The world after World War II. After World War II

The post-war state of the German economy

After World War II, Germany was divided into two independent states: the FRG and the GDR. The difficult state of the German economy, in addition to military devastation, was influenced by the dismantling of equipment from industrial enterprises, adopted by the decision of the Potsdam Conference of the Heads of Government of the powers that won the war on August 2, 1945. as compensation for damages, and the division of the country. In 1948, with the direct participation of L. Erhard, the architect of the policy of economic revival of West Germany, an economist and statesman (first the Minister of Economics, and then the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany), monetary and economic reform was carried out.

Carefully prepared economic reform was carried out simultaneously with the monetary reform, price reform, restructuring of centralized administration. The old system was destroyed immediately, not gradually. The rise in prices stopped after about six months. The success of the reform was determined both by a timely adjustment (for example, a revision of the exchange rate of the national currency) and the presence of a strong and authoritative government. Erhard is considered to be a neoliberal, but he was not a “pure” neoliberal and widely used state levers to switch to the principles of liberalism. Following the monetary reform, the administrative distribution of resources and control over them were abolished.

Industry

In the historically established unified pre-war German economy, the territory of the present GDR was an underdeveloped industrial area, which was largely dependent on its western part. Before the war, the eastern part exported 45% of all industrial and agricultural products from the western part. The raw material base, metallurgical, energy and heavy industry were located mainly in the western regions of Germany. In addition, as a result of the war, 45% of the equipment of an already underdeveloped industry, 70% of energy capacities and 40% of agricultural machinery were disabled. Compared with 1936, the volume of industrial production in the territory of the present GDR was only 42%. The entire existing economic base consisted of little more than a single blast furnace, the traditional textile industry, including textile engineering, precision mechanics and optics. Due to the split of Germany through the fault of the Western powers, which formed a separate West German state, the GDR found itself cut off from the traditional centers of heavy industry, metallurgy and energy. In 1949, the year the GDR was founded, the young state lacked entire industries, and those that did exist were very underdeveloped. At the cost of incredible efforts, the working people managed to overcome the most pernicious disproportions during the first years of construction.

With the help of the Soviet Union, entire industries were recreated, including the energy base, metallurgy, machine tool building, and a significant part of light industry. The referendum of June 30, 1946 on the gratuitous expropriation of 3,843 enterprises of active Nazis and war criminals, as well as large landowners, served as a democratic basis for the transformation of numerous enterprises into public property. At the same time, this expropriation and democratic land reform marked the beginning of the process of the transfer of economic power into the hands of the working class, in alliance with the peasantry and all other sections of the working people. In the following years, with the help of the Soviet Union, the workers created numerous new enterprises. These were very difficult years of industrial construction. They demanded from all the working people an enormous effort and cost them great hardships. The imperialist circles, hostile to socialism, tried to hold back the new development, hinder it and even frustrate it.

They maliciously used the state border between the GDR and West Berlin, which was open until 1961, undermining the GDR's currency regime, luring highly qualified specialists from there and exporting a large amount of vital consumer goods to West Berlin. According to official data, due to the existence of the open border of the GDR until 1961, material damage was inflicted in the amount of more than 100 billion marks. After the implementation of measures to ensure the security of the state border of the GDR in 1961, there was a significant economic recovery. After almost all the peasants, who had previously been individual farmers, united in agricultural production cooperatives, socialist property became a solid economic basis for the GDR. After the VI Congress of the SED, which took place in 1963 and decided on the full-scale construction of socialism, great efforts were made to develop, test and put into practice effective ways and methods of managing and planning industry and all other areas of the national economy.

Political reform

The principle of the democratic state made it possible to express the will of the citizens. The focus of the basic law is a person, because the state should serve the people, and not dominate them. The political system of Germany is determined by 4 principles of the state: democratic; federal; legal; social.

The Marshall Plan On June 5, 1947, George Marshall, then US Secretary of State, proclaimed the European Recovery Program. A year later, the American Congress passed this plan, which provided for billions in loans. It included not only financial resources, but also supplies of equipment and gifts. Until 1952, the United States sent from the funds of the program 

Germany after World War II. Basic Law of Germany 1949 Berlin Crisis. Division of the country

The Second World War ended for Germany with the defeat and collapse of the fascist regime in the country.

This created the conditions for building a new, democratic German state.

Germany again, like 27 years ago ( after World War I), had to start almost from scratch.

