What types of memory do humans have? What is memory like? Types of memory - individual typological features of memory

Memory is one of the most important cognitive processes. Its place in our lives is difficult to overestimate, because success in any depends on how quickly we remember and retain the necessary information for a long time. Wanting to improve our memory, make it more efficient and put it to our service, we do not always think about what kind of memory we need. After all, this phenomenon of our psyche manifests itself in different ways in various areas of our life.

Memory is not in vain attributed to cognitive processes. Like any process, memorization and preservation take time and have their own levels or stages, which are also considered as types of memory.

RAM

This type, although it belongs to the processes of memorization, but stands somewhat apart. Working memory serves human activity. Information at this level is stored for a short time, but, most importantly, the brain does not consider it at all as something that needs to be remembered. Why? Because we need it exclusively for specific operations. For example, to understand a sentence, you need to store in memory the meanings of the words you read. Sometimes, however, there are such long sentences that by the time you read to the end, you will forget what happened at the beginning.

RAM is superficial and short-lived, it is working. But it is necessary for successful activity, it can be developed and increased in volume. She trains exclusively in activities. So, while reading, we gradually learn to understand more and more complex and long sentences, largely due to the improvement of working memory. Good RAM is what sets professionals apart.

sensory memory

This is the very first stage of the process of storing information, which can be called the physiological or reflex level. Sensory memory is associated with a very short preservation of signals coming to the nerve cells of the sense organs. The duration of information storage in sensory memory is from 250 milliseconds to 4 seconds.

Two types of sensory memory are best known and studied:

• visual,
• auditory.

Moreover, sound images are stored somewhat longer. This feature allows us to understand speech and listen to music. The fact that we perceive not individual sounds, but a whole melody is the merit of sensory memory. And a newborn child, whose sense organs are not yet fully developed, sees the whole world as an accumulation of color spots. The ability to perceive a holistic picture is also the result of the development of visual sensory memory.

The information that caught our attention moves from sensory memory to short-term memory. True, this is a very small part of the signals received by our senses, most do not attract our attention. The American inventor T. Edison wrote: "The brain of an average person does not perceive even a thousandth of what the eye sees." And often memory problems are actually due to a lack of ability to concentrate.

short term memory

This is the first stage of processing information intended for storage. Almost everything that attracts our attention enters the level of short-term memory, but lingers there for a very short time - about 30 seconds. It is this time that the brain needs to start processing the received data and determine the degree of their need.

• The amount of short-term memory is also small - 5-7 elements that are not related to each other: words, numbers, visual images, sounds, etc.
• At this level, the process of evaluating information takes place; the necessary one is duplicated, repeated, it has a chance to get into longer storage.

For a longer preservation of information (but not more than 7 minutes), it is necessary to maintain focused attention, which is a signal of the need for information. And a failure in the area of ​​attention leads to a phenomenon called substitution. It occurs when the flow of information entering the brain is large enough, and it does not have time to be processed in short-term memory. As a result, newly received data is replaced by new ones and is irretrievably lost.

Such a situation occurs when preparing students for an exam, when a student, trying to “swallow” as much information as possible in a limited period of time, prevents his brain from assimilating it normally. To prevent substitution, to keep a large amount of material in short-term memory for a longer period and to ensure its translation into long-term memory, it is possible with the help of conscious repetition and pronunciation. The longer information is stored in short-term memory, the more durable is its memorization.

long term memory

This is a warehouse of various data, which is characterized by almost indefinite storage and a huge volume. Sometimes, for example, a student complains before an exam that it is simply impossible to remember so many things. And since there is too much information, her head is literally overflowing and no longer fits. But this is self-deception. We cannot store information in long-term memory, not because there is no space, but because we do not remember correctly.

Only the following enters the level of long-term memory and is stored for a long time:

• included in the activity;
• meaningful;
• processed information tied by semantic and associative links to the information already there.

The more a person knows, the easier he remembers the subsequent information, since the connections of the new with the already known are established faster.

The problem with storing data in long-term memory can be due to other reasons. Long-term stored information is not so easy to extract from there. The fact is that long-term memory has two layers:

1. The upper one, where frequently used knowledge is stored. To remember them, no effort is required, they are, as it were, always at hand.
2. The lower level, on which there is “closed” information that has not been used for a long time, is therefore estimated by the brain as insignificant or even unnecessary. To remember it, efforts and special mnemonic (associated with memory processes) actions are required. The less information is used, the deeper layers of long-term memory it is stored. Sometimes drastic measures, such as hypnosis, are required to get to the bottom of it, and sometimes some insignificant event is enough to cause a chain of associations.

But the variety of types of memory is not limited to stages that differ in the duration of information storage.

Types of memory: what do we remember

In our lives, we are faced with the need to memorize very diverse information that enters our brain through different channels and in different ways. Depending on what mental processes are involved, there are also types of memory.

figurative memory

The largest amount of information in our memory is stored in the form of sensory images. We can say that all the senses work for our memory:

• visual receptors supply visual images, including information in the form of printed text;
• auditory - sounds, including music and human speech;
• tactile - tactile sensations;
• olfactory - smells;
• gustatory - a variety of tastes.

