Environmental pollution and its impact on human health. The impact of the environment on human health
What is the impact of air pollution on humans, you will learn from this article.
Air pollution and human health
Scientists have conducted numerous studies that have confirmed the relationship of diseases with air pollution. Every day, mixtures of different pollutants are thrown into it. The harmful effects of air pollution on human health were first discovered in London in 1952.
Air pollution affects everyone differently. Factors such as age, lung capacity, health status and time spent in the environment are taken into account. Large particles of pollutants adversely affect the upper respiratory tract, while small particles can penetrate into the alveoli of the lungs and small airways
A person exposed to air pollutants may experience long-term and short-term effects. It all depends on the influencing factors. But, one way or another, this leads to heart disease, lung disease and stroke.
Symptoms of diseases associated with polluted air - sputum production, chronic cough, infectious diseases of the lungs, heart attack, lung cancer, heart disease.
Also, air emissions of pollutants from vehicles affect the growth retardation of the fetus in a pregnant woman and cause premature birth.
How does ozone affect health?
Ozone, which is an integral part of the atmosphere, also affects humans. US researchers claim that changes in the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere in the summer leads to an increase in mortality.
There are 3 factors on which the response to ozone exposure depends:
- Concentration: The higher the level of ozone, the more people suffer from it.
- Duration: Prolonged exposure has a strong negative effect on the lungs.
- The volume of air inhaled: increased human activity contributes to a greater negative effect on the lungs.
Symptoms of the effect of ozone on health are irritation and inflammation of the lungs, a feeling of tightness in the chest, coughing. As soon as its influence stops, the symptoms also disappear.
How do particulate matter affect health?
Fine particles emitted into the air rapidly affect the lungs, as they penetrate into the alveoli and small airways. They permanently damage them. Also, a distinctive feature of fine particles is that they can be suspended in the air for a long time and be transported over long distances. In addition, they enter the bloodstream and affect the heart.
The main environmentally-related human diseases are associated with poor air quality, water quality, noise pollution and exposure to electromagnetic and ultraviolet radiation. Many studies have shown associations between indoor and outdoor air pollution, water and soil pollution from hazardous chemicals, and noise stress exposure to respiratory and cardiovascular disease, cancer, asthma, allergies, and reproductive and central nervous system disorders. systems.
Children are a particular risk group. The activities of many international environmental organizations are aimed at protecting the health of children and reducing the proportion of environmentally caused diseases in this age group.
Of great concern is the little-studied harmful effects of small doses of chemicals on the human body. It is assumed that the damaging effects of various chemicals can indirectly affect several generations. Preservatives and persistent chemicals widely used in food production to improve the taste and presentation of foods can pose a serious health hazard.
The accumulation of chemicals in the soil can lead to contamination of crops, pollution of ground and surface waters and, ultimately, adverse effects on the human body. Thus, soil degradation caused by human activities is also indirectly related to human health.
The destruction of old water systems, increased air pollution caused by an increase in the number of vehicles and inefficient waste and chemical management are leading to high levels of environmentally related diseases in countries of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia (including Russia), as evidenced by Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Environmental Strategy Report (OECD, 2005).
In 2007, an information system on the environment and human health was presented for the first time - the ENHIS2 (European Environment and Health Information System) project, which allows assessing the current state of children's health and the environment in Europe (WHO, 2007).
Regular biomonitoring, including various tests, such as blood and urine, allows you to assess the health status of people in individual regions. With the help of biomonitoring, it is possible to determine the degree of exposure to chemicals from a variety of sources on human health, as well as identify risk groups - those who are exposed to excessive exposure to harmful substances, and take the necessary measures to reduce or eliminate harmful effects.
As part of the concept of pan-European biomonitoring focused on children's health, a pilot project on human biomonitoring has been developed by the European Commission (European Commission, 2006b). The project uses biomarkers of known health hazards such as lead, cadmium, methylmercury, cotinine (from tobacco smoke), and lesser known organic pollutants, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and phthalates.