However, the situation is now complicated by two more factors:

1. The difficult economic situation of the country caused by the consequences of the war;

2. Contradictions between allies ( more precisely - between the USSR and the allies) on the further development of the country. At the same time, each side sought to make Germany its sphere of influence;

The consequences of the war for Germany were more severe than for many other European states.

Losses amounted to 13.5 million, cities were destroyed, industry was destroyed or dismantled ( allies - that's freaks!

Real marauders! The USSR exported everything from Germany - from ships to buttons). The country's economy experienced a shortage of workers (the male population died in the war). There is general speculation in the country, the “black market” is flourishing. Not enough housing. The financial system of the country is destroyed - no money has a price. Most of the population is starving.

The formation of the new German state had to take place in extremely difficult conditions.

The following made things even more difficult:

Such starting conditions did not bode well - and it turned out - the future justified the worst fears (everything happened, except third world war…).

With the end of hostilities, the territory of Germany was divided into occupation zones(4 - USA, UK, France, USSR).

This was necessary for a coordinated solution of priority problems, after which, by agreement between the allies, power was to be transferred to the new German authorities.

A special body was created to govern the country, which included all the allies - Control Council(commanders of four armies who became military governors).

It was them that the Control Council carried out. The main place in them was occupied by a policy called " four D»:

Initially, the Allied policy towards Germany was carried out in one direction.

The implementation of the most important measures listed above did not cause doubts and special disagreements.

However, when determining the ways of further development of the country, such disagreements appeared very quickly. And that's why:

After the implementation of the plan four D”, the next stage was to be the creation of German state bodies and the transfer of power to them.

However, by this time, the territory of Germany was becoming more and more clearly an arena of confrontation between communism and capitalism (USSR and USA). No one wanted to give in - as it turned out very soon, the policy in different zones varied quite significantly.

Soon a line of confrontation emerged - the USSR on the one hand, the allies (USA, Great Britain, France) on the other. The activities aimed at creating a German state, carried out in the eastern and western zones, were diametrically opposed, and actually aimed at building different models of the state.

This very quickly led to a political crisis.

Events unfolded like this:

Despite the failure of the London Conference (cf.

chapter " Wasted Efforts”), she nevertheless gave certain results. The most important of these was the achievement of agreement between the Western states (USA, Great Britain, France) on the creation of a separate West German state. The formation of such a state was to be enshrined in a new constitution. At the same time, German politicians were asked to convene a Constituent Assembly ( for its adoption) no later than September 1, 1948.

Such a proposal, although it was quite obvious to the Germans themselves, did not arouse much enthusiasm - it was a clear step towards the split of the country.

At the same time, it was also impossible to leave the situation unchanged.

This issue had to be resolved at a meeting of the prime ministers of the German lands (in the lands there were already Landtags and governments).

In the end, a compromise solution was reached:

The decisions of the heads of the lands were approved by the allies ( let at least such a constitution than none).

The main goal of the formation of the Western European state- the creation of a kind of "core", which would then be joined by the eastern lands. So the West Germans tried to find at least some solution to the existing problems. There were probably no other options.

Parliamentary Council ( 65 members elected by the Landtags, thus a body formed by indirect elections) began work on September 1, 1948.

(Bonn). K. Adenauer (SPD) became chairman. The bill did not cause much debate - it was assumed that it would soon be replaced by the "real" Constitution ( fuck you replace it- because of the USSR, the country was divided for half a century!).

On May 8, 1949, the Basic Law (OZ) was adopted by a majority vote. Landtags quickly ratified it (approved). Problems arose only with Bavaria ( Well, she always had her own opinion...) who considered the OZ "too centralist" ( limiting its "precious" powers in favor of the center).

However, she also pledged to abide by his norms.

On May 23, 1949, the OZ entered into force. This was the birth date of the new German state. It got the name Federal Republic of Germany.

The formation of the West German state and the adoption of the Basic Law, essentially meant the final division of the country.

At the same time, in the eastern lands, the formation of a socialist German state - the GDR.

In many ways, the processes that took place during 1949 could still be regarded as temporary, and the hope for the unification of the country still remained. As noted above, the German constitution was of the nature temporal- it was assumed that the eastern lands would soon be included in the unified German state.

However, in the next few years, the last illusions were dispelled - both German states became the arena of political confrontation between the socialist and capitalist worlds.