Images in the brain begin to accumulate literally from birth. This type of memory is not only the largest storage of information, it can also differ in literally phenomenal accuracy. The so-called eidetic memory is known - photographically accurate, detailed memorization of images. The most studied cases of such memorization in the field of visual. Eidetics are extremely rare and usually have some kind of mental disorder, for example:

• autism;
• schizophrenia;
• suicidal tendencies.

Motor or movement memory

This is a very ancient type of memorization that arose at the dawn of evolution. But memory for movements still plays a huge role, and not only in sports activities. Here we go to the table, take a mug, pour tea into it, write down something in a notebook, talk - all these are movements, and they are impossible without motor memory. What can we say about the importance of motor skills in work or sports. Without motor memory it is impossible:

• teaching children to write;
• mastering the skills of knitting, embroidery, drawing;
• even teaching toddlers to walk requires motor memory activity.

emotional memory

Memory for feelings is less visible in people's daily lives and seems to be less significant. But it's not. Our whole life is saturated with emotions, and without them it would lose its meaning, and its attractiveness too. Best of all, of course, bright emotionally colored events are remembered. But we are able to remember not only the bitterness of resentment or the fireworks of first love, but also the tenderness of communication with our mother, the joy of meeting friends or getting an A at school.

Emotional memory has a pronounced associative character, that is, memories are activated in the process of establishing a connection - an association with some phenomenon or event. Often, some insignificant detail is enough for a waterfall of feelings that we once experienced to flood over us again. True, feelings-memories never reach the strength and energy that was inherent in them for the first time.

Emotional memory is also important because emotionally colored information associated with vivid feelings is best remembered and stored longer.

Verbal-logical memory

This type of memory is considered exclusively human. Pet lovers might argue that animals like dogs and cats can also remember words well. Yes it is. But words for them are simply combinations of sounds associated with one or another visual, auditory, olfactory image. In humans, verbal-logical memory has a semantic, conscious character.

That is, we remember words and their combinations not as sound images, but as certain meanings. And a vivid example of such semantic memorization can be the story of A.P. Chekhov "Horse surname". In it, a person remembered the surname according to the meaning, and then for a long time remembered this “horse” surname. And she turned out to be Ovsov. That is, it was the associative-semantic memorization that worked.

By the way, verbal-logical memory works better when you need to remember not individual words, but their meaningful constructions - sentences combined into a text that has a more detailed meaning. Verbal-logical memory is not only the youngest type, but also requiring conscious, purposeful development, that is, associated with memorization techniques and voluntary mental activity.

Types of memory: how we remember

The abundance of information entering the brain requires its sorting, and not everything that we receive through sensory channels is remembered by itself. Sometimes it takes effort to remember. Depending on the degree of activity of mental activity, memory is divided into involuntary and arbitrary.

involuntary memory

The dream of every schoolchild and student is that knowledge is memorized by itself without any effort. Indeed, a lot of information is remembered in this way - involuntarily, that is, without volitional efforts. But for the mechanism of involuntary memory to turn on, an important condition is necessary. What is remembered involuntarily is what attracted our involuntary attention:

• bright, strong and unusual information (loud sounds, strong flashes, fantastic pictures);
• vital information (situations associated with a threat to the life and health of the person himself and his loved ones, important, key events in life, etc.);
• data related to the interests, hobbies and needs of a person;
• emotionally colored information;
• something that is directly related to professional or included in labor, creative activity.

Other information is not saved by itself, unless a smart student can get himself excited and interested in the learning material. Then, to remember it, you will have to make a minimum of effort.

Arbitrary memory

Any training, whether it be schoolwork or mastery of professional activities, contains not only bright, fascinating information, but also simply necessary information. It is necessary, though not very interesting, and should be remembered. That's what random memory is for.

This is not only and not even so much a simple conviction of oneself that “this must be kept in one’s head”. Arbitrary memory is, first of all, special memorization techniques. They are also called mnemonic techniques after the ancient Greek muse of memory Mnemosyne.

The first techniques of mnemonics were developed in ancient Greece, but they are still being used effectively, and many new techniques have been created to make it easier to memorize complex information. Unfortunately, most people are not familiar with them and simply use repeated repetition of information. This is, of course, the simplest, but also the least effective memorization technique. Up to 60% of information is lost in it, and it requires a lot of effort and time.

You got acquainted with the main types of memory that psychology studies and which are of fundamental importance in human life, in mastering knowledge and professional skills. But in various fields of science, one can also meet with other types of this mental process. For example, there are genetic, autobiographical, reconstructive, reproductive, episodic and other types of memory.

- an integrated mental reflection of a person's past interaction with reality, the information fund of his life.

The ability to store information and selectively update it, use it to regulate behavior is the main property of the brain that ensures the interaction of the individual with the environment. Memory integrates life experience, ensures the continuous development of human culture and individual life. Based on memory, a person is oriented in the present and foresees the future.

The beginning of the experimental study of memory was laid at the end of the 19th century. studies of the German psychologist G. Ebbinghaus (1850-1909), summarized in his work "On Memory" (1885). This was the first exit of a psychological experiment beyond sensory processes. G. Ebbinghaus deduced the “forgetting curve”, graphically illustrating the highest percentage of forgetting in the period immediately following the memorization of new material. At present, in connection with the actualization of the problem of machine accumulation and information retrieval, memory becomes the object of interdisciplinary research. But human memory differs from machine, electronic memory in the active-reconstructive preservation of material. Human memory is influenced by socio-cultural factors.

