Mechanics of medieval democracy. Guardian of Florence Medici dynasty in Florence

11. Italy. Florence. The Medici dynasty and the great creators of the Renaissance. Part 1. August 6th, 2013

It seems that I have never given information about the rulers and patrons of Florence, except for the repeatedly mentioned Cosimo Medici the Elder and Cosimo Medici I, Grand Duke of Tuscany. And in general, the historical background that accompanied the birth and flowering of the ideas of the Renaissance deserves a short review. I started doing this “small review”, but in the process it began to grow like a snowball, and, in the end, resulted in this opus, which deserves a separate post, or rather three))

Part 1. 1115 - 1494. The formation of the republic and the first Medici. Cosimo the Elder and Lorenzo the Magnificent.

The earliest works of art mentioned here belong to the Proto-Renaissance era, which dates back to the second half of the 13th - 14th centuries. This time Florentine Republic, which dates back to 1115. Over the centuries, the city developed a mechanism of urban self-government, based on the representation in power of various strata of the then society - the aristocracy, rich banking families, craft guilds, and even workers - and the opposition of the corresponding parties. For an extremely long time, this mechanism prevented the concentration of power in one hand. I came across the idea that the republican form of government in Florence played an important role in the fact that it was here that the first shoots of the great humanistic culture of the Renaissance arose. The Florentines were very proud of their self-government, and considered political freedom and independence to be one of the most important values, which could well be transformed into ideas of freedom and independence of personality, thought and creativity.

The Florentine Republic, changing the degree of civil liberties and representation in power of different social groups, lasted for more than four centuries. All this time, the internal struggle between parties, which were divided along two main axes - by origin and by foreign policy orientation, practically did not stop. According to the first criterion, the Florentines were divided into “nobiles”, that is, aristocratic landowners, and “popolans” - representatives of the trading, banking and craft clans (who in turn, depending on economic factors, were “fat” and “lean”). On the second basis - on the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and after the expulsion of the Ghibellines - on the black and white Guelphs. The small state was constantly at the intersection of the interests of the Holy See and the Holy Roman Emperor, and needed the patronage of one of these titans. The Guelph party advocated an alliance with the pope, the Ghibelline party advocated an alliance with the emperor. The struggle between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines continued throughout the 13th century, and the victory of one or another party was accompanied by repression and the expulsion of the defeated from the city. Dante fell into the millstone of this struggle, who was expelled from Florence in 1302 and never returned to his homeland.

In the urban community, wealthy banking families and craft shops had a huge share, and they were often the customers for architectural structures and works of painting and sculpture. Also, regardless of the party that was dominant at one time or another, decisions concerning citywide life were made collectively by the representative body of the republic. This also applied to decisions on the construction and decoration of municipal buildings and the cathedral. So, as a rule, the masters of the Proto-Renaissance did not have any patrons or philanthropists; their work was paid for from the city treasury or the fortunes of the richest families and workshops.

By this period - the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. - refers to the construction of the Bargello, Palazzo Vecchio and Palazzo Spini Ferroni, the beginning of the construction of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore by Arnolfo di Cambio, the churches of Santa Croce and Santa Maria Novella. Giotto creates frescoes at Santa Croce and Santa Maria Novella and designs the Campanilla. In the next generation, in the middle of the 14th century, they were replaced by Petrarch, Boccaccio, Andrea Orcagna, Taddeo Gaddi, and towards the end of the century Spinello Aretino, Agnolo Gaddi

Towards the end of the 14th century, oligarchization of power occurred, when electoral laws were rewritten in such a way that the representation of wealthy clans increased. At the turn of the century, the Albizzi family had great influence, but the rise of the Medici was just around the corner.

The Medici family lived in Florence, presumably as early as the 12th century, and over the centuries they conducted successful commerce, built up capital and played an increasingly significant role in city government. In 1421, Giovanni di Bicci from the Medici family was elected Gonfalonier of Justice (an elected position of the head of state since the end of the 13th century), and although he was not the first representative of the family in this position, he is considered to be the founder of the ruling Medici dynasty in Florence. We need to remember his two sons - Cosimo and Lorenzo. Cosimo is the same one who is referred to everywhere here as Cosimo de' Medici the Elder.

Cosimo de' Medici the Elder(or the Old) came to power in Florence in 1434 and this date is considered the beginning of the reign of the Medici dynasty.

Jacopo Pontormo. Portrait of Cosimo the Elder de' Medici. 1518-1519. Uffizi, Florence.

His father died five years earlier, and these five years were devoted to the struggle of the party of noble aristocrats led by Rinaldo Albizzi and, excuse me, the popollans led by the richest man in Europe, Cosimo, yeah))) True, in fact, it’s not so funny, as at first glance, since all wealthy banking and merchant families were counted among the “people” in Florence.

During this struggle, Cosimo was imprisoned on charges of “exalting himself higher than others,” managed to bribe the court and avoid death, was sentenced to exile for 10 years, but after a year of exile, during which he enjoyed honor and respect, he returned as triumphant and formed a government of his supporters. After ten years of rule, Cosimo carried out a further concentration of power in his hands, suppressing republican democratic institutions, essentially organizing a signoria - that is, the power of a signor. He lived to the age of 75, ruled Florence safely until his death in 1464, was buried in San Lorenzo, and had "Father of the Fatherland" inscribed on his sarcophagus. During the years of his reign, Cosimo not only ensured economic well-being for the Florentines, but also began the practice of patronizing people of science and art, creating the preconditions for turning Florence into a cultural center of world significance.

The reign of the first Medici is the time of creativity of the “three fathers of the Florentine Renaissance” - Donatello, Brunelleschi and Masaccio. Brunelleschi opens the perspective and creates the symbol of Florence - the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore, Donatello - the famous “David”, “Penitent Magdalene” and “Judith and Holofernes”, Ghiberti - the “Paradise” Gate of the Baptistery. Masaccio paints the "Trinity" in Santa Maria Novella, and Filippo Lippi paints the "Madonna with Two Angels". The same period marks the young years of Ghirlandaio, Perugino, Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci (when listing the names, there is a premonition of an explosion... Yes, the high Renaissance is already on the threshold!). Shortly before his death, Cosimo the Elder did another invaluable thing - he founded the Platonic Academy in Careggi, which became the center of the humanistic philosophy of the Renaissance.

Cosimo the Elder had two legitimate sons, we are interested in the eldest - Piero Gout. Since his father lived for a long time, the sick Pierrot, as his nickname suggests, was destined to rule for only five years - until 1469. Apparently, Pierrot lacked the wisdom of his father, since his reign was accompanied by civil strife, but he managed to defend the position of the family. He left behind two sons: twenty-year-old Lorenzo, nicknamed “The Magnificent,” and sixteen-year-old Giuliano.

Lorenzo the Magnificent.

Giorgio Vasari. Portrait of Lorenzo the Magnificent. 1534. Uffizi, Florence.

Perhaps the most iconic ruler of the Renaissance, during whose reign the flowering of philosophy and art in Florence reached its highest point.

Lorenzo faced a test of strength in 1470 - in the very first year of his reign, opponents of his father came out against him. In 1478, supporters of the restoration of republican freedoms attempted to destroy Lorenzo and Giuliano; this attempt is known as the Pazzi conspiracy. Giuliano was killed, Lorenzo escaped and punished the conspirators. This event aroused popular sympathy and only strengthened his power, but spoiled relations with the Holy See, since Pope Sixtus IV was involved in the conspiracy. In 1480, Lorenzo and the pope made peace, and Lorenzo's subsequent reign was relatively uneventful.

Lorenzo was not blessed with good health or physical attractiveness. However, he subtly felt and appreciated beauty in poetry, philosophy, painting, and sculpture. Nicknamed the Magnificent for the luxury and extravagance of his court, he became the patron and philanthropist of the heyday of the Renaissance. It is difficult to overestimate his role in the formation and dissemination of the ideas of humanism throughout Europe, since Lorenzo supported Plato’s Academy in Careggi - a school or, so to speak, a discussion club in which the most prominent Neoplatonist thinkers Marsilio Ficino, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Cristoforo Landino had a platform , poet Angelo Poliziano.

The time of Lorenzo is the period of mature creativity of the greatest artist of the 15th century, Sandro Botticelli. It was at this time that Botticelli became close to the humanists from the Academy and painted the great paintings “Spring” and “The Birth of Venus”, “Madonna del Magnificat”, “Madonna della Melagrana” and “The Annunciation”. Ghirlandaio creates frescoes in the Hall of the Lilies in the Palazzo Vecchio, the Church of Santa Trinita and the Tornabuoni Chapel in Santa Maria Novella. Perugino comes to Florence, the star of Leonardo rises, who, however, quickly leaves to work in Milan, at the court of Lorenzo the young Michelangelo creates his first works.

In search of new thoughts and ideas and under the influence of Pico della Mirandola, Lorenzo in 1490 summoned to Florence the already famous preacher Girolamo Savonarola, an exposer of waste and vices of the church, an adherent of asceticism and the forerunner of the Reformation. Fiery, convinced and fanatical Savonarola gained enormous popularity, and soon turned his sermons against the luxury and wealth of Lorenzo himself. By that time, the gout was taking its toll and Lorenzo’s health had worsened. Sensing the approach of death, he wished to confess to Savonarola. In response to the confession, Savonarola began to convince him to give away his fortune and restore republican institutions. Lorenzo only turned away in annoyance, and the fanatic left him without absolution. In 1492, Lorenzo died, he was only 43 years old. He is buried in the Medici Chapel under a tombstone by Michelangelo, along with his previously murdered brother Giuliano.

Lorenzo the Magnificent had three sons - Piero, Giovanni and Giuliano. After the death of Lorenzo in 1492, power in Florence fell into the hands of Piero. However, it was not for nothing that he received the nickname “Unlucky” (or “Stupid”), because he could not retain this power. This was a period of enormous growth in the influence of the preacher Girolamo Savonarola. The loss of Pierrot's influence in the city was aggravated by the external invasion of the French king Charles VIII and Pierrot's hesitation, ready to give in to the demands of the French, in 1494 led to an outburst of popular discontent, the expulsion of the Medici family with a ban on returning until 1512, and the plunder of their wealth. Pierrot still harbored plans to regain power, and for this he enlisted the support of Charles VIII, but died ingloriously in 1503. Let's not forget about the younger ones - Giovanni and Giuliano)

Continuation - .