Under such conditions, the unification had to be forgotten for a long time - it seemed forever.

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State and political development of Germany after World War II

World War II (1939-1945) ended in complete military and political defeat for Germany. After the military surrender (May 8, 1945), the former German state both nominally and practically ceased to exist. Power in the country and all management functions were transferred to the military administration of the powers that occupied Germany.

21.1.1 The Potsdam agreements and the creation of a military control office in occupied Germany.

The principles of the post-war structure of Germany were determined by the decisions of the Crimean (January 1945) and, most importantly, Potsdam conferences (July-August 1945) of the allied states (USSR, USA and Great Britain).

They were supported by France and a number of other countries that were at war with Germany. According to these decisions, the totalitarian state in Germany was to be completely destroyed: the NSDAP and all organizations associated with it were banned, most of the punitive institutions of the Reich (including the SA, SS and SD services) were declared criminal, the army was disbanded, racial laws and acts of political significance were abolished .

The country should have been consistently carried out decartelization, denazification, demilitarization and democratization. The further solution of the "German question", including the preparation of a peace treaty, was placed in the hands of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the Allied States.

June 5, 1945 the Allied states promulgated the Declaration on the defeat of Germany and on the organization of a new order of government.

The country was divided into 4 occupation zones, which were given under the administration of Great Britain (the largest zone in terms of territory), the USA, the USSR and France; the capital, Berlin, was subject to joint administration. To resolve common issues, an allied Control Council was formed from the commanders-in-chief of the four occupying armies, decisions in which would be made on the principle of unanimity. Each zone created its own administration similar to a military governorate.

The governors were entrusted with all issues of restoring civilian life, implementing the policy of denazification and demilitarization, as well as the prosecution of Nazi criminals, the return of previously forcibly displaced persons and prisoners of war of all nationalities.

After the establishment of military administration in all zones, activities were allowed political parties democratic direction. The new parties were to play a major role in the restoration of state structures and in the political organization of the population (albeit for different purposes from the positions of the USSR and the Western powers).

In the eastern zone of occupation (USSR), the resurgent Social Democratic and Communist parties became the dominant political force. Under pressure from the Soviet administration and under the leadership of leaders who were in the USSR during the war years, they merged into Socialist Unity Party of Germany(April 1946), which set the goal of establishing a socialist state in the country in the spirit of revolutionary Marxism and with a complete social reorganization of the country according to the Soviet model.

In the occupation zones of the Western powers, the newly formed party - Christian Democratic Union(June 1945); in Bavaria, the association became similar in direction Christian Social Union(January 1946). These parties stood on the platform of democratic republicanism, the creation of a social market economy society based on private property.

At the same time, the Social Democratic Party of Germany was revived in the western zones (June 1946). In the autumn of 1946, in an atmosphere of political pluralism, the first elections were held for local bodies and Landtags.

The divergence of political courses of the parties of the eastern and western zones led to a civil confrontation in the country, which was exacerbated by a sharp divergence of the military-political goals of the USSR and the USA in Europe, their positions on the fate of Germany (the USA assumed the political fragmentation of the country into several independent lands, the USSR - the creation of a single states of "people's democracy").

Therefore, the situation predetermined the state division of Germany

21.1.2 The course towards the creation of a West German "welfare state". The role of the state in regulating the economy.

The allied management of the German economy at first was reduced to the introduction of a system of strict control over production and distribution in order to provide the Germans with essential products and reparation supplies to compensate for damage to countries affected by the war.

The first step towards the democratization of Germany was to be decartelization.

According to the Potsdam agreements, a plan was developed "for reparations and the level of the post-war German economy", which provides for the dismantling of industrial enterprises and the introduction of restrictions and bans on the production of many types of products.

The production of any type of weapons was completely prohibited. However, the Allied Control Council was never able to develop general criteria for the concept of "monopolistic association". In this regard, decartelization began to be carried out according to the principle of denazification.

This was facilitated by the fact that a significant part of the major German industrialists were arrested for complicity in the crimes of the Reich, and their property was sequestered. With the exception of that part of it that went to reparation supplies, it was transferred to the disposal of the lands.

The destruction of a large economic potential in the course of decartelization in the Anglo-American zone ended by 1950, in the Soviet zone even earlier.