For example, the Flemish Action Program on Environmental Health (2002–2006), covering two cities, Antwerp and Geneva, orchards, the countryside and four types of industrial areas in Belgium, found an association between environmentally-related diseases and levels of environmental pollution. (Schoeters et al., 2006). The biomonitoring program involved 4,800 people from three age groups: mothers and their newborns, adolescents (14–15 years old) and adults (> 50–65 years old). The study was based on participants' blood and urine tests, information about their health status, and data on exposure to selected pollutants such as lead, cadmium, dioxins, PCBs, hexachlorobenzene, and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene (DDE). Rural residents were found to have higher levels of persistent chloride compounds than the rest of the population, while urban residents had higher rates of asthma. Elevated levels of heavy metals, DDE, and benzene metabolites have been found in residents of certain areas. The program has found that elevated blood lead levels lead to an increase in asthma, and exposure to persistent chloride compounds increases the risk of infertility in women and precocious puberty in adolescents.
Adverse natural and anthropogenic factors have a harmful effect on human health. The negative impact on human health of many natural disasters, such as floods and landslides, has increased significantly recently, mainly due to unpreparedness for them and due to the increase in human activities such as deforestation and improper storage of hazardous substances (EEA, 2004 ).
Climate change and the loss of natural resources such as fresh water, clean air, intact soils, etc., can increase the impact of other hazards such as floods, heat stress, pollutants on human health and well-being.
Long-term effects on humans
Natural and man-made disasters can have long-term effects on human health, extending over many generations.
Consequences of the Chernobyl disaster
A striking example of a man-made disaster is the Chernobyl accident. The long-term health and environmental impacts of the Chernobyl disaster over 20 years ago are still difficult to assess. According to a WHO report (WHO, 2006a), of the 600,000 people living in the area of the accident, approximately 4,000 are terminally ill, and about 5,000 more of the 6.8 million people who live at a remote distance from the explosion and received a much lower dose of radiation may die as a result of the Chernobyl disaster.
Exposure to radioactive iodine has been associated with a significant increase in thyroid cancer cases in Belarus (UNECE, 2005). In contaminated areas, the incidence of breast cancer increases, the birth rate decreases and the death rate rises. Residents of the Gomel, Mogilev and Brest regions of Belarus most affected by the Chernobyl accident are at risk of extreme poverty. One of the most serious consequences of the Chernobyl disaster is considered to be the socio-psychological problems associated with sudden resettlement, the destruction of social ties, etc., which affected several million people in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus affected by the accident.
The impact of the Chernobyl disaster on the environment is still difficult to assess. High levels of radionuclides remain in the environment in the area of the accident. The impact on the state of ecosystems of low levels of radiation, typical for areas remote from the accident site, remains unknown (Chernobyl Forum: 2003–2005).
Natural disasters
Long-term natural hazards include ozone depletion, which increases human exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation and causes cancers such as malignant melanoma (WMO/UNEP 2006). The incidence of skin cancer in Western Europe is 2-3 times higher than in Eastern Europe. Overexposure to UV radiation is estimated to have caused between 14,000 and 26,000 premature deaths in Europe in 2000 (de Vrijes et al., 2006; WHO, 2007). Various factors lead to the depletion of the ozone layer, which have arisen mainly as a result of ill-considered human activities.
Another major adverse natural health factor is the extreme heat that hit Europe in the summer of 2003. In most European countries, the maximum daily temperature often reached 35–40 °C. Some western and central European countries have recorded over 50,000 deaths, especially among the elderly (European Commission, 2004a; European Commission, 2004b). The heatwave has caused water levels in many rivers to drop to record lows, disrupting irrigation and cooling systems for power plants. Rising temperatures have led to the melting of the perpetual glaciers in the Alps and the outbreak of large-scale forest fires, which also led to loss of life.
The situation looks unfavorable: according to the World Health Organization (WHO) (WHO, 2006b), by the end of the 21st century, summers could be consistently as hot as they were in 2003. In the UK, in particular, a 250% increase in heat-related deaths is projected for the 2050s (WHO, 2006b).
Main environmental factors affecting health
The main adverse environmental factors that are associated with the occurrence of environmentally caused diseases include polluted air, water, hazardous chemicals and increased noise levels.
According to a WHO study (WHO, 2004b), outdoor and indoor air pollution (from solid fuels), poor water quality and injuries account for one third of the illnesses among children aged 0-19 in the European Region. Children of the first years of life are especially susceptible to the effects of harmful environmental factors.
According to WHO (WHO, 2007), acute respiratory infections are one of the leading causes of death in infants and young children, especially in the eastern part of the European region. Reducing air pollution has been well established to reduce respiratory morbidity in children (WHO, 2005b; WHO, 2007). In Europe, particulate air pollution is estimated by the WHO to be responsible for 6.4% of all deaths among children under 4 years of age.