By the middle of the 15th century, the Medici family managed to achieve complete power in Florence. The city's new ruler, Lorenzo de' Medici, controlled the political and financial empire created by his ancestors. His great-grandfather, Giovanni di Bicci, laid the foundation of the banking system, thanks to which he became rich. And his famous son, Cosimo, was able to significantly increase the inheritance. His debtors included not only the popes, the kings of England and France, but even such a powerful state as Venice. Their banks were among the largest in Europe. But along with the wealth and influence of the Medici, discontent among the aristocracy grew.

History of the Medici Dynasty

In Florence at that time there were always several families fighting for power. And the growth of Medici influence seriously worried them. First they accused Cosimo of inciting the people to revolt and threw him into prison. But thanks to the assistance of the allies, it was possible to bribe the right people and avoid the death penalty. Later, the same fate befell his grandchildren.

Lorenzo Medici. (wikipedia.org)

In 1478, the conspirators decided to kill two Medici brothers - Giuliano and Lorenzo. They attacked them on the holy day of Easter, right during mass. Giuliano was inflicted nineteen wounds and died on the spot. However, Lorenzo survived, which meant the conspirators lost. It is worth noting that Lorenzo had many allies. And the first thing he did when power was in his hands was to ensure his safety. He knew that a successful management system must be based on personal loyalty and personal interaction. Therefore, he began to offer his help to all the ordinary people of Tuscany, counting on possible support from them. After all, the influential people of the city were much closer than the government. Thanks to the services provided and a huge circle of friends, Lorenzo received almost unlimited power in Florence. Therefore, after the attack incident, supporters of the popular family fell into such a rage that they were ready to tear the attackers to pieces. Which is exactly what happened. A wave of violence swept through Florence.

Medici coat of arms. (wikipedia.org)

Upon learning of this, the Pope ordered troops to wipe out the Medici and their supporters from the face of the earth. When these rumors reached Lorenzo, he personally decided to go to his enemies for negotiations. He was ready to sacrifice his life for the sake of Florence. After a month's journey, the ship landed in Naples. Lorenzo de' Medici was armed with money and gifts for the courtiers. Despite the opposition of the Pope, peace was concluded. Enemy troops had to retreat. For this act, the grateful city gave him the nickname Magnificent, which stuck with him for the rest of his life.

Lorenzo de' Medici the Magnificent - patron of the arts

After this incident, Lorenzo the Magnificent began to work to ensure the future of the Medici dynasty. He adopted his late brother's illegitimate son and took complete control of the city's governance.

The Medici dynasty were not only skilled politicians, they were also famous for their patronage of the arts. The family miraculously found talent and was ready to invest all their money in them. They gave complete freedom to artists. Lorenzo was no exception and continued the tradition of his grandfathers. His house was open to creative people. Lorenzo Medici spent regular evenings with many interesting and talented people of that time. He brought the spirit of secular freedom and was the life and soul of Florence.

The fate of any creative career in the city depended on one of his words. He created the first art school, where he soon discovered the inimitable Michelangelo. The famous artist and sculptor was only thirteen years old at that time. Lorenzo the Magnificent introduced him into his family, where the boy grew up with his children. Art was experiencing an unprecedented rise, but the political and financial situation was on the verge of collapse.

Bonfires of the Vanities

There is no doubt that Florence has reached new heights in culture. But absorbed in his hobbies, the ruler weakened his position in the family business. Many of his investments brought huge losses. And several Medici bank branches in Europe had to close. Lorenzo lost a huge fortune, and his circle of supporters gradually began to shrink. In addition, the wandering monk Savonarola entered into an irreconcilable conflict with the house of Medici. We can say that this conflict was a war between the Renaissance and the Middle Ages.

In 1492, Lorenzo de' Medici became seriously ill. Fear for the future of the dynasty did not allow him to calmly leave this world. He came up with a new power base for his heirs. It was a church. Lorenzo spent almost a fortune to ensure that his son Giovanni Medici became a cardinal at the age of sixteen. In the future, he will become known as Pope Leo X.

After the death of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Savonarola, who took up arms against him, organized public burnings. Secular books, paintings, musical instruments and many things related to the art of that time were thrown into the fire. Subsequently, this ceremony would be called the “bonfire of the vanities.” And yet, the power of the Medici at that time was not yet over.

Near Florence at the end of the 8th century. The third version says that the Medici are direct descendants of the military leaders of the Franks.

In the 12th century, the Medici family moved from Cafaggialo (Mugello Valley) to Florence, settled in the San Lorenzo area, took up usury and quickly began to get rich. The first of the Medicis to be mentioned in the court archives of Florence in 1201 was a certain Chiarissimo Medici. His direct descendant Ardingo de' Medici was already elected in 1296 to the highest government post in Florence - gonfalonier of justice. Over the next 20 years, two more representatives of the Medici family were elected to this post.

Having made a large fortune for themselves through commercial operations and created a sufficiently powerful banking enterprise, the Medici, from the middle of the 14th century, took an active part in the struggle of the poor strata of the people (“skinny people”, Italian popolo minuto) with the nobility formed from the merger of the nobility with the merchants (with the “fat people”). by the people", Italian popolo grasso), while they often take the side of the people's party. In 1360, Bartolomeo de' Medici hatched an unsuccessful plot against the nobility, led by the Albizzi banking family. In 1378, his brother Salvestro de' Medici, head of the Medici banking house, having become Gonfaloniere of Justice, caused the Ciompi (Italian: Ciompi) rebellion by opposition from the nobility. After the suppression of the rebellion, Salvestro was expelled and the entire Medici family was deprived of the right to hold public office for ten years. Salvestro's cousin, Vieri (Beri) Medici, who inherited the Medici banking house after him, retired from politics, completely concentrating on the development of the banking business. Through the efforts of Vieri, the Medici Bank for the first time organized branches outside of Florence - in Rome and Venice. It was under him that the Medici became the most financially powerful family in Florence.

The founder of the political power of the Medici was Vieri's nephew Giovanni di Bicci (1360-1429), elected Gonfaloniere of Justice in 1421. Giovanni's sons, Cosimo (1389-1464) and Lorenzo (1394-1440), were the first active political figures in the Florentine Republic.

Climb

At the beginning of the 15th century, Giovanni Medici reached the highest positions, and in 1434 his son Cosimo, taking advantage of the people's dissatisfaction with the nobility for frequent wars and heavy taxes, seized power. From then until the end of the century, the Medici family ruled the republic and became famous for its patronage of all areas of the Renaissance. Under Cosimo's son, Piero di Cosimo, the popularity of the Medici declined: a conspiracy was drawn up against them, which, although it ended in failure, involved Florence in a war with Venice. Piero di Cosimo's sons, Lorenzo and Giuliano, restored the family name to its former meaning. The Pazzi conspiracy in 1478 and the murder of Giuliano only strengthened the influence of the Medici.

After the death of Lorenzo in 1492, his eldest son Piero di Lorenzo ceded several important points in the possessions of Florence to Charles VIII, who moved to Naples, for which he was expelled as a traitor to his homeland. In 1494, a democratic republic was restored. All attempts by Piero di Lorenzo (died in 1503) to return to the previous position remained unsuccessful, and only in 1512 the Medici party again became the head of the republic.

Papacy and expulsion from Florence

When Cardinal Giovanni, Piero's brother, ascended the papal throne in 1513 under the name of Leo X, Piero's son Lorenzo and the pope's other nephew, Cardinal Ippolito (1511-1535) - son of Giuliano, Duke of Nemours - took their former position in Florence. The Pope gave Lorenzo the Duchy of Urbino and arranged his marriage with a relative of the French royal house, Madeleine de la Tour d'Auvergne. After Lorenzo's death in 1519, leaving only his daughter Catharina, the future wife of the French king Henry II, power remained in the hands of Giulio de' Medici, son of Giuliano (brother of Lorenzo the Magnificent), until he became pope in 1523 as Clement VII. The head of the Florentine republic then became Alessandro Medici - the natural son of Lorenzo - and Cardinal Ippolito - the natural son of the Duke of Nemours.

Grand Dukes of Tuscany

Ferdinando's son and successor, Cosimo III (1670-1723), distinguished by his particular hypocrisy and pedantry, could not stop the decline of Florence. His sons had no offspring. Cosimo III forced his brother, Cardinal Francesco, to resign from the priesthood and get married, but this marriage also remained fruitless. Cosimo's heir, his son Giovanni-Gasto (1723-1737), sickly and prematurely old, took almost no part in management. With the death of his sister Anna Maria in 1743, the Medici line of rulers ended. Of the minor branches of the Medici family, the Medici-Tornaquinci, Marchionesses of Castellina, and in Naples the Princes of Ottaiano and the Dukes of Sarlo have survived to this day in Florence.

see also

Dynasty

Representatives of the dynasty

Popes

• Leo XI - (Alessandro)
• Pius IV - (Giovanni Angelo)
• Clement VII - (Giulio)
• Leo X - (Giovanni)

Gonfaloniers of Justice of Florence from the Medici family

1. Ardingo (1296)
2. Guccio (1299)
3. Averardo (1314)
4. Lorenzo I the Magnificent (1469)
5. Alessandro (1531-1532)

Captain-Generals of the Florentine Republic

1. Giuliano II (1513-1516)
2. Lorenzo II (1516-1519)
3. Giulio (1519-1523)

Dukes of Florence

1. Alessandro (1532-1537)
2. Cosimo I (1537-1569)

Grand Dukes of Tuscany

1. Cosimo I (1569-1574)
2. Francesco I (1574-1587)
3. Ferdinand I (1587-1609)
4. Cosimo II (1609-1621)
5. Ferdinand II (1621-1670)
6. Cosimo III (1670-1723)
7. Giovanni Gastone (1723-1737). After his death, Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, takes over the domain.

Medici family tree from 1360 to 1743

Art

The Medici family, which ruled in Florence, one of the cultural centers of the Renaissance, could not help but influence the emergence of a large number of works of art. They patronized artists, architects, and were both generous patrons of the arts and simply wasteful customers.

The Uffizi Gallery, filled with a huge number of masterpieces, was in the personal possession of the dynasty, until in the 18th century the last representative of the ruling family, Anna Maria Louise de' Medici, donated it to the city.