It also had certain positive consequences, expressed not only in the structural restructuring of industry, in the renewal of production technology, but also in the fundamental change in the entire state economic policy, directed from now on not to militarization, but to the restoration and growth of industrial production in peaceful purposes.

With the beginning of the Cold War in 1946-1947.

in the western zones, the policy of reviving the German economy began to be pursued more and more actively in the name of ensuring "security together with the Germans." The Germans themselves had to restore the economy and determine the strategic direction of its future development.

A series of reforms were carried out aimed at restoring the ruined financial system of the country (currency reform, tax reform, etc.)

The state resolutely refused to finance industrial development.

Only the fuel and energy, mining industry, ferrous metallurgy in 1948-1951. subsidized by the state. Direct state subsidies were subsequently limited to three areas: the introduction of scientific achievements, social assistance for the retraining of personnel, and the development of transport infrastructure.

In January 1948

the central bank was also recreated, called the Bank of German Lands (BNZ), which, according to the law, was supposed to pursue an independent monetary policy, not obeying the instructions of any party, public and state (except for the judiciary) bodies. Moreover, his activities, according to Art. 4 of the Law, was equated with the governing bodies of the united western economic zone.

In April 1948, the "Marshall Plan" came into effect. Billions of dollars were poured into the German economy.

The new currency was recognized by the population.

In the course of the referendum held back in 1945 on the question of property in both the Soviet and American zones, preference was given to public forms of property. In the American zone, this decision was not implemented. In the British zone, the "socialization" of property was vetoed by the occupation authorities. The majority of Germans were determined to choose some kind of centrist "third course", the creation of a "social market economy" and a "welfare state".

The discussions in the Parliamentary Council revolved around two models.

Bourgeois parties of a Christian persuasion proposed the creation of "social capitalism". The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) is the creation of "democratic socialism". There were many common points of contact between them.

In the elections of August 14, 1949, the Germans voted for the CDU/CSU, which, together with the small bourgeois parties, won a majority in the Reichstag. They thereby voted for the creation of a "social market economy", a "welfare state" in Germany.

Creation and maintenance of market competitive orders were defined as a strategic direction.

The state pursued a policy of deconcentration of production, introduced control over the activities of monopolies, over pricing, in every possible way encouraging the creation of new, primarily medium and small firms. To this end, the legal forms of their registration upon obtaining the status of a legal entity were simplified, preferential loans were provided, etc.

The implementation of the policy of a social market economy led to rapid economic growth, which was called the "economic miracle" in the West German press. The level of pre-war development was reached in West Germany as a whole by the end of 1950.

Division of Germany.

During 1945 - 1948.

the western zones consolidated. They carried out administrative reforms. In 1945, the division into historical lands was restored, and under the control of the military authorities, local representative bodies - Landtags and land governments - were revived. The unification of the British and American zones of occupation (in the so-called Bizonia) in December 1946 led to the formation of a unified body of power and administration.

This was the Economic Council (May 1947), elected by the Landtags and empowered to make general financial and economic decisions. In connection with the extension of the American "Marshall Plan" (providing for financial and economic assistance to devastated Europe) to Germany, these decisions acquired an ever more unifying significance for the western zones.

(And at the same time, the implementation of the "Marshall Plan" contributed to the separation of the eastern zone, since the government of the USSR rejected it). The Council of Lands took shape in Bizony - a kind of second government chamber, as well as the Supreme Court; in fact, the functions of the central administration were performed by the Administrative Council, controlled by the Economic Council and the Council of the Lands.

Further differences between the Western allies and the USSR regarding the post-war structure of Germany, the difference between the first economic reforms in the East and West of Germany predetermined the course of the Western allies towards the state isolation of the western zones.

In February-March and April-June 1948, at the London conferences of 6 allied countries (USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg), a political decision was made to create a special West German state.

In 1948, the French zone of occupation was attached to Bizony (the so-called "Trizonia" was formed). In June 1948

in the West German lands, their own monetary reform was carried out. On July 1, 1948, the military governors of the Western powers proclaimed the conditions for the formation of the West German state (according to special instructions to the group for the preparation of the constitution, which began work in August 1948, the Western state was to become federal).

In May 1949, the process of discussing and approving the developed West German constitution was completed. At the next session of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the victorious states (May-June 1949), the split became, as it were, officially recognized.

