurs, air penetrates into the interstitial tissue and the resulting air bubbles, when exhaled, move towards the root of the lung, destroying the lung tissue. The presence of crepitant wheezing is a sign of severe damage to the lung tissue.

In the differential diagnostic assessment of moist and crepitant rales, as well as crepitus, the following features should be taken into account:

1) moist rales are heard in both phases of breathing;

2) moist rales after coughing weaken or even disappear;

3) crepitant rales are heard during exhalation, do not change after coughing;

4) crepitus appears on inspiration.

Bronchial pathological breathing is bronchial breathing heard on the chest in animals behind (caudal) 3-4 intercostal spaces, and in horses on the entire chest. The cause of this noise is the compaction of the lung tissue with simultaneously free bronchi. It is noted with emphysema, in the initial stage of infiltration of the lung parenchyma, with narrowing of the bronchial lumen.

Amphoric respiratory noise is detected in the presence of cavities or cavities in the lungs (at least 5-6 cm in diameter) with smooth, even walls, which communicates with a large bronchus. According to the laws of resonance, this cavity enhances sound phenomena, and its compacted walls conduct noise well, which resembles the breath of air over a vessel with a narrow neck, such as a bottle. Such noise occurs with tuberculosis, lung gangrene, extensive bronchiectasis.

Extrapulmonary (pleural) breath sounds. Pleural friction noise is a sound that forms between the sheets of a pathologically altered pleura: with dry pleurisy, sharp dryness of the pleural sheets due to the rapid loss of a large amount of fluid by the body (diarrheal syndrome, exsicosis syndrome, dyspeptic neonatal syndrome, with massive blood loss). This noise is reminiscent of the creaking of skin or the creaking of freshly fallen snow in frosty weather. Pleural friction rub should be differentiated from crepitus and moist, finely bubbling rales. The main differences are as follows: the pleural friction noise is heard both on inspiration and on expiration; is heard directly under the capsule with a phonendoscope, i.e. superficial; aggravated by pressure with a phonendoscope; does not change when the patient coughs; often accompanied by severe pain and, as a consequence, saccaded breathing. Splashing noise occurs if there is fluid and some gas in the pleural cavity. It is noted with purulent-putrefactive pleurisy. The noise of a pulmonary fistula occurs when cavities form in the lung, which open into the pleural cavity below the level of fluid accumulated there. This noise resembles gurgling or gurgling in the inhalation phase, is rare in pulmonary gangrene in horses, with rampant pneumonia in cattle.

Special and functional methods for the study of the respiratory system

X-ray examination.

X-rays are used more often, and fluoroscopy is somewhat less common. In veterinary medicine, a special X-ray method has been developed - fluorography. The main radiological symptoms of the pathology of the lungs and pleura in animals are darkening and enlightenment of the lung field. When evaluating these symptoms, attention is paid to their location, size, shape, structure and contrast. Endoscopic methods. Rhinoscopy, laryngoscopy, bronchoscopy.

Graphic methods.

Pneumography is a graphical recording of breathing or respiratory movements of the chest. According to the pneumogram, you can set the frequency, strength and rhythm of breathing, the duration of the inhalation and exhalation phases. Rhinography is a graphic recording of a jet of exhaled air. Allows you to judge the ventilation of the lungs.

operational methods.

Tracheotomy, intracheal injections (tracheopuncture), thoracocentesis.

Functional methods for studying the respiratory system allow you to evaluate the function of the respiratory system. There are two main methods: an exercise test (designed for a horse) and an apnea test (for other animal species) - we will consider when studying the cardiovascular system.

Load test.

Calculate the frequency of respiratory movements in the horse at rest. Then trotting for 10-15 minutes and immediately count the number of respiratory movements again. In healthy people, breathing quickens to 20-24 per minute. and returns to the original after 7-10 minutes. With functional insufficiency of the respiratory system, the frequency increases to 45 and does not return to the original after 20-30 minutes or more.

Plegaphonia or tracheal percussion. Apply this method to assess the physical condition of the lung tissue and differential diagnosis of lobar pneumonia from exudative pleurisy. Technique: carried out together, one person (assistant) delivers rhythmic, moderate-strength short blows to the plessimeter applied to the trachea; the other (researcher) assesses the strength of the conducted percussion sounds through auscultation of the chest.