Excessive noise levels can harm health and reduce quality of life by interfering with sleep, relaxation, study and communication. WHO studies are evaluating the association between increased noise levels and cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment in children, hearing loss and sleep disturbances. The results of the study are expected by the end of 2008.
Air pollution
Suspended particulate matter, its toxic constituents and airborne ozone represent a major public health hazard. According to various estimates, air pollution threatens the health and development of children and reduces, on average, one year of life expectancy in European countries.
According to WHO (WHO, 2004a), fine particulate matter PM 2.5 (particulate matter less than 2.5 µm) and larger PM10 (particle size less than 10 µm) seriously affect health, causing an increase in cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. disease and even increase mortality.
Airborne pollutants include primary particulate matter (primarily PM10 and PM2.5), PM precursors (SO2, NOX and NH3), ground-level ozone precursor compounds (NOX, non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), CO and CH4), as well as acidifying gases (SO2, NOX and NH3) and eutrophying (from Greek euthropia - good nutrition) (NOX and NH3) gases leading to increased vegetation productivity in natural aquatic environments due to the high content of phosphorus and nitrogen.
The main sources of air pollution are motor vehicles, the number of which is constantly increasing, as well as industrial and energy enterprises. Recently, the level of emissions from maritime transport (mainly NOX and SO2) has increased significantly. Air pollution from maritime transport is predicted to exceed land-based sources of pollution in the near future if appropriate measures are not taken (ENTEC, 2002; 2005).
Lead
Lead is highly toxic to health and is emitted into the air along with emissions from the combustion of gasoline and many industrial enterprises.
For example, according to current standards in Georgia, the maximum allowable level of lead in gasoline is 0.013 g/l (THE PEP, 2006). In fact, the average lead content in gasoline is often much higher than the legal limit. A significant share of the Russian car park is made up of used cars brought from Europe. Many older cars run on leaded gasoline, which contains lead, which lubricates and protects the fragile valves in these cars.
Lead exposure, even in small amounts, adversely affects the central nervous system and mental development of young children (WHO, 2004b).
The ban on the use of leaded gasoline has led to a significant decrease in blood lead levels in the population of many European countries. But it is still sold in some countries, including Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro (OECD, 2005; UNEP, 2007).
Despite the measures taken to reduce the impact of lead on the population, leading to a decrease in the content of lead in the blood of people, in recent years its negative impact on the intellectual development of young children has been found at concentrations even lower than those that were previously considered safe - 100 μg / l (Lanphear et al., 2000; Canfield et al., 2003; Fewtrell et al., 2004).
In some parts of Europe, industrial emissions remain a significant source of lead exposure. Elevated levels of lead in the blood of children have been found in hazardous industrial areas in Bulgaria, Poland and Macedonia (WHO, 2007).
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
PAHs are products of incomplete combustion of organic matter (e.g. fossil fuels), released into the atmosphere by industrial sources (in particular steel, aluminum, coke plants), transport, power plants, and home heating with wood and coal. PAHs are found in the environment in the form of complex mixtures with varying degrees of toxicity. Human exposure to PAHs can provoke the development of oncological diseases, in particular, lung cancer. Exposure to airborne PAHs can also harm fetal development (Choi et al., 2006).
The health effects of PAHs can be quantified, for example, by testing urine for the PAH biomarker 1-HP (1-hydroxypyrene). According to 2006 data (Mucha et al., 2006), in the urine of Ukrainian children living less than 5 km from a steel plant and a coke oven in the industrial city of Mariupol, the level of 1-HP was the highest ever recorded in little children. At the same time, the level of 1-hydroxypyrene in these children significantly exceeded the corresponding values in children living in a city with heavy traffic (in Kyiv). Every year, a coking plant emits more than 30 kg of PAHs - benzo (a) pyrene, and two large steel plants - thousands of tons of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and particulate matter. The highest level noted in children coincided with the level recorded smokers and in adults exposed to these harmful substances at work.
Air quality measures taken in Germany in the past decade have led to significant reductions in PAH air pollution, mainly by reducing industrial emissions and limiting the use of coal for heating private homes. The results of the 2003-2006 environmental study of children in Germany show a significant decrease in the level of 1-hydroxypyrene compared to the early 1990s (German Environmental Survey, 2006).