Germany joined NATO. Relevant agreements were signed in Paris, ratified by the Bundestag on February 27, 1955, and entered into force at the beginning of May 1955. The Paris Agreements determined the sovereignty of Germany, on the basis of which the country received the right to create a half-million army (12 divisions), and in NATO headquarters Bundeswehr officers began to work.

In October 1949

In response to the creation of the Basic Law of the FRG (the Bonn Constitution), the GDR adopted a socialist Constitution. It had a certain resemblance to the Bonn Constitution.

However, the course towards the construction of socialism, taken by the leadership of the GDR from the beginning of the 50s. 20th century was accompanied by non-observance of many democratic principles. In 1952

the federal political and territorial structure became unitary: instead of five lands as subjects of the East German federation, 16 districts were formed. On August 19, 1961, the government of the GDR built a barrier along the entire border of West Berlin, and then a well-known wall.

In the GDR, a referendum was held on the adoption of a new constitution. Over 94% of the citizens of the GDR voted "for" the socialist norms and principles of the Constitution, in particular for the planned economy.

All this contributed to the further disunity of the German lands.

1949 German constitution

The development of the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany was carried out by a special government commission on behalf of the conference of prime ministers of the lands of the western zones in August 1948.

One of the most important tasks was the revival of state federalism in full measure, as well as the creation of legal guarantees against presidential usurpation of power in comparison with what was established in the Weimar constitution. These internal political and legal tasks predetermined much in the content of the basic law of the restored republic. To adopt the constitution, a special Parliamentary Council was formed - consisting of 65 councilors elected from 11 landtags on the basis of party representation (as well as another 5 delegates from Berlin).

As a result, all the main political parties of the then Germany were represented in the Parliamentary Council: the Christian Democratic Union, the Christian Social Union (Bavaria), the SPD, the Free Democratic Party, the KPD, etc. May 8, 1949 by a majority of votes (53:12) Council adopted the German constitution. Then it was approved by the landtags of the lands (except for Bavaria), the western military governors, and on May 23, 1949.

The German constitution came into force.

The German Basic Law of 1949 originally consisted of a preamble and 172 articles. Despite the “rigid” nature of the document (for the introduction of constitutional amendments, the consent of 2/3 of both houses of parliament is required), since 1951, changes have been made to it almost annually.

As a result, the Basic Law was enlarged: by now, 42 additional articles have been included in it (and only 5 have been excluded). Now it consists of 11 chapters and 146 articles. The basic law is preceded by a meaningful preamble.

The constitution proclaims the Federal Republic of Germany a democratic, legal and social state.

A significant place in it is given to the rights and freedoms of citizens (freedom of the individual, equality before the law, freedom of religion, freedom of opinion, press, assembly, etc.). Freedom and inviolability of property were guaranteed.

But at the same time, it was declared that “property obliges, and the use of it should serve the common good” with the consolidation of the advantages of public property. It proclaimed party pluralism; the primacy of norms of international law over intranational norms was established.

The main state bodies of Germany are: the Bundestag, the Bundesrat, the federal president, the federal government headed by the chancellor, the federal constitutional court.

The Bundestag is the lower house of parliament, elected for 4 years by universal, direct and secret suffrage, according to a mixed electoral system.

The existing 5% barrier makes it possible to weed out the most radical groups of both the right and the left. The Bundestag is the main legislative body.

The Bundesrat (upper house of parliament) is formed from representatives of the lands, its consent is necessary for the adoption of laws that change the constitution, the boundaries and territory of the lands, the structure of the land authorities, etc.

The federal president is elected for 5 years by the federal assembly.

It has limited powers: it represents the head of government for approval, appoints and dismisses federal judges and officials, and represents the country in the international arena.

The real leadership of the executive power is exercised by the federal government headed by the chancellor. The chancellor presides over the government; has the right to form this government; selects candidates for ministers and puts forward a proposal binding on the federal president regarding their appointment and dismissal.

Has the right of legislative initiative. The Federal Chancellor is, moreover, the only government official elected by the Bundestag on the proposal of the Federal President. The president always proposes for the post of chancellor the candidate who is the leader of the coalition party bloc - and this means that the head of the German government combines party and state-political power.

Thus, in the Federal Republic of Germany there was a "regime of chancellor democracy."

In the system of separation of powers, the executive branch comes to the fore.

Introduction

After the Second World War, Germany ceased to exist as an independent state, it was occupied. Part of its territory is taken away. It was a country where, as one contemporary wrote, "amid hunger and cold, hope died."