In the process of development, the individual is increasingly focused on the semantic, semantic connections of memorized structures. The same material is stored in memory in different ways depending on the structure of the personality, its need-motivational features. Machine memory is mechanical memory. Human memory is a value-integrated storage of information. The accumulation of material in memory (archiving) is carried out in two blocks: in the block episodic and in block semantic(semantic) memory. Episodic memory is autobiographical - it stores various episodes from the life of an individual. Semantic memory is aimed at categorical structures formed in the cultural and historical environment. It also stores all the historically formed rules for the logic of mental actions and the construction of a language.

Features of human memory

Depending on the characteristics of the memorized material, there are special ways of codifying, archiving and extracting it. The spatial organization of the environment is encoded in the form of schematic formations of semantic reference points that characterize our physical and social environment.

Sequential phenomena are imprinted in linear memory structures. Formally organized structures are imprinted associative mechanisms of memory, providing a grouping of phenomena and objects according to certain characteristics (household items, labor, etc.). All semantic meanings are categorized - they refer to different groups of concepts that are in hierarchical interdependence.

The possibility of its rapid updating and retrieval depends on the organization of the material in memory. Information is reproduced in the connection in which it was originally formed.

Many complain of a bad memory, but do not complain of a bad mind. Meanwhile, the mind, the ability to establish relationships, is the basis of memory.

The extraction of learned material from memory in order to use it in recognition, recall, and recollection is called updating(from lat. actualis - real, real). We look for the necessary material in memory in the same way as we look for the necessary thing in the pantry: by objects located in the neighborhood. Figuratively speaking, in the fund of our memory everything is hung "on hooks" of associations. The secret of a good memory is to establish strong associations. That is why people remember best what is connected with their worldly concerns, professional interests. Encyclopedic erudition in one area of ​​life can be combined with ignorance in other areas. Some facts are retained in our minds by the force of other facts well known to us. Mechanical “scratching”, “cramming” is the most inefficient way of memorizing.

The possibilities of actualization in a person are much wider than it seems to him. Difficulties in memory, rather, difficulties in reproduction than difficulties in preservation. Absolute oblivion of impressions does not exist.

The fund of human memory is plastic - with the development of personality, changes occur in the structural formations of his memory. Memory is inextricably linked with the activity of the individual - that is firmly remembered that is included in the active activity of a person, corresponds to his life strategy.

Operating System Behavior and human activity, i.e., his skills and abilities are images of optimal, adequate actions imprinted in memory. With repeated repetition of the necessary actions, unnecessary, unnecessary movements are eliminated from them, and the memory is fixed image of the optimal action, individual operations are integrated into a single functional complex.

Memory, intellect, feelings and the operational sphere of an individual are a single systemic formation.

Memory- the mental mechanism of a person's orientation both in the external and in the internal, subjective world, the mechanism of localization of events in time and space, the mechanism of structural self-preservation of the personality and its consciousness. Memory disorders mean personality disorders.

Classification of memory phenomena

Differ memory processes- memorization, preservation, reproduction and forgetting and forms of memory - involuntary (unintentional) and arbitrary (intentional).

Depending on the type of analyzers, the signaling system, or the participation of subcortical formations of the brain, there are types of memory:figurative, logical And emotional.

Figurative memory - representations - is classified by types of analyzers: visual, auditory, motor, etc.

According to the method of memorization, direct (direct) and indirect (indirect) memory are distinguished.

Relationship between memory and recall

The trace of each impression is associated with many traces of accompanying impressions. Indirect memorization and reproduction is the memorization and reproduction of a given image according to the system of connections into which the image is included - by associations. Indirect, associative emergence of images is psychologically much more meaningful than direct memorization; it brings the phenomena of memory closer to the phenomena of thinking. The main work of human memory consists of remembering and reproducing traces by associations.

There are three types of associations.

Association by adjacency. This is an elementary type of communication without significant processing of information.

Association by contrast. It is a connection between two opposite phenomena. This type of connection is already based on the logical device of opposition.

Association by similarity. Perceiving one situation, a person by association recalls another similar situation. Similarity associations require complex processing of the received information, highlighting the essential features of the perceived object, generalization and comparison with what is stored in memory. The objects of association by similarity can be not only visual images, but also concepts, judgments, and conclusions. Similarity associations are one of the essential mechanisms of thinking, the basis of logical memory.

Thus, according to the method of memorization, memory can be mechanical and associative (semantic).

Human memory systems

Consider memory systems. In any kind of activity, all memory processes are involved. But different levels of activity are associated with the functioning of various mechanisms, memory systems.

The following four interconnected memory systems are distinguished: 1) sensory; 2) short-term; 3) operational; 4) long-term.

sensory memory- a direct sensory imprint of an influencing object, a direct imprint of sensory influences, i.e., the preservation of visual images in the form of a clear, complete imprint of the object's sensory influences for a very short period of time (0.25 sec). These are the so-called afterimages. They are not associated with the fixation of traces and quickly disappear. This type of memory ensures the continuity, integrity of the perception of dynamic, rapidly changing phenomena.

short term memory- direct imprinting of a set of objects in a one-act perception of the situation, fixation of objects that have fallen into the field of perception. Short-term memory provides primary orientation in a one-time perception of the situation.