The main syndromes of respiratory diseases

The syndrome of infiltrative compaction of the lung tissue (pulmonary infiltration) is a pathological condition caused by the penetration into the tissues of the lung and the accumulation of cellular elements and fluids in them. Impregnation of lung tissues only with biological fluids, without admixture of cellular elements, is characteristic of pulmonary edema, and not infiltration. In pathology, infiltration of the lungs of inflammatory origin is more common. It can be macrophage, leukocyte (lymphocytic, eosinophilic), hemorrhagic, etc. It is accompanied by a moderate increase in the volume of lung tissue and its increased density.

The main symptoms of infiltration: cough; shortness of breath with polypnoea; fever; dullness of percussion sound; alveolar crepitus at the height of inspiration, dry and moist rales. At the beginning of the development of the process, the cough is dry. Subsequently, the cough becomes wet with the release of mucous, mucopurulent sputum, sometimes with blood. Foci of dullness are found in cases where the infiltrate is adjacent directly to the chest wall or is located at a depth not exceeding the resolving capabilities of deep percussion.

Fluid accumulation syndrome in the pleural cavity is a clinical and laboratory syndrome caused by fluid that accumulates in the pleural cavity due to damage to the pleura lining it or due to general disturbances in water and electrolyte metabolism in the body. In most cases, pleurisy and its nosological forms are not an independent disease, but a complication of diseases of the lungs, chest wall, diaphragm (with its perforation).

Symptoms of fluid accumulation in the pleural cavity: dullness of percussion sound on the chest with a horizontal upper border; mixed shortness of breath with a predominance of abdominal breathing; cyanosis; swelling of the jugular veins; sometimes splashing noise. With thoracocentesis - exudate, transudate, blood, chylous fluid.

The syndrome develops with exudative pleurisy (acute in horses and sheep, chronically in cattle and pigs), hydrothorax, hemothorax, chylothorax. Hydrothorax can be caused by heart failure of various origins: decompensated heart defects, compressive pericarditis, damage to the heart muscle. It occurs in diseases accompanied by severe hypoproteinemia (alimentary dystrophy, toxic liver dystrophy, severe anemia, nephrotic syndrome).

Lung expansion syndrome (increased airiness of the lungs) is a pathological condition characterized by expansion of either the air spaces of the lungs located distally to the terminal bronchioles, or the interlobular connective tissue when air enters it.

The appearance of symptoms and the development of the syndrome depend on the severity, severity, period of the underlying disease and the degree of involvement of the lungs in the process. The rollback of the posterior border of one lung can be compensatory in case of damage to the other as a result of obstructive and compression atelectasis, with unilateral pneumonia.

The developed syndrome includes the following main symptoms: expiratory or mixed shortness of breath; barrel chest; dry or wet cough; rollback of the posterior border of the lungs, a loud boxed percussion sound; weakening of vesicular respiration. The syndrome develops with chronic alveolar emphysema in working and sport horses, in hunting dogs, if there is no complete recovery from acute emphysema. It can occur as a complication in inflammatory, stenotic and spastic lesions of the larynx and bronchi, in chronic pneumonia and allergies.

In cattle, the syndrome often manifests itself with interstitial emphysema, which complicates chronic pulmonary tuberculosis, or as a result of injury to the lungs by foreign stabbing objects from the side of the proventriculus. Sometimes subcutaneous emphysema occurs in the neck and chest.

Respiratory failure is a pathological condition in which the respiratory organs are not able to provide normal gas exchange, or the gas composition of the blood is maintained due to the increased work of the lungs and heart. Respiratory insufficiency can be caused by damage to: - the bronchi and the lung parenchyma proper;

Pleura, muscles and bones of the chest wall;

Respiratory center of the brain.

In this case, acute and chronic respiratory failure are distinguished. Acute respiratory (pulmonary) insufficiency is a critical pathological condition of the body, in which the imbalance of the gas composition of arterial blood rapidly increases due to the cessation of oxygen supply to the blood and the removal of carbon dioxide from the blood. If intensive therapeutic (resuscitation) measures are not carried out with ARF, then this condition ends with cessation of breathing or asphyxia.

Symptoms of ARF - shortness of breath, central cyanosis, anxiety, alternating with lethargy, lack of consciousness, convulsions, warm skin. Cyanosis is a bluish discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes. It is caused by a high content of reduced hemoglobin in the blood. In this case, the following is characteristic of central cyanosis:

1) it is diffuse;

2) non-pigmented areas of the skin have an ash-gray tint;

3) the skin is warm due to accelerated blood flow.