Artists who worked for the Medici

• Verrocchio - sculptor and painter: the tombstone of Cosimo de' Medici (1465), the sculptural group "Assurance of Thomas" (1476-1483), the tomb of Piero and Giovanni de' Medici, sketches of standards and knightly armor for Lorenzo de' Medici's tournaments, the sculpture "Boy with a Dolphin" for the villa fountain Medici in Careggi.
• Michelangelo: works for Lorenzo de' Medici, decoration of the facade of the Medici family church of San Lorenzo in Florence, New Sacristy (Medici Chapel), tomb of Giuliano and Lorenzo de' Medici, etc.
• Benozzo Gozzoli - painted frescoes for the Medici in the Palazzo Medici Ricardo
• Botticelli: painting a banner for Giuliano Medici, the painting “Adoration of the Magi”, among those depicted are representatives of the family (1475-1478), Portrait of Giuliano Medici, “Pallas and the Centaur”, “Spring”, etc.
• Benvenuto Cellini - worked for Duke Cosimo de' Medici.
• Giambologna is a famous sculptor: the equestrian monument of Cosimo I de' Medici, Mercury de' Medici.
• Agnolo Bronzino - court portrait painter of Cosimo I.
• Luca Giordano - frescoes in the Palazzo Medici Riccardi.
• Fra Filippo Lippi: altarpiece of St. Michael, etc.
• Fra Beato Angelico: Altarpiece of San Marco (1438-1440) for the monastery of St. Mark
• Pontormo: paintings of the Villa Medici in Poggio a Caiano (1519-1521), etc.
• Raphael: Portrait of Pope Leo X with Cardinals Giulio de' Medici and Luigi Rossi.
• Titian: Portrait of Ippollito de' Medici (1532-1533).

Architects and buildings

• Palazzo Medici Ricciardi(1444-1460) - architect. Michelozzo di Bartolomeo
• Palazzo Vecchio (de la Señoria)
• Palazzo Pitti- arch. Brunelleschi. Acquired into the family's ownership by Eleanor of Toledo, wife of Cosimo I.
• Medici Chapel to the church St. Annunziata - architect. Michelozzo di Bartolomeo
• New Sacristy(Medici Chapel) Church of San Lorenzo - Michelangelo

In popular culture

• In the books of the English science fiction writer Terry Pratchett, the ruler (patrician) of the city of Ankh-Morkpork is the cunning and cold-blooded Lord Vetinari. His surname, derived from the word "veterinarian", is a reference to the Medici ("medic"). Some features of Lorenzo the Magnificent are used, for example, Vetinari patronizes the inventor Leonard Szczebotansky, just as the Medici patronized Leonardo da Vinci.
• The video game Assassin's Creed II presents the Pazzi conspiracy against the Medici family. Lorenzo Medici is also one of the key characters in the game.
• In the video game Eternal Champions: Challenge from the Dark Side, the character Sophia Riptide is a member of the Medici family.
• The video game Just Cause 3 takes place on the fictional Medici Island in the Mediterranean.

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Literature

• Lissa, “Famiglie celebri italiane,” and Buser, “Die Beziehungen der Medici zu Frankreich” (Lpc., 1879).
• Barenboim Peter, Shiyan Sergey, Michelangelo. Mysteries of the Medici Chapel, Slovo, M., 2006. ISBN 5-85050-825-2
• Strathern Paul. Medici. Godfathers of the Renaissance. M., 2010
• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: in 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Links

• (German)

An excerpt characterizing the Medici

November 5 was the first day of the so-called Krasnensky battle. Before the evening, when after many disputes and mistakes of generals who went to the wrong place; after sending out adjutants with counter-orders, when it became clear that the enemy was fleeing everywhere and there could not be and would not be a battle, Kutuzov left Krasnoye and went to Dobroye, where the main apartment had been transferred that day.
The day was clear and frosty. Kutuzov, with a huge retinue of generals dissatisfied with him and whispering behind him, rode to Dobroy on his fat white horse. Along the entire road, groups of French prisoners taken that day (seven thousand of them were taken that day) crowded around the fires, warming up. Not far from Dobroye, a huge crowd of ragged, bandaged and wrapped prisoners was buzzing with conversation, standing on the road next to a long row of unharnessed French guns. As the commander-in-chief approached, the conversation fell silent, and all eyes stared at Kutuzov, who, in his white cap with a red band and a cotton overcoat, sitting hunched over his stooped shoulders, was slowly moving along the road. One of the generals reported to Kutuzov where the guns and prisoners were taken.
Kutuzov seemed preoccupied with something and did not hear the general’s words. He squinted his eyes with displeasure and peered carefully and intently at those figures of the prisoners who presented a particularly pitiful appearance. Most of the faces of the French soldiers were disfigured by frostbitten noses and cheeks, and almost all had red, swollen and festering eyes.
One group of Frenchmen stood close by the road, and two soldiers - the face of one of them was covered with sores - was tearing a piece of raw meat with their hands. There was something scary and animalistic in that quick glance that they cast at those passing by, and in that angry expression with which the soldier with the sores, looking at Kutuzov, immediately turned away and continued his work.
Kutuzov looked at these two soldiers carefully for a long time; Wrinkling his face even more, he narrowed his eyes and shook his head thoughtfully. In another place, he noticed a Russian soldier, who, laughing and patting the Frenchman on the shoulder, said something affectionately to him. Kutuzov shook his head again with the same expression.
- What are you saying? What? - he asked the general, who continued to report and drew the commander-in-chief’s attention to the captured French banners that stood in front of the front of the Preobrazhensky regiment.
- Ah, banners! - said Kutuzov, apparently having difficulty tearing himself away from the subject that occupied his thoughts. He looked around absently. Thousands of eyes from all sides, waiting for his word, looked at him.
He stopped in front of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, sighed heavily and closed his eyes. Someone from the retinue waved for the soldiers holding the banners to come up and place their flag poles around the commander-in-chief. Kutuzov was silent for a few seconds and, apparently reluctantly, obeying the necessity of his position, raised his head and began to speak. Crowds of officers surrounded him. He looked carefully around the circle of officers, recognizing some of them.
– Thank you everyone! - he said, turning to the soldiers and again to the officers. In the silence that reigned around him, his slowly spoken words were clearly audible. “I thank everyone for their difficult and faithful service.” The victory is complete, and Russia will not forget you. Glory to you forever! “He paused, looking around.
“Bend him down, bend his head,” he said to the soldier who was holding the French eagle and accidentally lowered it in front of the banner of the Preobrazhensky soldiers. - Lower, lower, that’s it. Hooray! “Guys,” with a quick movement of his chin, turn to the soldiers, he said.
- Hurray rah rah! - thousands of voices roared. While the soldiers were shouting, Kutuzov, bending over the saddle, bowed his head, and his eye lit up with a gentle, as if mocking, shine.
“That’s it, brothers,” he said when the voices fell silent...
And suddenly his voice and expression changed: the commander-in-chief stopped speaking, and a simple, old man spoke, obviously wanting to tell his comrades the most important thing.
There was a movement in the crowd of officers and in the ranks of soldiers to hear more clearly what he would say now.
- Here's what, brothers. I know it’s difficult for you, but what can you do? Be patient; not long left. Let's see the guests out and then rest. The king will not forget you for your service. It’s difficult for you, but you’re still at home; and they - see what they have come to,” he said, pointing to the prisoners. - Worse than the last beggars. While they were strong, we did not feel sorry for ourselves, but now we can feel sorry for them. They are people too. Right, guys?
He looked around him, and in the persistent, respectfully perplexed glances fixed on him, he read sympathy for his words: his face became lighter and lighter from an senile, meek smile, wrinkled like stars in the corners of his lips and eyes. He paused and lowered his head as if in bewilderment.
- And even then, who called them to us? Serves them right, m... and... in g.... - he suddenly said, raising his head. And, swinging his whip, he galloped, for the first time in the entire campaign, away from the joyfully laughing and roaring cheers that upset the ranks of the soldiers.
The words spoken by Kutuzov were hardly understood by the troops. No one would have been able to convey the content of the field marshal’s first solemn and, at the end, innocently old man’s speech; but the heartfelt meaning of this speech was not only understood, but that same, that very feeling of majestic triumph, combined with pity for the enemies and the consciousness of one’s rightness, expressed by this, precisely this old man’s, good-natured curse - this very (feeling lay in the soul of every soldier and was expressed by a joyful cry that did not cease for a long time. When after this one of the generals turned to him with a question about whether the commander-in-chief would order the carriage to arrive, Kutuzov, answering, unexpectedly sobbed, apparently being in great excitement.

November 8th is the last day of the Krasnensky battles; It was already dark when the troops arrived at their overnight camp. The whole day was quiet, frosty, with light, sparse snow falling; By evening it began to become clear. A black purple starry sky could be seen through the snowflakes, and the frost began to intensify.
The musketeer regiment, which left Tarutino in the number of three thousand, now, in the number of nine hundred people, was one of the first to arrive at the appointed place for the night, in a village on the high road. The quartermasters who met the regiment announced that all the huts were occupied by sick and dead Frenchmen, cavalrymen and staff. There was only one hut for the regimental commander.
The regimental commander drove up to his hut. The regiment passed through the village and placed the guns on the goats at the outer huts on the road.
Like a huge, multi-membered animal, the regiment set to work organizing its lair and food. One part of the soldiers scattered, knee-deep in the snow, into the birch forest that was to the right of the village, and immediately the sound of axes, cutlasses, the crackling of breaking branches and cheerful voices were heard in the forest; the other part was busy around the center of the regimental carts and horses, placed in a pile, taking out cauldrons, crackers and giving food to the horses; the third part scattered in the village, arranging quarters for headquarters, selecting the dead bodies of the French lying in the huts, and taking away boards, dry firewood and straw from the roofs for fires and wattle fences for protection.
About fifteen soldiers behind the huts, from the edge of the village, with a cheerful cry, were swinging the high fence of the barn, from which the roof had already been removed.
- Well, well, together, lie down! - voices shouted, and in the darkness of the night a huge fence covered with snow swayed with a frosty crack. The lower stakes cracked more and more often, and finally the fence collapsed along with the soldiers pressing on it. There was a loud, crudely joyful cry and laughter.
- Take two at a time! bring the horn here! that's it. Where are you going?
- Well, at once... Stop, guys!.. With a shout!
Everyone fell silent, and a quiet, velvety pleasant voice began to sing a song. At the end of the third stanza, at the same time as the end of the last sound, twenty voices cried out in unison: “Uuuu!” It's coming! Together! Pile on, kids!..” But, despite the united efforts, the fence moved little, and in the established silence one could hear heavy panting.
- Hey you, sixth company! Devils, devils! Help us... we will also come in handy.
Of the sixth company, about twenty people who were going to the village joined those dragging them; and the fence, five fathoms long and a fathom wide, bending, pressing and cutting the shoulders of the puffing soldiers, moved forward along the village street.
- Go, or what... Fall, Eka... What happened? This and that... The funny, ugly curses did not stop.
- What's wrong? – suddenly the commanding voice of a soldier was heard, running towards the carriers.
- Gentlemen are here; in the hut he himself was anal, and you, devils, devils, swearers. I'll! – the sergeant major shouted and hit the first soldier who turned up in the back with a flourish. – Can’t you be quiet?
The soldiers fell silent. The soldier who had been hit by the sergeant-major began, grunting, to wipe his face, which he had torn into blood when he stumbled upon a fence.
- Look, damn, how he fights! “My whole face was bleeding,” he said in a timid whisper when the sergeant-major left.
- Don’t you love Ali? - said a laughing voice; and, moderating the sounds of voices, the soldiers moved on. Having got out of the village, they spoke again just as loudly, peppering the conversation with the same aimless curses.
In the hut, past which the soldiers passed, the highest authorities had gathered, and over tea there was a lively conversation about the past day and the proposed maneuvers of the future. It was supposed to make a flank march to the left, cut off the viceroy and capture him.
When the soldiers brought the fence, kitchen fires were already flaring up from different sides. Firewood crackled, snow melted, and the black shadows of soldiers scurried back and forth throughout the occupied space trampled in the snow.
Axes and cutlasses worked from all sides. Everything was done without any orders. They hauled firewood for the night's reserves, erected huts for the authorities, boiled pots, and stored guns and ammunition.
The fence dragged by the eighth company was placed in a semicircle on the north side, supported by bipods, and a fire was laid out in front of it. We broke the dawn, made calculations, had dinner and settled down for the night by the fires - some mending shoes, some smoking a pipe, some stripped naked, steaming out lice.