The operating time of short-term memory is no more than 30 seconds. Its scope is limited to five to seven objects. However, when reproducing short-term memory images, additional information can be extracted from them.

RAM- selective preservation and updating of information necessary only to achieve the goal of this activity. The duration of working memory is limited by the time of the corresponding activity. So, we memorize the elements of a phrase in order to comprehend it as a whole, we remember certain conditions of the problem we are solving, we remember intermediate numbers in complex calculations.

The productivity of working memory is determined by the ability of a person to organize the memorized material, to create integral complexes - units of memory. Examples of the use of various blocks of operational units can be spelling, syllables, whole words or word complexes. Working memory functions at a high level if a person sees not particular, but general properties of various situations, combines similar elements into larger blocks, recodes the material into a single system. So, remembering the ABD125 number is easier in the form of 125125, i.e., recoding the letters into numbers according to the place of the letters in the alphabet.

The functioning of working memory is associated with significant neuropsychic stress, since it requires the simultaneous interaction of a number of competing centers of excitation. When operating with objects whose state changes, no more than two variable factors can be kept in RAM.

long term memory- long-term memorization of content of great importance. The selection of information included in long-term memory is associated with a probabilistic assessment of its future applicability, foreseeing future events.

The amount of long-term memory depends on relevance information, that is, on what meaning the information has for a given individual, his leading activity.

Types of memory - individual typological features of memory

They differ in the following qualities, found in various combinations: the volume and accuracy of memorization; memorization speed; memory strength; the leading role of one or another analyzer (the predominance of visual, auditory or motor memory in a given person); peculiarities interactions of the first and second signal systems(figurative, logical and average types).

Various combinations of individual typological features give a variety of individual types of memory (Fig. 1).

There are large individual differences in the speed of memorization of material and the duration of its retention in memory. So, in the course of psychological experiments, it was found that to memorize 12 syllables, one person needs 49 repetitions, and another only 14.

An essential individual feature of memory is the focus on remembering certain material. The well-known criminologist G. Gross spoke about his father's extremely poor memory for people's names. The father could not accurately say the name of his only son, at the same time he memorized various statistical material very accurately and for a long time.

Some people memorize material directly, while others tend to use logical means. For some, memory is close to perception, for others, to thinking. The higher the level of mental development of a person, the more his memory approaches thinking. An intellectually developed person remembers mainly with the help of logical operations. But the development of memory is not directly related to intellectual development. Some people have a very developed figurative (eidetic) memory.

Rice. 1. Classification of memory phenomena

The grounds for distinguishing different types of memory are: the nature of mental activity, the degree of awareness of the information (images) being remembered, the nature of the connection with the goals of the activity, the duration of the preservation of images, and the goals of the study.

By the nature of mental activity(depending on the type of analyzers included in the memory processes, sensory systems and subcortical formations of the brain) memory is divided into: figurative, motor, emotional and verbal-logical.

figurative memory- this is a memory for images formed using the processes of perception through various sensory systems and reproduced in the form of representations. In this regard, figurative memory distinguishes:

• visual (the image of the face of a loved one, a tree in the yard of a home, the cover of a textbook on the subject being studied);
• auditory (the sound of your favorite song, the voice of the mother, the noise of the turbines of a jet aircraft or the surf);
• taste (taste of your favorite drink, lemon acid, bitterness of black pepper, sweetness of oriental fruits);
• olfactory (the smell of meadow herbs, favorite perfumes, smoke from a fire);
• tactile (the soft back of a kitten, the mother's affectionate hands, the pain of an accidentally cut finger, the warmth of a room heating battery).

The available statistics show the relative possibilities of these types of memory in the educational process. So, when listening to a lecture once (i.e., using only auditory memory), the next day a student can reproduce only 10% of its content. With independent visual study of the lecture (only visual memory is used), this figure rises to 30%. The story and visualization bring this figure to 50%. Practical working out of lecture material using all the types of memory listed above provides 90% of success.

Motor(motor) memory manifests itself in the ability to memorize, save and reproduce various motor operations (swimming, cycling, playing volleyball). This type of memory forms the basis of labor skills and any expedient motor acts.

emotional memory is a memory of feelings (memory of fear or shame for one's previous act). Emotional memory is one of the most reliable, durable "repositories" of information. “Well, you are vindictive!” - we say to a person who for a long time cannot forget the offense inflicted on him and is not able to forgive the offender.

This type of memory recalls previously experienced feelings or is said to reproduce secondary feelings. At the same time, secondary feelings may not only not correspond to their originals (originally experienced feelings) in strength and semantic content, but also change their sign to the opposite. For example, what we previously feared may now become desirable. So, the newly appointed chief, according to rumors, was known (and at first he was perceived as such) as a more demanding person than the previous one, which caused natural anxiety among workers. Subsequently, it turned out that this was not so: the exactingness of the boss ensured the professional growth of employees and an increase in their salaries.

Lack of emotional memory leads to "emotional dullness": a person becomes unattractive, uninteresting, robotic creature for others. The ability to rejoice and suffer is a necessary condition for human mental health.

Verbal-logical, or semantic, memory is the memory of thoughts and words. Actually, there are no thoughts without words, which is emphasized by the very name of this type of memory. According to the degree of participation of thinking in verbal-logical memory, sometimes mechanical and logical are conventionally distinguished. They speak of mechanical memory when the memorization and preservation of information is carried out mainly due to its repeated repetition without a deep understanding of the content. By the way, rote memory tends to deteriorate with age. An example is the "forced" memorization of words that are not related in meaning.