At that time, Germany faced the urgent task of restoring the economy, reviving industrial production, agriculture, trade, the financial and banking system, returning the life of the people to a peaceful way of life and a new development of the state administration system.

The purpose of the work: To identify the state of the German economy in the second half of the 20th century.

Based on the purpose of the work, we define the tasks:

1. Consider the economic situation in Germany in the first post-war years.
2. Consider Marshall's plan.
3. Consider L. Erhard's reforms. "Economic miracle"

The economic situation in Germany in the first post-war years.

If after World War I the territory of Germany practically did not suffer from hostilities, then after World War II the country lay practically in ruins. Industrial production was at the level of a third of the pre-war level, the housing problem was acute, most of the housing stock was violated during the war, at the same time, more than 9 million Germans were deported to Germany from East Prussia and the lands along the Oder and Neisse.

The standard of living fell by 1/3. Money depreciated, the money supply did not have a commodity cover, barter trade was spreading. According to the then calculations of the occupying authorities, the average German's income allowed him to buy a pair of shoes every twelve years, and a suit once every fifty years.

Moreover, the occupation authorities began dismantling and exporting industrial equipment at the expense of reparations. Among the objectives declared by the Potsdam Conference for the occupation of Germany, which had primary economic consequences, were: the complete disarmament and demilitarization of Germany, including the elimination or control of all its war industries, as well as the right of the peoples affected by German aggression to receive reparations, in particular, the dismantling of industrial enterprises and the division of the entire German fleet between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain.

The Soviet occupation command considered, first of all, the possibility of obtaining maximum compensation to the Soviet Union for the losses incurred during the war. The share of surviving industrial enterprises dismantled and exported to the USSR amounted to 45% in the Soviet zone (in the zones of other victorious states it did not reach 10%).

At the same time, the USSR supported political transformations aimed at orienting Germany towards the communist (socialist) path of development. The original plan of the US administration was to weaken Germany as much as possible economically while maintaining it as an agricultural country. Thus, by 1948, Germany was politically divided and economically bankrupt. Goods, the supply of which was already scarce, mostly ended up in warehouses and only a small part of them made it to the market.

Incredibly swollen (by a factor of 5) money supply - a consequence mainly of unbridled financing of military projects - did not give any opportunity to pursue a reasonable monetary and financial policy.

Although total rationing, freezing prices and wages somehow managed to maintain external order, all attempts to curb inflation (600% of the pre-war level) with frozen prices were doomed to failure and the economy fell into a primitive state of barter. The black market and barter exchange flourished. The deterioration of the economic situation was facilitated by the influx of refugees into the western zones of occupation from the eastern zone and countries of Eastern Europe.1

Marshall Plan.

As part of the emerging Western orientation towards the restoration of the German economy, a plan was developed, which George Catlett Marshall, then US Secretary of State, announced on June 5, 1947. The program for the restoration of Europe, later called the Marshall Plan, was adopted by the US Congress in 1948.

This plan provided for assistance to European countries affected by the war in the form of loans, equipment and technology. The plan was designed for 4 years, the total amount of appropriations allocated in the framework of economic assistance to European countries amounted to about 12.4 billion rubles from April 1948 to December 1951.

dollars, of which the main part fell on the UK (2.8 billion dollars), France (2.5 billion dollars), Spain (1.3 billion dollars), West Germany (1.3 billion dollars), Holland (1.0 billion . dollars).

It should be noted that the implementation of the Marshall Plan faced some opposition in the United States. Even a year after the Program began, Marshall criticized his staff for being too slow and not even getting started.

In order to get the Marshall Plan through Congress, the government had to do a tremendous amount of work. Many deputies, like the people, were against financial aid to Europe. Marshall's employees gave lectures, showed films about the destruction in Europe.

Arranged a kind of excursion overseas for congressmen from among the doubters. Curiously, one of these deputies was Richard Nixon. After a trip to Europe, he turned 180 degrees and became an ardent supporter of Marshall's idea.

Although the Marshall Plan was not the only driving force behind the post-war reconstruction, it nevertheless provided an important incentive to accomplish what at first seemed impossible.

Only a few years passed, and the production of agricultural and industrial products exceeded the pre-war level.

An important feature of the Marshall Plan was a fundamentally new scheme for calculating loans, which led to a multiple increase in the funds involved.