It would seem that in those almost unimaginably difficult conditions of existence in which Russian soldiers found themselves at that time - without warm boots, without sheepskin coats, without a roof over their heads, in the snow at 18° below zero, without even the full amount of provisions, it would not always be possible to keeping up with the army - it seemed that the soldiers should have presented the saddest and most depressing sight.
On the contrary, never, in the best material conditions, has the army presented a more cheerful, lively spectacle. This happened because every day everything that began to despondency or weaken was thrown out of the army. Everything that was physically and morally weak had long been left behind: only one color of the army remained - in terms of strength of spirit and body.
The largest number of people gathered at the 8th company, which bordered the fence. Two sergeants sat down next to them, and their fire burned brighter than others. They demanded an offering of firewood for the right to sit under the fence.
- Hey, Makeev, what are you... disappeared or were you eaten by wolves? “Bring some wood,” shouted one red-haired soldier, squinting and blinking from the smoke, but not moving away from the fire. “Go ahead and carry some wood, crow,” this soldier turned to another. Red was not a non-commissioned officer or a corporal, but he was a healthy soldier, and therefore commanded those who were weaker than him. A thin, small soldier with a sharp nose, who was called a crow, obediently stood up and went to carry out the order, but at that time the thin, beautiful figure of a young soldier carrying a load of firewood entered the light of the fire.
- Come here. That's important!
They broke the firewood, pressed it, blew it with their mouths and overcoat skirts, and the flames hissed and crackled. The soldiers moved closer and lit their pipes. The young, handsome soldier who had brought the firewood leaned his hands on his hips and began to quickly and deftly stamp his chilled feet in place.
“Ah, mamma, the cold dew is good, and like a musketeer...” he chanted, as if hiccupping on every syllable of the song.
- Hey, the soles will fly off! – the red-haired man shouted, noticing that the dancer’s sole was dangling. - What poison to dance!
The dancer stopped, tore off the dangling skin and threw it into the fire.
“And that, brother,” he said; and, sitting down, took a piece of French blue cloth from his knapsack and began to wrap it around his leg. “We’ve had a couple of hours,” he added, stretching his legs towards the fire.
- New ones will be released soon. They say, we'll beat you to the last ounce, then everyone will get double goods.
“And you see, son of a bitch Petrov, he’s fallen behind,” said the sergeant major.
“I’ve noticed him for a long time,” said another.
- Yes, little soldier...
“And in the third company, they said, nine people were missing yesterday.”
- Yes, judge how your feet ache, where will you go?
- Eh, this is empty talk! - said the sergeant major.
“Ali, do you want the same thing?” - said the old soldier, reproachfully turning to the one who said that his legs were chilling.
– What do you think? - suddenly rising from behind the fire, a sharp-nosed soldier, who was called a crow, spoke in a squeaky and trembling voice. - He who is smooth will lose weight, but the skinny will die. At least I would. “I have no urine,” he suddenly said decisively, turning to the sergeant major, “they told me to send him to the hospital, the pain has overcome me; otherwise you will still fall behind...
“Well, yes, yes,” the sergeant major said calmly. The soldier fell silent and the conversation continued.
“Today you never know how many of these Frenchmen they took; and, to put it bluntly, none of them are wearing real boots, just a name,” one of the soldiers began a new conversation.
- All the Cossacks struck. They cleaned the hut for the colonel and took them out. It’s a pity to watch, guys,” said the dancer. - They tore them apart: so the living one, believe it, babbles something in his own way.
“They’re pure people, guys,” said the first. - White, just like a birch is white, and there are brave ones, say, noble ones.
- How do you think? He has recruited from all ranks.
“But they don’t know anything our way,” the dancer said with a smile of bewilderment. “I say to him: “Whose crown?”, and he babbles his own. Wonderful people!
“It’s strange, my brothers,” continued the one who was amazed at their whiteness, “the men near Mozhaisk said how they began to remove the beaten, where the guards were, so after all, he says, theirs lay dead for almost a month.” Well, he says, it lies there, he says, theirs is how the paper is white, clean, and doesn’t smell of gunpowder.
- Well, from the cold, or what? - one asked.
- You're so smart! By cold! It was hot. If only for the cold, ours wouldn’t have gone rotten either. Otherwise, he says, when you come up to ours, he’s all rotten with worms, he says. So, he says, we’ll tie ourselves with scarves, and, turning our muzzle away, we’ll drag him; no urine. And theirs, he says, is as white as paper; There is no smell of gunpowder.
Everyone was silent.
“It must be from the food,” said the sergeant major, “they ate the master’s food.”
Nobody objected.
“This man said, near Mozhaisk, where there was a guard, they were driven away from ten villages, they carried them twenty days, they didn’t bring them all, they were dead. What are these wolves, he says...
“That guard was real,” said the old soldier. - There was only something to remember; and then everything after that... So, it’s just torment for the people.
- And that, uncle. The day before yesterday we came running, so where they won’t let us get to them. They quickly abandoned the guns. On your knees. Sorry, he says. So, just one example. They said that Platov took Polion himself twice. Doesn't know the words. He’ll take it: he’ll pretend to be a bird in his hands, fly away, and fly away. And there is no provision for killing either.
“It’s okay to lie, Kiselev, I’ll look at you.”
- What a lie, the truth is true.
“If it were my custom, I would have caught him and buried him in the ground.” Yes, with an aspen stake. And what he ruined for the people.
“We’ll do it all, he won’t walk,” said the old soldier, yawning.
The conversation fell silent, the soldiers began to pack up.
- See, the stars, passion, are burning! “Tell me, the women have laid out the canvases,” said the soldier, admiring the Milky Way.
- This, guys, is for a good year.
“We’ll still need some wood.”
“You’ll warm your back, but your belly is frozen.” What a miracle.
- Oh my God!
- Why are you pushing, is the fire about you alone, or what? See... it fell apart.
From behind the established silence, the snoring of some who had fallen asleep was heard; the rest turned and warmed themselves, occasionally talking to each other. A friendly, cheerful laugh was heard from the distant fire, about a hundred paces away.
“Look, they’re roaring in the fifth company,” said one soldier. – And what a passion for the people!
One soldier got up and went to the fifth company.
“It’s laughter,” he said, returning. - Two guards have arrived. One is completely frozen, and the other is so courageous, dammit! Songs are playing.
- Oh oh? go have a look... - Several soldiers headed towards the fifth company.

The fifth company stood near the forest itself. A huge fire burned brightly in the middle of the snow, illuminating the tree branches weighed down with frost.
In the middle of the night, soldiers of the fifth company heard footsteps in the snow and the crunching of branches in the forest.
“Guys, it’s a witch,” said one soldier. Everyone raised their heads, listened, and out of the forest, into the bright light of the fire, two strangely dressed human figures stepped out, holding each other.
These were two Frenchmen hiding in the forest. Hoarsely saying something in a language incomprehensible to the soldiers, they approached the fire. One was taller, wearing an officer's hat, and seemed completely weakened. Approaching the fire, he wanted to sit down, but fell to the ground. The other, small, stocky soldier with a scarf tied around his cheeks, was stronger. He raised his comrade and, pointing to his mouth, said something. The soldiers surrounded the French, laid out an overcoat for the sick man, and brought porridge and vodka to both of them.

During the early Middle Ages, the Medici had small plots of land in the Mugello Valley (along the Sieva River) near Florence. In the 12th and 13th centuries. several of their representatives moved to Florence, and by 1300 the Medici were part of the government and the guild of money changers. In the 14th century There were many Medici in Florence: in 1373, one of the representatives of the family lamented the fact that, as a result of the plague epidemic, only 50 adult men remained in the family. It is not surprising that there were noticeable differences in property between them: some prospered and moved into leading roles in the city, others were shopkeepers and artisans. However, even the wealthiest Medici, although they sometimes married members of the social and economic elite, did not rise in wealth or status to the level of famous banking and trading houses of the time, such as Bardi or Peruzzi. At the opposite end of the social ladder, there were criminals and bandits among the Medici. Thus, in 1343–1360, five Medici were sentenced to death for various crimes (from robbery to murder). This gave the entire family a bad reputation, which, of course, was not improved by the fact that its representatives often started litigation with each other.

This reputation and lack of unity did not allow the Medici family to play any significant role in the governance of Florence during this period. The only exception was Salvestro de' Medici (1331–1388). The fact that the Medici still belonged to the urban “outsiders” can be concluded from the fact that Salvestro, who was part of the successful elite of the older guilds, identified himself with the younger ones, such as the Ciompi (wool carders). His election as gonfalonier (head of the magistrate) in 1378, which was a victory for representatives of the lower classes, provoked the so-called. the “chompie uprising,” an attempt to ensure greater grassroots participation in governance. However, the movement was soon suppressed, and over the next three years the senior guilds regained their positions and Salvestro was forced into exile.