Logical memory is based on the use of semantic links between memorized objects, objects or phenomena. It is constantly used, for example, by teachers: when presenting new lecture material, they periodically remind students of previously introduced concepts related to this topic.

By degree of awareness memorized information distinguish between implicit and explicit memory.

implicit memory is a memory for material that a person is not aware of. The process of memorization is implicit, covert, independent of consciousness, inaccessible to direct observation. The manifestation of such a memory requires a "start", which may be the need to solve some task that is important for the moment. However, he does not realize the knowledge that he possesses. In the process of socialization, for example, a person perceives the norms and values ​​of his society without realizing the basic theoretical principles that guide his behavior. It happens as if by itself.

Explicit memory based on the conscious use of previously acquired knowledge. To solve a problem, they are extracted from consciousness on the basis of recall, recognition, etc.

By the nature of the connection with the goals of the activity Distinguish between voluntary and involuntary memory. involuntary memory- a trace of an image in the mind, arising without a purpose specifically set for this. Information is stored as if automatically, without volitional effort. In childhood, this type of memory is developed, and weakens with age. An example of involuntary memory is the imprinting of a picture of a long line at the ticket office of a concert hall.

Arbitrary memory- intentional (volitional) memorization of an image, associated with some purpose and carried out with the help of special techniques. For example, memorization by an operative law enforcement officer of external signs in the guise of a criminal in order to identify him and arrest him upon meeting. It should be noted that the comparative characteristics of voluntary and involuntary memory in terms of the strength of information memorization does not give absolute advantages to any of them.

By duration of saving images Distinguish instant (sensory), short-term, operational and long-term memory.

Instant (touch) memory is a memory that retains information perceived by the senses without processing it. It is almost impossible to manage this memory. Varieties of this memory:

• iconic (after-figurative memory, the images of which are stored for a short period of time after a brief presentation of the object; if you close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close them again, then the image of what you see will be stored for a time of 0.1-0.2 s and will constitute the content of this type memory);
• echoic (after-image memory, the images of which are stored for 2-3 seconds after a brief auditory stimulus).

Short-term (working) memory is a memory for images after a single, short-term perception and with immediate (in the first seconds after perception) reproduction. This type of memory responds to the number of perceived symbols (signs), their physical nature, but not to their information content. There is a magical formula for human short-term memory: "seven plus or minus two." This means that with a single presentation of numbers (letters, words, symbols, etc.), 5-9 objects of this type remain in short-term memory. Retention of information in short-term memory is on average 20-30 s.

Operational memory, "related" to short-term memory, allows you to save a trace of the image only to perform current actions (operations). For example, sequential removal of information symbols of a message from the display screen and retention in memory until the end of the entire message.

long-term memory is a memory for images, "calculated" for the long-term preservation of their traces in the mind and subsequent repeated use in future life. It forms the basis of sound knowledge. The extraction of information from long-term memory is carried out in two ways: either at will, or with extraneous stimulation of certain parts of the cerebral cortex (for example, during hypnosis, irritation of certain parts of the cerebral cortex with a weak electric current). The most important information is stored in a person's long-term memory for life.

It should be noted that in relation to long-term memory, short-term memory is a kind of "checkpoint" through which perceived images penetrate into long-term memory, subject to repeated reception. Without repetition, images are lost. Sometimes the concept of "intermediate memory" is introduced, attributing to it the function of primary "sorting" of input information: the most interesting part of the information is delayed in this memory for several minutes. If during this time it is not in demand, then its complete loss is possible.

Depending on the objectives of the study introduce the concepts of genetic (biological), episodic, reconstructive, reproductive, associative, autobiographical memory.

genetic(biological) memory is due to the mechanism of heredity. This is the "memory of the ages", the memory of the biological events of a huge evolutionary period of man as a species. It preserves the tendency of a person to certain types of behavior and patterns of action in specific situations. Through this memory, elementary innate reflexes, instincts and even elements of the physical appearance of a person are transmitted.

episodic memory refers to the storage of individual fragments of information with a fixation of the situation in which it was perceived (time, place, method). For example, a person in search of a gift for a friend has outlined a clear route bypassing outlets, fixing suitable items by location, floor, store departments and the faces of sellers working there.

reproductive memory consists in re-reproducing by recalling the original previously stored object. For example, an artist from memory draws a picture (based on recall) of a taiga landscape that he contemplated while on a creative business trip. It is known that Aivazovsky created all his paintings from memory.

Reconstructive memory consists not so much in the reproduction of an object as in the procedure for restoring the disturbed sequence of stimuli in its original form. For example, a process engineer from memory restores a lost process flow diagram for manufacturing a complex part.

Associative memory relies on any established functional links (associations) between stored objects. A man, passing by a candy store, remembered that at home he was instructed to buy a cake for dinner.

Autobiographical memory is a memory for the events of one's own life (in principle, it can be attributed to a variety of episodic memory).

All types of memory related to different classification bases are closely interconnected. Indeed, for example, the quality of work of short-term memory determines the level of functioning of long-term memory. At the same time, objects perceived simultaneously through several channels are better remembered by a person.