PAH-contaminated soils can also be a source of exposure, for example in playgrounds, as children can ingest contaminated soil particles (Environmental Health Monitoring System in the Czech Republic, 2006).
Ozone
Elevated levels of ground-level ozone adversely affect human health (WHO, 2003), contributing to lung irritation, respiratory symptoms, and increased morbidity and mortality, especially during the summer season. It is believed that exceeding the permissible concentrations of ozone increases mortality in the EU countries up to 20,000 people per year (Watkiss et al., 2005). In 2003, due to special meteorological conditions, ozone concentrations were extremely high, which led to adverse effects on 60% of urban residents in European countries.
Indoor air
Indoor air quality is affected by both indoor sources of pollution such as tobacco smoke, building materials, furniture, paints, consumer products, and indoor polluted air. In addition, the combustion of solid fuels for home heating (especially in European countries) is a significant source of particulate matter and harmful organic compounds such as PAHs.
Assessment of the impact of atmospheric air pollution on the health of the population of Russia
The degree of air pollution is assessed using monitoring systems. The air quality monitoring system in Moscow is based on 28 automatic monitoring stations (ASCs) that measure the concentrations of 18 of the most important pollutants, including PM10 and ozone. ASCs are located in all areas: residential, industrial, located along the highway and in protective zones. All ACK data are sent to the information and analytical center - the state environmental institution "Mosecomonitoring" (http://www.mosecom.ru/). A similar monitoring system operates in St. Petersburg.
An assessment of the impact of air pollution on the health of the population of Russia, based on monitoring data for 1993 and 1998, showed that 15–17% of the total annual mortality (up to 219,000–233,000 premature deaths) could be caused by the smallest particles (Reshetin and Kazazyan, 2004).
Studies of health damage from air pollution in Russian cities show significant negative health effects and increased mortality.
According to the Transport, Health and Environment Program (THE PEP, 2006), air pollution from road transport affects the health of some 10–15 million urban residents in Russia. In the centers of large cities, road transport is responsible for more than 80% of total air emissions. In 2002, the average annual concentration of harmful pollutants exceeded the maximum permissible level in 201 Russian cities, where 61.7% of the urban population lives. An estimated 22,000–28,000 deaths of people over the age of 30 in Russia were attributable to road transport emissions (ECMT, 2004).
Air pollution in the largest cities of Russia has increased in recent years, mainly due to an increase in the concentration of benzo(a)pyrene in the air. The number of cities with benzo(a)pyrene concentrations above MPCs has also increased over the last five years (up to 47% in 2004), attributed to forest fires, rising industrial production without adequate abatement measures, diesel vehicles and waste incineration (UNECE, 2006).
prospects
In Eastern European countries, emissions of most air pollutants have increased by more than 10% since 2000 due to economic recovery, an increase in the number of vehicles and ineffective air pollution control policies. Emissions are projected to increase further in 2010-2020, which means that significant efforts are required to achieve air quality that does not pose a significant threat to human health and the environment (OECD, 2007).
Water pollution
The life and health of people depend on the availability of high-quality drinking water. Human economic activity negatively affects the state of water basins, which leads to a deterioration in human health and an imbalance in ecosystems.
In many Eastern European (EE) and South Eastern European (SEE) countries, water quality monitoring deteriorated significantly in the 1990s. Although the situation has improved since then, in some countries monitoring still does not provide a clear picture of the status and trends of water resources (UN Statistics Division, 2006; CISSTAT, 2006).
More than 100 million people in the European region still lack access to safe drinking water. In the countries of Western and Central Europe (WCE), the situation with drinking water is much better than in the countries of EE and SEE, where the quality of water supply and sanitation has been steadily deteriorating over the past 15 years. Unsuitable water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene in EE and SEE countries are responsible for 18,000 premature deaths each year, most of which are children (EEA CSI18).
Over the past 15 years, total water consumption in the European region has decreased by more than 20%, which is the result of declining water consumption in most economic sectors (UN Statistics Division, 2006).
According to the latest forecasts regarding climate change, severe summer droughts are expected in many regions of Europe, mainly in the southern part of it (Eisenreich, 2005).