Unlike central cyanosis, peripheral cyanosis is caused by a slowdown in blood flow and therefore the skin is cold to the touch, observed in diseases of the cardiovascular system. This cyanosis is often referred to as acrocyanosis and is most pronounced on the limbs and pinnae of animals.

The most common causes of ARF are:

Aspiration of foreign bodies;

Pulmonary embolism;

Inhibition of the respiratory center (in case of poisoning);

Extensive and severe injuries of the chest wall and pleura;

Laryngo- and bronchospasm.

Chronic DN is characterized by a gradual increase in gas exchange disorders. The most pronounced symptoms of CRF in animals appear after exercise. After work or a short run (even walking), shortness of breath (expiratory or inspiratory), cyanosis, polypnea, shallow breathing, symptoms of heart failure are established. These signs in the animal disappear only after a long rest. If these symptoms are detected in the animal even at rest, then this indicates decompensated pulmonary heart failure. This usually occurs with the development of a bronchopulmonary infection in a patient with emphysema.

Diagnostic value of the study of exudate and transudate

Fluids that accumulate in the pleural and other body cavities are divided into exudates and transudates. They are obtained for research through a puncture of the chest wall (thoracocentesis). It is performed according to all the rules of surgical technique with a special needle or trocar, which are equipped with a tap so that air does not enter the pleural cavity. You can also use an ordinary needle connected to a syringe.

The puncture site in ruminants and pigs is the 6th intercostal space on the left and the fifth on the right, in the horse, respectively, 7 on the left and 6 on the right, slightly above the external thoracic vein. The needle is injected to a depth of 3-4 cm in large animals and 1-2 cm in small animals, until the resistance suddenly decreases.

The effusive fluid thus obtained is placed in a clean, dry dish, stabilizers are added (sodium citrate - 1 mg / ml, heparin) and subjected to research. In this case, physical properties are determined, such as color, transparency, relative density. A chemical study is also carried out with the determination of protein and a Rivalta test is performed to differentiate exudate from transudate. Methods of microscopy and bacterioscopy have also been developed.

Transudates appear due to the following reasons:

changes in the vascular walls;

increase in capillary pressure;

hydrodynamic changes.

Usually transudate is a colorless or slightly yellowish, transparent liquid, watery consistency, odorless, slightly alkaline reaction. The relative density of the liquid ranges from 1.002 to 1.015 g/ml. The protein content in the transudate does not exceed 25 g/l (2.5%). Revolt's test is negative, the sediment is insignificant.

Exudates are formed as a result of inflammatory processes. The color depends on the type of inflammation, the liquid is cloudy, viscous and thick, often with an unpleasant putrid odor. The relative density of the exudate is more than 1.015 g/ml, the protein concentration is more than 25-30 g/l (2.5-3.0%). The Rivolta test is positive, abundant sediment, there are a lot of leukocytes and erythrocytes in the smears.

Serous exudates are transparent, yellow in color with a protein concentration of about 30 g/l. Purulent exudates are cloudy, yellow-green in color, with a high relative density and a protein content of 70-80 g/l. Hemorrhagic exudates of brown-red color. In case of infection, there may be a combination of hemorrhagic exudate with purulent.

The protein content in effusion fluids is determined by refractometric or colorimetric method with sulfosalicylic acid. The Rivolta test is used for rapid differentiation of exudates from transudates. The principle is based on the fact that exudates contain seromucin, a substance of globulin nature, which gives a positive reaction. Sample setting: in a cylinder with 100 ml of distilled water, acidified with 2-3 drops of concentrated acetic acid, add 1-2 drops of the test liquid. If the resulting whitish cloud descends to the bottom of the cylinder, the sample is positive (exudate), if the cloud dissolves, it is negative (transudate).

Rivalta's test does not always allow distinguishing transudate from exudate when examining mixed fluids. Microscopic examination is of great importance for their difference. To do this, a preparation is prepared from the liquid sediment (obtained by centrifugation), the cells are examined natively (without staining) or stained according to Romanovsky. At the same time, transudates contain few erythrocytes and leukocytes, and their number is significant in exudates. During bacterioscopy, preparations from the sediment of the liquid are stained according to Gram or Ziehl-Neelsen.