There are several reasons for classifying the types of human memory. One of them is the division of memory according to the time of storing the material, the other - according to the analyzer that prevails in the processes of storing, storing and reproducing the material. In the first case, instantaneous, short-term, operational, long-term and genetic memory are distinguished. In the second case, they speak of motor, visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, emotional and other types of memory. Consider and give a brief definition of the main of these types of memory.

instant, or iconic, memory is associated with the retention of an accurate and complete picture of what has just been perceived by the senses, without any processing of the information received. This memory is a direct reflection of information by the sense organs. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 s. Instant memory is the complete residual impression that arises from the direct perception of stimuli. This is a memory-image.

short-term memory is a way of storing information for a short period of time. The duration of retention of mnemonic traces here does not exceed several tens of seconds, on average about 20 (without repetition). In short-term memory, not a complete, but only a generalized image of the perceived, its most essential elements, is stored. This memory works without a preliminary conscious mindset for memorization, but instead with a mindset for subsequent reproduction of the material. Short-term memory is characterized by such an indicator as volume. It averages from 5 to 9 units of information and is determined by the number of units of information that a person is able to accurately reproduce several tens of seconds after a single presentation of this information to him.

Short-term memory is associated with the so-called actual human consciousness. From instant memory, only that information gets into it that is recognized, correlates with the actual interests and needs of a person, and attracts his increased attention.

Operational called memory, designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, in the range from several seconds to several days. The period of storage of information in this memory is determined by the task facing the person, and is designed only for solving this problem. After that, the information may disappear from the RAM. This type of memory, in terms of the duration of information storage and its properties, occupies an intermediate position between short-term and long-term.

long-term is a memory capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period of time. Information that has fallen into the storage of long-term memory can be reproduced by a person as many times as desired without loss. Moreover, repeated and systematic reproduction of this information only strengthens its traces in long-term memory. The latter presupposes the ability of a person at any necessary moment to recall what he once remembered. When using long-term memory, recall often requires thinking and willpower, so its functioning in practice is usually associated with these two processes.

genetic memory can be defined as one in which information is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance. The main biological mechanism for storing information in such a memory is, apparently, mutations and related changes in gene structures. Human genetic memory is the only one that we cannot influence through training and education.

Visual memory associated with the preservation and reproduction of visual images. It is extremely important for people of all professions, especially for engineers and artists. A good visual memory is often possessed by people with eidetic perception, who are able to “see” the perceived picture in their imagination for a sufficiently long time after it has ceased to affect the senses. In this regard, this type of memory implies a developed human ability to imagine. It is based, in particular, on the process of memorizing and reproducing material: what a person can visually imagine, he, as a rule, remembers and reproduces more easily.

Auditory memory - this is a good memorization and accurate reproduction of various sounds, for example, musical, speech. It is necessary for philologists, people studying foreign languages, acousticians, musicians. A special kind of speech memory is verbal-logical, which is closely related to the word, thought and logic. This type of memory is characterized by the fact that a person who possesses it can quickly and accurately remember the meaning of events, the logic of reasoning or any evidence, the meaning of the text being read, etc. He can convey this meaning in his own words, and quite accurately. This type of memory is possessed by scientists, experienced lecturers, university professors and school teachers.

motor memory is the memorization and preservation, and, if necessary, reproduction with sufficient accuracy of diverse complex movements. It is involved in the formation of motor, in particular labor and sports, skills and abilities. The improvement of human hand movements is directly related to this type of memory.

Emotional memory - it is a memory of experiences. It is involved in the work of all types of memory, but it is especially manifested in human relationships. The strength of material memorization is directly based on emotional memory: what causes emotional experiences in a person is remembered by him without much difficulty and for a longer period.

Tactile, olfactory, gustatory and other types of memory do not play a special role in human life, and their capabilities are limited compared to visual, auditory, motor and emotional memory. Their role is mainly reduced to the satisfaction of biological needs or needs related to the safety and self-preservation of the organism.

According to the nature of the participation of the will in the processes of memorization and reproduction of material, memory is divided into involuntary And arbitrary. In the first case, they mean such memorization and reproduction, which occurs automatically and without much effort on the part of a person, without setting a special mnemonic task for himself (for memorization, recognition, preservation or reproduction). In the second case, such a task is necessarily present, and the process of memorization or reproduction itself requires volitional efforts.

Involuntary memorization is not necessarily weaker than voluntary, in many cases it surpasses it. It has been established, for example, that the material that is the object of attention and consciousness, acts as a goal, and not a means of carrying out an activity, is better remembered involuntarily. Involuntarily, material is also remembered better, which is associated with interesting and complex mental work and which is of great importance for a person. It is shown that in the case when significant work is carried out with the memorized material to comprehend, transform, classify, establish certain internal (structure) and external (association) links in it, it can be remembered involuntarily better than voluntarily. This is especially true for children of preschool and primary school age.

Let us now consider some features and the relationship between the two main types of memory that a person uses in everyday life: short-term and long-term.

Volume short term memory individual. It characterizes the natural memory of a person and reveals a tendency to be preserved throughout life. In the first place, he determines mechanical memory, its possibilities. With the features of short-term memory, due to the limitations of its volume, such a property is associated as substitution. It manifests itself in the fact that when the individually limited amount of short-term memory of a person overflows, newly incoming information partially displaces the information stored there, and the latter irretrievably disappears, is forgotten, and does not fall into long-term storage. This, in particular, occurs when a person has to deal with such information that he is not able to fully remember and which is presented to him continuously and sequentially.