For example, a German factory ordered some parts from the USA. However, the American manufacturer of these parts received dollars for them not from the customer, but from the government's Marshall Plan fund. The customer, on the other hand, contributed the equivalent in German marks to a specially created European fund.

In turn, this fund financed long-term concessional loans to enterprises for new investments. Ultimately, as enterprises repaid their debts, the fund's funds allowed European states to pay off the United States as well.

The Marshall Plan had three main goals: first, it encouraged European countries to resume political and economic cooperation and strengthened their integration into the world economy. Second, he allowed them to purchase raw materials and equipment from countries with hard currencies.

Thirdly, this plan was also a program of state support for the economy of the United States itself, since it stimulated American exports. Germany officially became one of the countries participating in the Marshall Plan on December 15, 1949, that is, shortly after its founding, and its participation continued until the end of the plan.

George Marshall's contribution to the economic recovery of Europe after the Second World War was the basis for his Nobel Peace Prize in 1953.2

3. Reforms L. Erhard. "Economic miracle".

Ludwig Erhard (1897-1977) was the most important figure traditionally associated with the economic side of the success of the post-war reconstruction of Germany.

The main elements of the development model proposed by Erhard for the "social market economy" were:

• the target setting is a high level of well-being of all segments of the population;
• the way to achieve the goal is free market competition and private enterprise;
• the key condition for achieving the goal is the active participation of the state in ensuring the prerequisites and conditions for competition.

At the end of 1949, the first, most dangerous phase in the development of the economic situation ended, which was characterized by tension between the volume of goods and the volume of the money supply and manifested itself in an almost chaotic rise in prices.

In the first half of 1950, the volume of German production grew monthly by 3-5 percent, setting an absolute record - 114% compared to 1936, in foreign trade even a doubling of exports was achieved in six months, mechanical engineering, optics, and electricity production developed at an accelerated pace. In the same 1950, the card system was abolished in Germany. By the mid-1950s, after some slowdown in economic growth, a new upsurge began, caused by an influx of capital, a significant renewal of technical production, and government measures to revive heavy industry.

In 1953-56, the annual increase in industrial output was 10-15%. In terms of industrial production, Germany ranked third in the world after the United States and Great Britain, and surpassed Great Britain in some types of production. At the same time, small and medium-sized businesses formed the basis of the rapidly growing economy: in 1953, enterprises with fewer than 500 employees provided more than half of all jobs in the economy, and unemployment had a steady downward trend (from 10.3% in 1950 to 1.2% in 1960).

By the early 1960s, Germany was second only to the United States in terms of production and exports. The rapid development of the German economy in the fifties and sixties was called the "economic miracle".

Among the factors that contributed to the development of the economy, it should be noted the renewal of fixed capital, the intensification of labor, the high level of investment, including foreign ones.

Importance also had the direction of budgetary funds for the development of civilian industries by reducing military spending, as well as an increase in taxes on corporate profits.

A special mention deserves the agrarian reform, which betrayed the main part of the land to small average owners. Developing in an intensive way, German agriculture was characterized by the rapid introduction of the latest achievements of agricultural science into practice, which ensured an increase in agricultural productivity and productivity.

As production intensified, small-scale farming yielded to larger farming. The post-war reconstruction of Germany laid the foundation for the "economic miracle" - the rapid growth of the German economy in the fifties and sixties, secured the position of Germany in the European economy throughout the second half of the twentieth century, and became the economic basis for the unification of Germany at the end of the twentieth century.3

Conclusion

Thus, the history of the economic revival of Germany after the Second World War is one of the examples of the successful implementation of the ideas of economic liberalization with a balanced participation of the state in the economic life of the country and ensuring the social nature of economic transformations.

The necessary conditions for the success of the post-war reconstruction of Germany were external (Marshall Plan) and internal (political stability, political support for reforms, monetary reform, price and trade liberalization, including external, directed and limited state intervention in economic life) factors.

Determine to which country the characteristic of its development in the second half of the 19th century belongs.

1. Capitalist development begins after the revolution of 1868 (the introduction of a monetary unit, the abolition of internal customs, monetary compensation to feudal lords)

2. Gradual loss of leadership in the world economy while maintaining the role of the "world driver" active export of capital to the colonies.

Parcel private ownership of land, the outflow of capital from their industry to the credit and banking sector.