Distrust of the Medici family, only intensified as a result of Salvestro's actions, indirectly influenced the rise of that branch of the family, which subsequently gained European fame. Since the Medici were under suspicion of political unreliability and were prohibited from holding public office, they turned all their energies to entrepreneurship. The Medici, famous in history, are the descendants of Averardo de' Medici (nicknamed Bicci), a distant relative of Salvestro. In the second half of the 14th century. Averardo's business flourished, and under the leadership of his son Giovanni di Bicci (1360–1429), the family enterprise included banking operations, along with the production of silk and textiles, and had branches throughout Europe. In 1421 Giovanni was elected Gonfaloniere.

Medici - rulers of Florence.

Giovanni di Bicci had two sons - Cosimo (1389–1464) and Lorenzo (1394–1440); It was with Cosimo that the family's political career began. Of his two sons, Giovanni (1424–1463) was considered the more talented, but he died before his father. After Cosimo's death, Piero (1416–1469) became the head of the family, who, despite severe gout, showed unexpected energy in the fight against attempts to deprive the family of political weight. Of Piero's two sons, the younger, Giuliano (1453–1478), was killed as a result of the Pazzi conspiracy, and the elder, Lorenzo (1449–1492), nicknamed il Magnifico (Magnificent), retained the family's leading position in Florence. He can be considered the most brilliant of all the Medici.

Lorenzo's eldest son, Piero (1471–1503), succeeded him after his death, but with his arrogance he alienated most of the Florentine patriciate. When Italy was threatened by a French invasion, Piero sided with the enemies of France, and therefore, after French troops actually entered Italy in 1494, the entire Medici family had to flee Florence. Pierrot was declared a tyrant, and a reward was placed on his head.

The Medici regained their position in Florence mainly thanks to the political talents of Giovanni (1475–1521), the second son of Lorenzo. Lorenzo managed to make Giovanni a cardinal, and he, despite his youth, managed to gain the trust of Pope Julius II. In 1511, a conflict broke out between the Republic of Florence, on the one hand, and the Pope and the Spaniards, on the other. The struggle ended in the defeat and capitulation of Florence, and one of the conditions set by the victors, thanks to the influence of Giovanni (1512), was the return to the Medici city. Subsequently, Medici control over Florence strengthened, since in 1513, after the death of Julius II, Giovanni was elected pope under the name of Leo X.

When the Medici returned to Florence as its rulers, only four of Cosimo's descendants remained alive. Two of them belonged to the ecclesiastical rank - Pope Leo X and Cardinal Giulio (1478-1534), son of Giuliano, brother of Lorenzo the Magnificent (later to become Pope Clement VII). So all hopes for continuation of the family were pinned on the youngest son of Lorenzo the Magnificent Giuliano (1478–1516) and the only son of Lorenzo’s eldest son Piero, who also bore the name Lorenzo (1492–1512). Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, a sickly man who did not show any noticeable political ambitions or abilities, soon died (1516). Lorenzo, whom Leo X had already made Duke of Urbino, died unexpectedly in 1519, leaving his only daughter Catherine. The famous Medici tombs by Michelangelo were erected in memory of these two representatives of the family who died untimely.

The two remaining representatives of this branch of the Medici, Leo X and Cardinal Giulio, could not accept the idea that the descendants of Cosimo the Elder would not rule Florence. Therefore, they settled two young men, Ippolito and Alessandro, in the Medici palace and raised them as heirs of the family. Ippolito (1511–1535) is the illegitimate son of Giuliano, Duke of Nemours, while Alessandro (1510–1537) was declared the illegitimate son of Lorenzo, Duke of Urbino. However, the assumption always seemed plausible that Alessandro, to whom Cardinal Giulio gave clear preference, was his illegitimate son. When he became Pope Clement VII, he made Hippolytus a cardinal against his will, thereby ending his hopes of coming to power in Florence.

When the last republican uprising in Florence failed, the city surrendered to the pope, after which Clement VII installed Alessandro in Florence as hereditary duke (1532) and abolished the previous constitution. This was made possible by the alliance of the pope with Emperor Charles V; Alessandro's marriage to Margaret, the illegitimate daughter of Charles V, sealed their union. Supported by the forces of the empire, Alessandro relied on brute force; cruel and vicious, he aroused universal hatred. But in 1537 he was killed by his own friend, who invariably participated in his disgusting antics, and by a distant relative, Lorenzino de' Medici, who may have considered himself a second Brutus, destined to free the city from the tyrant. (This story formed the basis of the drama Lorenzaccio(Lorenzaccio) Alfred Musset.)

Grand Dukes of Tuscany.

The most prominent citizens of Florence considered that after the death of Alessandro it was impossible to restore the republic, since this would make the emperor a sworn enemy of the city. Therefore, a representative of the younger branch of the Medici family, a descendant of Lorenzo, the younger brother of Cosimo the Elder, became Duke of Florence under the name Cosimo I (1519–1574). He founded a dynasty whose representatives ruled Tuscany as grand dukes back in the 18th century. and were married to almost all the august houses of Europe.

As during the Renaissance, the Medici court continued to be renowned as a center of art, science and learning. In 1574, Cosimo I was succeeded by his eldest son Francesco I (1541–1587). The new Grand Duke's interest in chemistry led to the founding of a porcelain manufacturing company. He also founded the Accademia della Crusca with the aim of purifying the Italian language and creating its grammar. Francesco's favorite artist was Giambologna, who created some of his most famous sculptures for him. However, the Grand Duke owes his greatest fame to the scandal associated with his passion for the Venetian lady Bianca Capello, whom he married after the death of his first wife. Mary, one of Francesco's daughters, became Queen of France - as the wife of Henry IV. Francesco died in 1587 without leaving any sons, so his younger brother Cardinal Ferdinando (1549–1609) was forced to renounce his ecclesiastical title and become Grand Duke. Ferdinando was a brilliant administrator; he turned Livorno into a free port, which soon became one of the most important trading centers in the Mediterranean. Under his leadership, Tuscany achieved a significant level of economic development, and Ferdinando himself became one of the richest rulers in Europe.

Ferdinando's son Cosimo II (1590–1620) became most famous for the fact that, at his invitation, Galileo settled in Florence, where he was able to engage in science. The other Medici who ruled in Tuscany - Ferdinando II (1610-1670), Cosimo III (1642-1723) and Gian Gastone (1671-1737) - did not show themselves in any way.

The most powerful personality in the last generation of Medici was Anna Maria Ludovica (1667–1743), sister of Gian Gastone. She married the Elector of the Palatinate, but in 1716, after the death of her husband, she returned to Florence. When her brother died, Anna Maria Ludovica showed clear opposition to the agreement of the European powers, according to which Tuscany was to come under the rule of the Dukes of Lorraine and the Habsburgs. She dedicated herself to completing the colossal mausoleum of the Medici Grand Dukes. By inheritance, all the art collections collected by the Medici over three centuries passed to her, and she left them in full to Tuscany - on the condition that no part of them could be taken out of Florence and that they should be open for inspection to representatives of all nations countries

Cosimo de' Medici (1389–1464).

Cosimo, nicknamed the Elder (Cosimo il Vecchio), was born in Florence on September 27, 1389. It was he who laid the foundation for the political power of the Medici in Florence. An intelligent and far-sighted entrepreneur, he very successfully expanded the banking house founded by his father. By the age of 40, Cosimo was already one of the richest people in Florence: he owned wool spinning factories, monopolized the production of tanning alum, which is indispensable in the textile industry, and conducted multifaceted commercial activities. The close interdependence that existed in Florence between politics and economics, between the taxes that a given individual had to pay and his position in the ruling group, forced Cosimo to become actively involved in politics. He became a member of the ruling oligarchy, but his enormous wealth aroused fears among one of the leaders of this oligarchy, Rinaldo degli Albizzi. In the 1420s, personal rivalry flared up between them. Cosimo opposed the war with Lucca, while Rinaldo was its supporter. And when the clash not only ended in failure, but also involved Florence in a war with Milan, Rinaldo insisted on the expulsion of Cosimo and his family.

The exile lasted one year. In 1434 Cosimo's friends won a majority in the government, and the Medici were invited back, while the Albizzi and their followers went into exile. From 1434 until his death in 1464, Cosimo managed to exert a strong influence on almost all spheres of life in Florence; to his successors he left a firmly entrenched position of political leadership. This was achieved by a variety of means.

Achieving supremacy.

Cosimo's first goal was to maintain the unity of his party in order to avoid the hostility that led to the overthrow of Rinaldo. For this reason, Cosimo did not outwardly emphasize his leading role, but remained, as it were, an ordinary citizen. His friends and supporters occupied the highest places in city government no more than himself. Cosimo became a Gonfaloniere only three times, each time for two months: other Florentine patricians were in the public eye much more often. However, Cosimo was a member of the commission in charge of public debts, a position that allowed him to provide financial benefits to his supporters. Banking also made it possible to cement political alliances with money. In addition, Cosimo married his sons and grandsons to noble Florentine women.

The vigorous activity of the Medici Bank, which had branches in major European cities, gave Cosimo access to unique information regarding events in the political life of other countries, which made him an invaluable consultant on international affairs. Cosimo influenced the foreign policy of Florence during the great crisis that erupted in northern Italy after the death in 1447 of Filippo Maria Visconti, the last ruler of Milan from this family. He pushed Florence to support Francesco Sforza in his claim to the Visconti legacy - despite the opposition of Venice. This marked a turn in the policy of Florence, since Venice was its traditional ally, and Milan its traditional enemy. In the ensuing war, Florence thus found itself alongside Milan against Venice and Naples. But when peace was concluded in Lodi in 1454 and Sforza’s opponents were forced to recognize the legitimacy of his rule, the benefits went mainly to Florence and Cosimo. The authority of Florence in Italy increased thanks to the alliance with Milan, and the Sforzas considered the initiator of this alliance, Cosimo, their close friend. He became an intermediary through whom the Sforzas negotiated with Florence, and soon the heads of other states began to follow their example. Thanks to such close connections with foreign rulers, Cosimo became an indispensable person in the Florentine government. He had a good understanding of when to capture people's imagination and when to show decisiveness and ruthlessness. However, his favorite methods, both in domestic and foreign policy, were negotiation and persuasion.