Why, for example, do we so often experience serious difficulties in remembering and retaining in memory the names, surnames and patronymics of people new to us, with whom we have just been introduced? Apparently, for the reason that the amount of information available in these words is at the limit of short-term memory, and if new information is added to it (and this is exactly what happens when the person presented to us begins to speak), then the old, associated with his name is repressed. Involuntarily switching attention to what a person says, we thereby stop repeating his first name, last name and patronymic, and as a result, we soon forget about them.

Short-term memory plays an important role in human life. Thanks to it, the largest amount of information is processed, unnecessary is immediately eliminated and potentially useful remains. As a result, there is no information overload of long-term memory with unnecessary information, and a person's time is saved. Short-term memory is of great importance for the organization of thinking; the material of the latter, as a rule, is facts that are either in short-term memory or in short-term memory close to it in terms of its characteristics.

This type of memory actively works in the process of human-to-human communication. It has been established that in the case when people who met for the first time are asked to talk about their impressions of each other, to describe those individual characteristics that they noticed in each other during the first meeting, on average they usually name such a number of features that corresponds to the amount of short-term memory , i.e. 7+2.

Without a good short-term memory, the normal functioning of long-term memory is impossible. Only what was once in short-term memory can penetrate into the latter and be deposited for a long time. In other words, short-term memory acts as an obligatory intermediate storage and filter that passes the necessary, already selected information into long-term memory.

The transition of information from short-term to long-term memory is associated with a number of features. The last 5 or 6 units of information received through the sense organs get into short-term memory, and they penetrate first of all into long-term memory. By making a conscious effort, repeating the material, you can keep it in short-term memory and for a longer period than a few tens of seconds. Thus, it is possible to ensure the transfer from short-term to long-term memory of such an amount of information that exceeds the individual amount of short-term memory. This mechanism underlies memorization through repetition.

Usually, without repetition, only what is in the sphere of human attention turns out to be in long-term memory. This feature of short-term memory is illustrated by the following experiment. In it, subjects are asked to remember only 3 letters and, after about 18 seconds, reproduce them. But in the interval between the initial perception of these letters and their recall, the subjects are not given the opportunity to repeat these letters to themselves. Immediately after the presentation of three different letters, they are invited to quickly start counting down in triplets, starting with some large number, for example, from 55. In this case, it turns out that many subjects are not able to remember these letters at all and accurately reproduce them through 18 p. On average, no more than 20% of the information they initially perceived is stored in the memory of people who have gone through such an experience.

Many of life's psychological problems that seem to be related to memory actually depend not on memory as such, but on the ability to ensure a person's long-term and sustained attention to the material being remembered or recalled. If it is possible to draw a person's attention to something, to focus his attention on it, then the corresponding material is better remembered and, therefore, is retained in memory longer. This fact can be illustrated by the following experiment. If you invite a person to close his eyes and unexpectedly answer, for example, the question of what color, shape and what other features an object has that he has seen more than once, past which he has repeatedly passed, but which did not arouse increased attention, then a person with can hardly answer the question, despite the fact that he has seen this subject many times. Many people are mistaken when they are asked to say what numeral, Roman or Arabic, is shown on the dial of their mechanical wrist watch number 6. It often turns out that it is not on the watch at all, and a person who looked at his watch tens and even hundreds of times paid attention to this fact and therefore did not remember it. The procedure for introducing information into short-term memory is the act of paying attention to it.

One of the possible mechanisms of short-term memorization is time coding, those. reflection of the memorized material in the form of certain, sequentially located symbols in the auditory or visual system of a person. For example, when we memorize something that can be denoted by a word, then we usually use this word by mentally pronouncing it to ourselves several times, and we do this either consciously, thoughtfully, or unconsciously, mechanically. If we need to visually remember a picture, then after carefully looking at it, we usually close our eyes or divert our attention from looking at it in order to focus it on memorization. At the same time, we always try to mentally reproduce what we saw, visualize it or express its meaning in words. Often, in order to really remember something, we try to evoke a certain reaction in ourselves by association with it. The generation of such a reaction should be considered as a special psychophysiological mechanism that contributes to the activation and integration of processes that serve as a means of memorization and reproduction.

The fact that when information is entered into long-term memory, it is usually recoded into an acoustic form, is proved by the following experiment. If the subjects are visually presented with a significant number of words that obviously exceed the amount of short-term memory in their number, and then analyze the mistakes that they make when reproducing it, it turns out that often the correct letters in words are replaced by those erroneous letters that are close to them in sound, not by writing. This, obviously, is typical only for people who own verbal symbols, i.e. sound speech. People who are born deaf do not need to convert visible words into audible ones.

In cases of painful disturbances, long-term and short-term memory can exist and function as relatively independent. For example, in this painful memory impairment called retrograde amnesia, memory is mostly affected for recent events, but memories of events that took place in the distant past are usually retained. In another type of disease, also associated with memory impairment, anterograde amnesia, both short-term and long-term memory remain intact. However, the ability to enter new information into long-term memory suffers.