4. Slow solution of the agrarian issue in the 60-70s. gg. 19th century restrained economic development, a sharp rise in the 90s; significant role of foreign capital; high concentration of production

Increasing the pace of development after the unification in 1871, the predominant growth of heavy industry and the latest science-intensive industries; a significant role of the state in stimulating the development of heavy industry and the military-industrial complex.

A. Germany.

B. Japan.

V. England.

G. Russia.

D. France.

Answer:

A. Germany. - 5

B. Japan. - one

V. England. -2

G. Russia. - 3

France. - four

Bibliography

• History of the world economy. Textbook for universities / Ed. Polyaka G.B., Markova A.N. – M.: UNITI, 2004.- 727 p.
• Bor M.Z. / History of the world economy, 2nd ed., M., -2000. – 496 p.
• Russian history. Textbook manual for universities / Markova A.N., Skvortsova E.M.
• Erhard L. Welfare for all: Per. with him. - M .: Beginnings-press, 1991
• History of the economy.

  Textbook for universities / Konotopov M.V., Smetanin S.I., - M., 2007 - p.352

General History in Questions and Answers Tkachenko Irina Valerievna

16. What were the results of World War II? What changes took place in Europe and the world after World War II?

The Second World War left a seal on the entire history of the world in the second half of the 20th century.

During the war, 60 million lives were lost in Europe, and many millions of people who died in the Pacific direction should be added to this.

During the war years, millions of people left their former places of residence. Huge material losses during the war. On the European continent, thousands of cities and villages were turned into ruins, factories, factories, bridges, roads were destroyed, a significant part of the vehicles were lost. Agriculture was particularly hard hit by the war. Huge areas of agricultural land were abandoned, and the number of livestock was reduced by more than half. Famine was added to the hardships of the war in the post-war period. Many experts believed then that Europe could not recover in the shortest possible time, it would take more than one decade.

After the war, the problems of post-war settlement came to the fore.

The victory of the anti-fascist coalition in World War II led to a new balance of power in the world. As a result of the defeat of fascism, the prestige of the Soviet Union increased, and the influence of democratic forces increased. The balance of forces within the capitalist system has changed. Defeated Germany, Italy and Japan dropped out of the ranks of the great powers for a while. Weakened the position of France. Even Great Britain - one of the three great powers of the anti-fascist coalition - has lost its former influence. But the power of the United States has increased enormously. Possessing a monopoly on atomic weapons and the largest army, far surpassing other countries in the field of economy, science, technology, the United States has become the hegemon of the capitalist world.

The main directions of the post-war peace settlement were outlined during the war by the leading powers of the anti-fascist coalition. At the conferences of the leaders of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain in Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam, as well as at the meeting of the leaders of the USA, Great Britain and China in Cairo, the main questions were agreed: on territorial changes, on the attitude towards the defeated fascist states and the punishment of war criminals, on the creation of a special international organization to maintain international peace and security. The allied powers decided to occupy fascist Germany and militaristic Japan in order to eradicate militarism and fascism.

The territorial seizures of Germany, Italy and Japan were cancelled. The USSR, the USA and England declared that it was necessary to restore the independence of Austria and Czechoslovakia, to return Northern Transylvania to Romania.

The Allies agreed to draw the border between Germany and Poland along the line of the Oder and Neisse rivers. The eastern border of Poland was to run along the Curzon Line. The city of Koenigsberg and the surrounding areas were transferred to the Soviet Union. Germany and its allies had to pay reparations to the countries that became victims of fascist aggression.

It was supposed to release from the power of Japan all the territories that it seized during the war years. Korea was promised independence. Northeast China (Manchuria), the island of Taiwan and other Chinese islands captured by Japan were supposed to be returned to China. South Sakhalin was returned to the Soviet Union and the Kuril Islands, which once belonged to Russia, were transferred.

The full implementation of the principles of a peaceful settlement agreed between the allies presupposed the continuation of cooperation between the USSR, the USA and Great Britain. However, after the end of the war, the contradictions between the main states of the anti-fascist coalition escalated.

Two superpowers appeared in the world - the USA and the USSR, two poles of power, to which all other countries began to orient themselves and which to a decisive extent determined the dynamics of world development. The United States has become the guarantor of Western civilization. Their main adversary was the Soviet Union, which now has allies. The discrepancy between the value systems that they represented predetermined their rivalry, and it was precisely this rivalry until the turn of the 1980s and 1990s. became the core of the development of the entire system of international relations.