Although all the commanding heights in Florence were monopolized by Medici supporters led by the leader Cosimo, he was well aware of how unreliable such an oligarchic regime could prove to be if the citizens were dissatisfied. Therefore, Cosimo took every possible care to increase the splendor of the city, and began extensive construction. He contributed to the completion of public buildings begun by the government or the guilds, and with his own money he commissioned Michelozzo to build the enormous Medici palace, which still stands on the Via Larga. He erected or renovated many church buildings: the monastery of St. Mark, the dormitory of the monastery of Santa Croce, the church of San Lorenzo in Florence and in Badia near Fiesole, where he had a villa. The Medici coat of arms appeared on their facades - 5 red circles (or cores).

Cosimo loved spending time with the monks of the monastery of St. Mark or for the books that he collected and which formed the basis of the first public library since antiquity. Close friendship connected him with the humanists Leonardo Bruni and Poggio Bracciolini; He was especially proud that through his efforts the young Marsilio Ficino gained financial independence, which allowed him to begin translating Plato from Greek into Latin. The inscription Pater Patriae (Father of the Fatherland), emblazoned on Cosimo’s tomb (he died in Carreggi near Florence on August 1, 1464), is an expression of the gratitude of the citizens that he gained during his lifetime.

Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449–1492).

Lorenzo, grandson of Cosimo, was born in Florence on January 1, 1449. The nickname “Magnificent” refers both to his merits as a patron of the arts and poet, and as a statesman. When his father Piero died in 1469, Lorenzo was only 20 years old. Nevertheless, it was he, together with his younger brother Giuliano, who had the task of defending the conquests of the Medici. Lorenzo began to be initiated into the intricacies of the internal politics of Florence during Piero’s lifetime, and during a number of diplomatic missions to foreign courts he became acquainted with the basic principles of foreign policy. However, it would have been difficult for Lorenzo and his brother to maintain the positions held by their father and grandfather if the wealthy townspeople who supported the Medici regime during the time of Cosimo and Piero had not believed that their interests would be best protected only if the Medici remained in the role of recognized leader of the state.

Everyone expected that the two brothers would become just a facade, under the cover of which patricians from among the Medici supporters would determine and control the course of political life. Although Lorenzo took an active part in the decision-making of the ruling elite from the very beginning, it was several years before his nominal leadership became a reality, and this happened only after the events associated with the Pazzi conspiracy (1478).

The reason for the conspiracy was dissatisfaction with the leading role of the Medici party among some wealthy Florentines who did not belong to it. The Pazzi family, which was not inferior in wealth to the Medici, but came from a more ancient and noble family, was especially indignant. They intrigued against the Medici at the papal court, as a result of which Pope Sixtus IV transferred very significant curia funds from the Medici bank to the Pazzi bank. Lorenzo, for his part, used his influence in Florence to prevent the Pazzi from receiving a significant inheritance. The Pope's nephew Girolamo Riario also shared hostility towards the Medici, who saw them as an obstacle to his plans to establish himself here as a ruler. The conspirators planned to kill both Medici brothers right in the cathedral, during mass. Giuliano was killed, and Lorenzo jumped over the railing of the choir and disappeared into the sacristy. The Pazzi tried to arouse the indignation of the Florentines by calling for the restoration of republican freedoms, but they only incurred anger by murdering Giuliano, beloved by the people.

Foreign policy.

Although Lorenzo had the upper hand, he became embroiled in serious external complications. Girolamo Riario and the pope were aware of the Pazzi's attempt to overthrow the Medici, and their troops approached Florence to support the conspirators. A war ensued between Florence and the pope, during which the king of Naples Ferdinand I came to the aid of the pope. The pope and Ferdinand convinced the Florentines that they were not fighting with them, but only with Lorenzo. The citizens of Florence remained loyal to the Medici, but militarily the pope and Naples were far superior to them. Over the course of two years of war, the enemies advanced far into Florentine territory, and the city found itself economically depleted. It was then, in 1480, that Lorenzo undertook the famous trip to Naples to make peace with Ferdinand, which modern chroniclers, and subsequently historians, described as a complete surprise for the king. In fact, the trip was carefully prepared during diplomatic negotiations, although a certain amount of risk still remained; Lorenzo's charm and intelligence played an important role in achieving peace with Ferdinand. Left without a Neapolitan ally, the pope was forced to make peace that same year.

In the last 12 years of his life, Lorenzo's successes became increasingly significant. In foreign policy, he was most concerned about preserving peace. However, Lorenzo did not hesitate at all when - at the right moment and without special costs - it was possible to increase the territory of Florence with the help of military force. He could not avoid participating in wars in which the major powers of the Apennine Peninsula were involved. In 1482 it was a struggle for Ferrara, and in 1485 - a conflict between the pope and Naples, in which Florence took the side of Naples. After 1480, Lorenzo's foreign policy was based on an alliance with Naples and Milan. However, while maintaining good relations with the pope, Lorenzo managed to maintain close relations also with the alliance of the papal throne and Venice, which opposed Naples and Milan. Perhaps Lorenzo did not pursue a conscious policy of balance of power; but the fact that he turned out to be a decisive figure in both one and the other alliance allowed him to constantly influence the situation in order to restore peace in Italy.

Positions in Florence.

Lorenzo used the popularity he gained after the Pazzi conspiracy, as well as the successful outcome of the ensuing war, to strengthen the position of his party in Florence. Thus, through his efforts, the Council of Seventy was established, composed of the closest supporters of the Medici. The council formed the government and formed two executive committees - for foreign policy and for finance. Although the previous councils continued to exist, the need for approval of all political activities by the Council of Seventy made it the axis around which the entire system of government revolved. Lorenzo probably also thought about further measures to strengthen the rule of the Medici. He planned to turn the post of gonfaloniere, which was alternately filled by the heads of the guilds for two months, into a lifelong position for himself, but he died before the corresponding amendments to the constitution were made.

Contemporaries often wondered: who is greater - Lorenzo or his grandfather Cosimo? Cosimo was more circumspect and probably wiser, but Lorenzo had a brighter mind and personal attractiveness. The traditions laid down by his grandfather shaped the position that Lorenzo occupied and determined the direction of his policies. As in the case of Cosimo, the main guarantee of Lorenzo's indispensability in the life of Florence was his unsurpassed sophistication in foreign policy. Lorenzo's wife came from the Orsini family; he married his eldest son Piero to a representative of the same princely family, and married one of his daughters to Francesco Cibo, nephew of Pope Innocent VIII. These connections elevated the Medici above the Florentine patriciate, making them one of the ruling families in Italy. The consecration of Lorenzo's second son Giovanni (later elected pope under the name Leo X), who was only 14 years old, as a cardinal in 1489, indicated the promotion of the Medici to the level of European princes.

To strengthen his power, Lorenzo, to a much lesser extent than Cosimo, could rely on seemingly inexhaustible financial resources. Lorenzo had very little entrepreneurial ability. Under him, the Medici Bank suffered huge losses, so its importance decreased significantly. This happened both because of the mistakes of managers and because of the rise in business activity in France, England and Germany, which ended the monopoly of Italian bankers and merchants. The Medici Bank was forced to make risky investments, such as lending money to princes. It is also true that Lorenzo (as his contemporaries assumed) used public funds to support his own business. By creating the Council of Seventy, Lorenzo achieved what was an absolute necessity for him: complete dominance in state affairs and the elimination of all unreliable elements from the government apparatus.

Patron of science and art.

However, Lorenzo's construction program was not as extensive as that of his grandfather Cosimo. Perhaps he was stopped by financial difficulties. Lorenzo was commissioned only a few works by the great contemporary artists. Nevertheless, he was a passionate lover of painting: he enjoyed the company of artists, discussed their plans with them and gave advice to fellow citizens and rulers of other states on which artist to place an order for. Lorenzo collected gems and manuscripts; he preserved for posterity some of the most valuable texts of the Greek tragedians, Homer, Thucydides and Polybius. He made friends with the most prominent humanists and writers of his time. The humanist Poliziano and the poet Luigi Pulci lived in his house as friends and mentors to his sons. He showed affection to the philosopher Marsilio Ficino and the composer Francesco Landino, and was a friend of Pico della Mirandola.

Such relationships were based on common interests and genuine mutual understanding, since Lorenzo himself was a writer and poet. Although his work shows traces of the influence of Dante and Petrarch, his poetic descriptions of the landscapes of Florence and its classical myths, his glorification of love and pleasure, have a personal touch. Lorenzo will forever retain his place as a minor classic of Italian literature. Poets and humanists of the time thanked Lorenzo for his support, singing him in poems and dedications, and thereby spreading his fame throughout Italy and Europe. They portrayed him as a philosopher on the throne, the embodiment of the ideal of the Italian Renaissance. Lorenzo died in Carreggi near Florence on April 9, 1492.

Cosimo I, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1519–1574).

Cosimo I is the first Grand Duke and a prominent Italian sovereign of the 16th century. The great-great-grandson of Lorenzo the Elder, the younger brother of Cosimo the Elder, Cosimo was born in Florence on June 12, 1519. Thanks to his mother Maria Salviati, granddaughter of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Cosimo I was also closely associated with the senior branch of the Medici family. After Duke Alessandro was killed in 1537, Cosimo had more rights than anyone else to inherit power over Florence. Since he was not yet 18 years old, the Florentine patricians saw in his candidacy the additional advantage that he could be easily controlled. But once the patrician-dominated Council of Forty-Eight confirmed him in office, Cosimo forged close ties with the ambassador of Emperor Charles V. With the support of imperial troops stationed in Italy, Cosimo quickly abolished the Council of Forty-Eight and ended the influence of the patricians. The attack on the rights of the patriciate was immediately followed by an attempt at revenge, led by political exiles and prominent patricians. In 1537, at the Battle of Montemurlo near Florence, they were defeated, and their leaders were captured, many of them were executed.

In international affairs, Cosimo steadfastly adhered to the alliance with the emperor and benefited greatly from the success of the imperial forces in driving the French out of Italy. His most important acquisition was Siena, which he captured in 1555: he now brought almost all of Tuscany under his rule. In 1569, Cosimo’s strengthened position also found external expression - his title changed: the pope made Cosimo Grand Duke of Tuscany (before that he was Duke of Florence), which was soon recognized by other powers.