However, both types of memory are interconnected and work as a single system. One of the concepts describing their joint, interconnected activity was developed by American scientists Ratkinson and R. Shifrin. It is shown schematically in Fig. 42. In accordance with the theory of the named authors, long-term memory seems to be practically unlimited in volume, but it has limited possibilities for arbitrary recall of the information stored in it. In addition, in order for information from short-term storage to get into long-term storage, it is necessary that some work be done with it while it is in short-term memory. This is the work of recoding it, i.e. translation into a language understandable and accessible to the human brain. This process is somewhat similar to that which occurs when information is entered into an electronic computer. It is known that all modern computers are capable of storing information in binary codes, and in order for the memory of the machine to work, any information entered into it must be represented in this form.

In many life situations, the processes of short-term and long-term memory work in conjunction and in parallel. For example, when a person sets himself the task of remembering something that obviously exceeds the capabilities of his short-term memory, he often consciously or unconsciously turns to the use of semantic processing and grouping of material, which facilitates memorization. Such a grouping, in turn, involves the use of long-term memory, appeal to past experience, extracting from it the knowledge and concepts necessary for generalization, ways of grouping the memorized material, reducing it to the number of semantic units that do not exceed the amount of short-term memory.

The translation of information from short-term to long-term memory often causes difficulties, since in order to do this in the best way, it is necessary first to comprehend and structure the material in a certain way, to connect it with what a person knows well. It is precisely because of the insufficiency of this work, or because of the inability to carry it out quickly and efficiently, that people's memory seems to be weak, although in fact it may have great potentialities.

Let us now consider the features and some mechanisms of work long-term memory. This memory usually begins to function not immediately after the person has perceived and memorized the material, but after some time, necessary for the person to internally switch from one process to another, from memorization to reproduction. These two processes cannot occur in parallel, since their structure is different, and the mechanisms are incompatible, oppositely directed. Acoustic encoding is typical for the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory, where it is already stored, probably not in the form of sound, but in the form of semantic codes and structures associated with thinking. The reverse process involves the translation of thoughts into words.

If, for example, after a certain number of readings or listening, we try after some time to reproduce a long series of words, then we usually make mistakes just as often as when short-term memory does not work when memorizing. However, these errors are different. In most cases, instead of forgotten words, when remembering, we use others that are close to them not in sound or spelling, but in meaning. It often happens that a person, being unable to accurately recall a forgotten word, at the same time remembers its meaning well, can convey it in other words and confidently rejects other combinations of sounds that are not similar to the given word. Due to the fact that the meaning of what is remembered first comes to mind, we can eventually remember what we want, or at least replace it with something that is close enough to it in meaning. Were it not for this, we would have great difficulty remembering and often fail. The process of recognizing something once seen or heard is probably based on the same feature of long-term memory.

It is the most important element of its activity. Throughout a person's life, all his impressions and knowledge are recorded in memory. Its types help to better assimilate information of a certain nature. The manifestations of memory are extremely multifaceted and can be divided into several main categories. Different types of human memory are characterized by different features.

Types of memory for mental activity

According to the nature of mental activity, the following types of memory are distinguished.

motor memory provides a person with the memorization of his movements. It underlies the formation of many practical and labor skills. In particular, these include walking, the ability to write, use various tools when working. In some cases, this type of memory must be developed especially well for successful professional activity, for example, among athletes or ballet dancers.

emotional memory is a memory of previously experienced emotions and feelings. Experiences stored in memory become the reason for the emergence of associations and actions based on them in the event that a similar or similar situation arises again.

figurative memory characterized by memorizing can be pictures of nature, sounds, smells. As a rule, visual and auditory memory play a leading role in human life and are best developed. Other types of this memory are much less developed in many people, but there are exceptions, most often associated with the olfactory memory of the creators of perfumes or the taste of tasters far exceed the usual level. A good tactile memory is often found in the blind. There are also people who have the ability to retain in memory the smallest details of the objects they see for some time.

Verbal-logical memory in its content represents human thoughts based on language. There are two types of such memory. In the first case, the main meaning is better remembered without an emphasis on details, while in the second case, memorization is more literal.

Types of memory according to the goals of the activity

There are also types of memory according to the nature of the goals of the activity.

involuntary memory differs in that it lacks the very purpose of memorization. It has been established that this type of memory is more developed in children, and noticeably weakens with age. An interesting feature is that in this case the information is very often remembered reliably, although there is no such purpose.

Arbitrary memory improves with age, which is largely facilitated by the use of special learning techniques and targeted training.

Memory is divided into types and according to the duration of storage of the material.

sensory memory is characterized by the fact that all processes occur at the level of receptors, and information is generally stored for no more than half a second. If the information is of interest to the brain, then it is delayed. Otherwise, it is erased completely and completely.

short term memory comes into play when the information is delayed more than one second. Within about 20 seconds, it is processed in order to determine its degree of importance. If the brain recognizes it as worthy of attention, then the elements of information (numbers, words, names of objects, images) are transmitted further. The amount of short-term memory is very small, at the same time it can contain no more than five to nine elements. It is from this quantity that selection occurs, and the rest is irretrievably lost.

long term memory is something like an archive storage of unlimited capacity, where information received from short-term memory is classified, encoded and stored for long-term storage.

This is the most important function of the body, allowing a person to navigate in the ocean of information surrounding him.