Cosimo's reign was characterized by many features typical of all European absolutism. His power was based on a powerful and disciplined mercenary army. Cosimo's taxes were high, but he imposed strict order, severely punished criminals and supported the development of new industries, such as tapestry making, which flourished in Florence until the 18th century.

Despite the fact that Cosimo differed from the representatives of the older branch of the Medici in cruelty and formalism, he largely followed the traditional policy of the family, supporting literature and art. During his reign, significant works in the poetic and historical genres were created in Florence. Cosimo decorated the city on the Arno with several of the most famous monuments: during his time the Santa Trinita bridge was built and the construction of the Pitti Palace was completed, in which he himself lived and which remained the residence of the rulers of Tuscany until the end of the grand duchy.

Literature:

Rolova A.D. Personal involvement of the Tuscan Grand Dukes in business life. – In the book: Medieval city, vol. 8. Saratov, 1987
Rolova A.D. The emergence of the Medici lordship and the culture of the Renaissance. – In the book: Culture and society of Italy on the eve of modern times. M., 1993
Experience of millennia. Middle Ages and Renaissance: life, morals, ideals. M., 1996

MEDICI, a Florentine family that played an important role in medieval Italy. At the end of the 12th century. The Medici moved to Florence from the Tuscan town of Mugelo and became rich by engaging in trade and usury. They founded a trading and banking company, one of the largest in the 15th century. in Europe; in 1434-1737 (with breaks in 1494-1512, 1527-30) they ruled Florence. Main representatives: Cosimo the Elder Medici, ruled from 1434; Lorenzo the Magnificent de' Medici, reigned from 1469.

The Medici ruled the Grand Duchy of Tuscany from 1569 to 1737. Popes Leo X and Clement VII, French queens Catherine de Medici and Marie de Medici, and several cardinals belonged to the Medici family.

MEDICI Cosimo Elder (Old) (September 27, 1389, Florence - August 1, 1464, Careggi, Florence district), merchant and banker, owner of the largest fortune in Europe. He laid the foundation for the power of the Medici family, which transformed the Florentine state from a republic into a signory.

He actively participated in city affairs, gained people's trust and favor with large donations for public needs and culture, gifts and loans to citizens and the state, and distribution of bread during famine years. In 1433, Cosimo, who headed the popular party in opposition to the ruling oligarchy, was arrested and then expelled from Florence. But already in November 1434 he returned to Florence in triumph. From that moment until the end of his days, he was the de facto ruler of the state, remaining a simple citizen, without accepting any title or changing republican forms. Under him, the signoria (government) of eight people, all commune councils, courts, colleges of good men and gonfaloniers of companies remained, but he controlled elections in them and used tax policy in the fight against opponents.

Cosimo was a zealous owner, he himself conducted the trading and banking affairs of his house, and supervised the cultivation of the land that belonged to him. As a statesman, he took care of the development of agriculture in the Florence area and encouraged silk spinning, trade, and shipping. The basis of Cosimo's political power was his personal fortune, which allowed him to act as a creditor to the King of England, the Duke of Burgundy, the Duke of Sforza, the Pope and other sovereigns of Italy and Europe. He expanded the possessions of Florence, annexing several neighboring territories. During the period of his actual reign, Florence did not experience any significant state and social upheavals, becoming one of the most important centers of international politics.

A characteristic feature of the power of Cosimo (and the Medici who succeeded him) was his widespread patronage of humanists and people of art, which brought him pan-European fame as a philanthropist. He collected works of art and books, assisted Leonardo Bruni, Poggio Bracciolini, Leon Battista Alberti, Cristoforo Landino, Ioann Argyropoulou, Marsilio Ficino and the circle of humanists that formed around him (Platonov Academy), and provided orders for the artist Filippo Lippi and the architect Michelozzi. He was posthumously awarded by his fellow citizens the honorary title “Father of the Fatherland.”

O. F. Kudryavtsev

MEDICI Lorenzo the Magnificent(January 1, 1449, Florence - April 8, 1492, Careggi, district of Florence), grandson of Cosimo de' Medici the elder, after the death of his father Piero Gout in 1469, became the de facto ruler of the Florentine state. The name of Lorenzo the Magnificent is associated with the period of the highest flowering of the Renaissance culture of Florence.

As a child, Lorenzo was raised by his mother Lucrezia Tornabuoni, then his mentors were the famous humanists John Argyropoul, Cristoforo Landino, Marsilio Ficino, who taught him classical languages, philosophical sciences, and poetry. From his early youth he carried out responsible diplomatic missions and participated in government affairs. In July 1469 he married Clarice Orsini, a representative of a noble Roman family.

Like his grandfather, Lorenzo remained a private man and did not hold any key official positions. The republican façade of Florentine statehood changed little under him. The very nickname of Lorenzo “The Magnificent” indicates that his power rested to a large extent on the popularity that he acquired by extensive spending from his own and public pockets on luxurious buildings, works of art, and brilliant festivities. During his reign, endless carnivals, masquerades, knightly tournaments, theatrical and other performances took place. No stranger to literary studies, the author of poetic works and learned treatises that made him famous, Lorenzo proved himself to be a generous philanthropist, like his grandfather, supported Ficino, the head of the Platonic Academy, of which he himself was a member, the poets Angelo Poliziano and Luigi Pulci, hosted Landino, Argiropoula , Francesco Filelfo, Bernardo Bembo, Ermolao Barbaro, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Johann Reuchlin and other famous humanists. Artists enjoyed his patronage: Sandro Botticelli, Filippino Lippi, Andrea Verrocchio, Pollaiuolo, Ghirlandaio, Giuliano da San Gallo, young Michelangelo. According to family tradition, Lorenzo replenished the library (later named after him - Laurentiana), purchasing books for it throughout Europe, collecting ancient and new sculptures, cameos, coins, paintings.

He ensured the preservation of his power in various ways, in particular, through an extensive system of personal connections in Florence and beyond, and well-developed techniques for weeding out political opponents during elections to government bodies. In 1478, opponents of the Medici from the influential Florentine families of the Pazzi and Salviati attacked Lorenzo and his brother Giuliano in the church during mass, but only Giuliano was able to kill: the people did not support the conspirators and brutally dealt with them.

Lorenzo discovered an extraordinary diplomatic talent and became one of the creators of the Italian balance, skillfully playing on the contradictions between Venice, Milan, the Kingdom of Naples and the Pope. In 1479, having made a bold visit to his sworn enemy Ferdinand of Naples, he achieved an end to the war with him and the pope on favorable terms, which sharply increased his authority in Florence. Expanded Florentine possessions by annexing the fortresses of Pietrosanta, Sarzana and Piancaldoni.

Lorenzo's commercial activities were unsuccessful. In order to cover the growing expenses of the commune, including for public festivals and entertainment, he established new taxes, carried out forced government loans, and resorted to damaging coins. Popular discontent caused by increasing financial oppression affected Lorenzo's son and successor, Piero, who was expelled by the Florentines in November 1494.

O. F. Kudryavtsev

CATHERINE Medici(Catherine de Medicis) (April 13, 1519, Florence - January 5, 1589, Blois), French queen, wife of Henry II of Valois, mother of the French kings Francis II (1559-1560), Charles IX (1560-1574), Henry III (1574 -1589) and Queen Margot (from 1589). Descends from the line of the Medici Dukes of Florence.

In 1533, Catherine de' Medici became the wife of the French prince Henry of Valois, and in 1547 the couple ascended the French throne. Since 1559, during the reign of her sons, Catherine de Medici largely determined state policy and sought to prevent nobles from participating in public administration. In the initial period of the Huguenot Wars, the Queen Mother sought to maneuver between the warring parties. In 1570, she insisted on concluding the Treaty of Saint-Germain with the Huguenots. But in 1572, fearing the strengthening of the position of the Huguenot leader Gaspard Coligny at the royal court and his influence on Charles IX, she became one of the main organizers of the Bartholomew's Night.

MARIA MEDICI(Marie de Medicis) (1573-1642), Queen of France, wife of Henry IV, mother of Louis XIII, was regent in 1610-14. After Louis reached adulthood, she continued to rule on his behalf together with her favorite, Marshal d'Ancre. In 1617 d'Ancre was killed, Maria fled. She twice tried to rebel against Cardinal Richelieu, organized conspiracies and in the end was forced to leave France forever.

For her, the Luxembourg Palace was built in Paris, for whose galleries Rubens painted 21 canvases, “The Triumph of Marie de Medici.”

Renaissance, Florence, Medici - three words inextricably linked. The Renaissance is a time of brilliant flowering of culture that came in Europe after the long bloody unrest of the early Middle Ages. Florence is a city-republic that became one of the centers of the Renaissance. The Medici family is a famous Florentine family, many of whose members were typical people of modern times - talented, enterprising, cruel, inspired, like all true Florentines, by the ideas of freedom and devotion to their homeland.

In the 15th century Florence is one of the richest, most populous and beautiful cities not only in Italy, but also in Europe. Its residents Bardi and Peruzzi are at the head of the largest banks of that time, financing not only merchants and various types of entrepreneurs, but also entire states, for example, the governments of the English kings Edward II and Edward III.

Woolen fabrics made in Florentine factories are sold in many cities in Europe, Asia and Africa. Enterprising urban merchants establish shopping centers around the world. No wonder Pope Boniface VIII ironically said that the Florentines, like earth, water, air and fire, represent the basis of the universe.

In the distant past there are battles between townspeople and hated feudal lords, when the men of the Medici clan inspired their fellow citizens with cries of “Palle!”, “Palle!” (“Balls!”, “Balls!”), pelting enemies with plumb balls from looms. The Medici, together with the rest of the Florentines, achieved a complete victory over the knights-nobles, enshrined in a special document called “Established Justice.” Signed by the citizens of Florence in 1293, it deprived the knights of all political rights, and the title of nobleman was now awarded as a punishment to criminals.

The city fathers elected one of the Medici, Giovanni, to the highest position in the state - Gonfalonier of Justice. He had to almost single-handedly lead the political and economic life of the city-republic. Everyone else completely relied on his decisions and could calmly go about their business.

Giovanni Medici by that time was already one of the richest citizens, and he was not very attracted to the position assigned to him. His main interests lay in acquiring even greater wealth and strengthening the financial power of his family. In 1409, he became a banker at the papal court, with whose support he founded branches of his bank in Bruges and London.

Giovanni Medici's gold paved the way for his son Cosimo to unlimited political power in Florence, which he did not let go of until his death and passed on to his children. Cosimo was an educated man, a keen connoisseur of the sciences and arts. In 1438, he met Gemistius Pleto, who arrived in Florence. The Greek philosopher was a staunch adherent of Plato's teachings and dreamed, based on ancient philosophy, of creating a common religion for all mankind. Pleto managed to introduce Cosimo de Medici to his teachings. Since then, the name of the great sage of antiquity has not left his lips. He firmly believed that without knowledge of the teachings of Plato, no one could be either a good citizen or a good Christian, and he convinced everyone around him of this. The veneration of Plato among educated Florentines became almost a religious cult, rivaling the worship of Christ himself. In many houses, lit lamps were placed in front of the bust of the philosopher.

Old Cosimo loved to spend warm spring days at his Villa Careggi. Pruning the vines with his own hands, he listened as his favorite, young Marsilio Ficino, read him passages from the works of Plato and recited ancient odes, accompanying himself on the lyre. It was during one of these readings that this uncrowned ruler of Florence died. Grateful fellow citizens wrote on his tombstone: “Here lies Cosimo de’ Medici, by decision of the state - “father of the fatherland.”

Cosimo's heir was his grandson Lorenzo. And again at Villa Careggi, among the oak forests that surrounded it, poetry and music were heard, philosophical conversations were held, in which the grandchildren of Cosimo, Lorenzo and Giuliano, their friends - poets, painters, architects, secular and clergy took part. They called themselves the “Platonov Family”, or members of the Platonov Academy - a free society of people of different ranks and property status who loved ancient culture.

Unanimously elected head of the Academy, the favorite of the late Cosimo de' Medici, the matured Marsilio Ficino called himself a "Platonic philosopher, theologian and physician." Taking his time, he translated into Latin all the famous works of Plato and other ancient philosophers and historians.

Lorenzo, nicknamed the Magnificent, and his friends sought to imitate not only their studies in the fine arts, philosophy and literature, but also adopted their manner of dressing, talking, and behaving in society. Baldassare Castiglione's treatise "The Courtier" listed all the qualities of an educated person: the ability to fight well with swords, ride gracefully, dance exquisitely, always express himself pleasantly and politely, speak eloquently, be fluent in any musical instrument, always behave simply and naturally, be secular to the core and a believer at heart.

Lorenzo de' Medici listened carefully to Ficino's words when the conversation turned to God and man. Ficino had by that time become the rector of the cathedral in Florence, and all people who considered themselves well-mannered gathered at his sermons. He told his listeners that man stands at the pinnacle of creation not because he can comprehend the laws of divine creation, but because he himself is capable of creative creation. The great divine work that culminated in the creation of man is repeated in the work of man himself, who imitates God with precision and unites with him in this. Man can be called a divine artist.

Ficino argued that human power is almost like divine power; what God created in the world with his thought, the human mind conceives in itself through an intellectual act, expresses through language, depicts, creating buildings and works of art.

Ficino's contemporary Nicholas of Cusa argued that God is creativity, and man is created in the image and likeness of God; therefore, man is also a creator.

Member of "Plato's Family" Pico della Mirandola goes even further. He argues that if God is the creator of himself, and man is created in the image and likeness of God, then man must also create himself.

Lorenzo Medici listened to his friends, invited prominent people of his time to Florence, commissioned the best artists to build palaces, temples, public buildings and decorate them with frescoes and paintings, royally bestowing gifts on the creators. He agreed with his friend Ficino, who argued that a golden age had come, giving rise to golden minds and talents, reviving the liberal arts that had almost died in the past - grammar, poetry, rhetoric, painting, architecture and the ancient singing of the lyre of Orpheus. And all this happened in Florence.

It seemed that these people, who were talking about divine universal love and creativity, did not see what was happening around them. They wanted life to be a constant celebration, a series of successive carnivals, theatrical performances, military shows at which citizens showed off their manners, beautiful wives and lovers, and the wealth acquired by their fathers and grandfathers.

For one of the carnivals, Lorenzo composed a song that was loved by the residents of Florence. It contained these words:

Oh, how beautiful youth is
But instantly. Sing and laugh!
Be happy who wants happiness
And don't hope for tomorrow.

The sad “tomorrow” came in 1478. Some influential Florentines, led by representatives of the hostile Medici house of Pazzi, who did not want to come to terms with the rise and unlimited power of their rivals, planned to overthrow the Medici and seize power in Florence. On April 26, during a solemn service in the city cathedral, the conspirators surrounded the unsuspecting Medici brothers. Giuliano fell, struck by the assassin's dagger. Lorenzo, wounded, took refuge in the sacristy of the cathedral.

The conspirators hoped that they would be supported by the rest of the citizens of Florence. But that did not happen. And then the Medici began to take revenge: almost all the conspirators were captured and hanged on the streets of the city. Only Giuliano's killer, Bernardo Bandini, a dissolute and unscrupulous man, managed to escape. A year later he showed up in Constantinople, hoping that he had escaped Lorenzo's revenge. The same, having learned about this, turned to the Turkish Sultan himself with a request to extradite the killer. Bandini was brought to Florence, chained and promptly hanged where the bodies of his accomplices hung a year before. The city fathers adopted a resolution according to which every attempt on the life and well-being of Lorenzo was henceforth considered as “lese majeste” and was to be punished in the most severe manner.

It turned out that preaching universal love is easier than following this sermon. A merciless political struggle broke out in Florence. Executions, murders, expulsions, pogroms, torture, arson and robbery followed each other. When a famous person died, rumors about his poisoning spread throughout the city. Lorenzo's family did not escape suspicion of murder and other crimes, of which his heirs were also accused. For example, contemporaries claimed that Cosimo I de' Medici (1519-1574) killed his son Garzia in a fit of anger, and Pietro, Cosimo's son, struck his wife Eleanor to death with a dagger.

The permissiveness and impunity of those in power led to a decline in the morals of the rest of the townspeople. To harm their enemies, the Florentines made magic potions and summoned demons. Many believed in ghosts, the evil eye, corruption and black horsemen who intended to destroy Florence. Instead of holy water, as Christians should, they used potions made from crushed hair, bones and clothes of the dead. Marsilio Ficino himself, for example, studied alchemy and astrology, compiling horoscopes for the children of Lorenzo the Magnificent. Who was to condemn the inhabitants of Florence if even the highest clergy - the Pope - behaved in a similar way?

And then a man appeared in the city who publicly began to denounce the vice. His name was Girolamo Savonarola. He was born in Ferrara, into a family of famous doctors. His parents wanted him to inherit the family profession. But the young man wanted to become a priest. In his sermons, he argued that without moral virtues, both an individual and an entire society would inevitably find themselves on the brink of death.

In 1491, Savonarola was elected rector of the cathedral in Florence. That's when Lorenzo Medici heard about him. It was strange for him to see a man, even a clergyman, who dared to reproach him for despotism, robbery of fellow citizens, and various malicious intents. Lorenzo tried to tame the brave preacher. He often went to the cathedral, made rich contributions, and invited Savonarola to his palace. It was all in vain. Savonarola openly announced that great changes must be expected, since the time of life allotted to Lorenzo by God was expiring and the Last Judgment and fiery Gehenna awaited him.

By that time, Lorenzo was actually seriously ill, and his soul longed for peace, remission of sins. He did not trust his confessors, knowing their cowardice and corruption. Lorenzo wanted to confess to a man whom he had come to respect for his courage and integrity. Savonarola came to the dying Lorenzo, but agreed to confess him under certain conditions: he must trust in the infinite mercy of God, correct the consequences of the crimes committed or bequeath this to his sons and, last but most importantly, return freedom to the Florentine people. This last condition infuriated Lorenzo, and Savonarola left without giving him absolution. On April 8, 1492, Lorenzo the Magnificent died.

His heir Piero - a handsome and frivolous man - in a short time, with his stupidity and arrogance, achieved universal self-hatred and an increase in the number of Savonarola's like-minded people. While Piero squandered the wealth of the Medici house, Savonarola stubbornly built his home - a monastic community. In the monastery, he introduced a strict vow of poverty, prohibiting all sorts of excesses and luxury. Monks had to do useful work. Savonarola organized schools where fine arts, philosophy, morality, law, Holy Scripture, languages ​​- Greek, Hebrew, etc. were studied.

Not without his influence, on November 19, 1494, Piero de' Medici was deposed by the inhabitants of Florence and fled first to Venice and then to Rome, where he began to weave intrigues against Savonarola.

After the escape of the Medici, Savonarola proposed his program of action to the city fathers. A Grand Council was established in the city, in which all residents could take part upon reaching 29 years of age. The Council had full power, and executive power was vested in the Small Council, where the most worthy were elected.

Savonarola proposed judicial reform and a general amnesty. The rector of the cathedral carried out all these events without coercion or violence, using only his authority and ability to persuade.

Preaching repentance and moral revival, he was not a persecutor of art and science. When it became known about the sale of the huge library of the Medici house, which had been collected for more than one generation, Savonarola did everything possible to preserve it. He ordered the sale of part of the monastery lands, made a large loan in his own name, bought the library and opened it for public use.

Savonarola had strong enemies, and they were not idle. Accusations of heresy and various provocations followed each other. On the initiative of Pope Alexander VI, he was arrested and tortured, but the executioners did not force him to renounce his previous views and deeds.

On May 23, 1498, Savonarola was hanged, and then his body was burned and his ashes were scattered. He was only 45 years old. Piero de' Medici could triumph: his enemy was defeated. But the Medici did not return to Florence until 1512. They left too evil a memory of themselves. And when they returned, it turned out that history had taught them nothing. Again, they are indispensable participants in coups, executions, and violence. In 1527, the Medici family again had to flee Florence from the retribution of their fellow citizens. After this, when they returned again, they became more careful, trying to avoid aggravating relations with the Florentines, who still remembered the taste of freedom.

In 1569, the Medici received the title of Grand Dukes of Tuscany from the Pope. Their power was absolute, based on their own, albeit small, army.

The history of the Medici family is still waiting for its researcher. Its members included heroes and criminals; people capable of high, noble deeds and low betrayal; free farmers, artisans, townspeople, merchants, financiers, crowned and uncrowned rulers, but they were all people of their extraordinary time. And each of them could say about themselves in the words of the Renaissance poet Francois Villon:

I know how flies land on honey,
I know Death, who prowls, destroying everything,
I know books, truths and rumors,
I know everything, but not myself!