Higher air temperatures lead to higher water temperatures, as evidenced by a 1-3ºC increase in water temperatures in European rivers and lakes over the past century. In particular, a third of the 3ºC temperature increase in the Rhine is due to climate change, and the remaining two thirds is the result of more industrial discharges into the river (MNP, 2006). An increase in water temperature reduces the oxygen content in it. Fish have specific temperature preferences that determine their distribution in a river or region. Warming may lead to the extinction of some fish species, or at least change their distribution area in the river.
An increase in water temperature affects the formation of ice. Several examples are known in the northern regions, when the duration of the ice cover, its volume and thickness in lakes and rivers have decreased. For example, ice breakup on Russian rivers is currently occurring 15–20 days earlier than in the 1950s. An increase in the duration of the period without ice cover and its earlier opening is observed in many Scandinavian lakes. These factors have an ecological impact on the biology of lakes, contributing to changes in the composition of plankton communities and in the frequency of their blooms.
The practice of switching the water supply on and off daily in many countries of the Eastern European region leads to the ingress of pollutants into the drinking water and to deterioration of the infrastructure. Leaks lead to cross-contamination of water and sewer networks.
Most houses in cities are now connected to the sewer system, but in some countries in EE and SEE, wastewater is still being dumped into the environment.
Recent data show improvement in river water quality, but some large rivers and many smaller water bodies are still heavily polluted.
Over the past five years, Europe has experienced more than 100 major floods. Poor water management, soil compaction and deforestation increase the risk of flooding (Dartmouth Flood Observatory http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/ , EMDAT (Emergency Events Database, http://www.emdat.be/).
According to the WHO, more than 100 million Europeans do not have access to safe drinking water and live in conditions that do not meet the requirements of sanitation, which increases the risk of waterborne diseases (WHO, Europe). Moreover, WHO reports that unfit water and unsanitary living conditions result in 18 000 premature deaths and 1.18 million life years lost each year (WHO, 2004), with most of the deaths being children from countries in EE and SEE. .
In WCE countries, the quality of drinking water is quite high, while in EE and SEE countries, drinking water often does not meet basic biological and chemical standards. A recent World Bank study in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro found that water quality has deteriorated in all of these countries, with drinking water quality particularly poor in Kazakhstan and the Republic of Moldova (World Bank, 2005).
Currently, the greatest threat to public health in the countries of EE and SEE is microbiological contamination (WHO, Europe). Chemical pollution is mostly localized, although where it is present there is a risk of adverse health effects. Pathogens such as giardia and cryptosporidium, as well as some chemicals, pose serious health hazards (WHO, 2004).
Industrial production, intensive agricultural activity and population growth are considered the main culprits for discharges and deterioration of water quality.
Strengthening funding and expanding monitoring networks in the countries of EE and SEE give hope for an improvement in the condition of drinking water. In particular, funding has increased sevenfold in Russia (OECD, 2007).
The condition of many large rivers is far from satisfactory. Some large rivers, such as the Kura, Amu Darya, Syr Darya and Volga, are polluted, and some have pollution pockets only downstream of large cities that discharge poorly treated effluents. Pollution levels in many shallow water bodies remain high. According to Russian national standards, most of the country's rivers and lakes can be characterized as moderately polluted. Almost all reservoirs are also heavily polluted and their water quality is of concern (UNECE Water http://unece.org/env/water/welcome.html).
The Volga, one of the largest rivers in Europe, flows through one of the most economically important regions Russian Federation. The high density of population and industrial enterprises has led to serious environmental pollution. Thus, in 2002, the Volga and its tributaries received 8.5 cubic kilometers of polluted water, mainly from discharges from residential buildings and industrial buildings (which is 43% of all polluted wastewater in Russia), and 0.76 km3 of these effluents were generally not cleared (Demin, 2005). As a result, most of the Volga is considered polluted, and 22% of its territory is polluted - the water in the tributaries of the Volga is also assessed as polluted or extremely polluted.
The problem of water pollution has been a matter of concern to politicians for more than 50 years. During this time, much has been done to improve water quality. Some national initiatives and recommendations of the European Union adopted and implemented (for example, Directives on nitrates, urban wastewater and drinking water, international maritime conventions and the UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Waters and International Lakes http://www.unece.org/ env/water/) have led to an improvement in the water situation in the European Region.
Traditional end-of-pipe solutions used in the past to improve water quality by addressing a single cause of pollution have not been effective enough to restore clean water in rivers and lakes.
The UNECE Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Water Bodies and International Lakes aims to implement the rational management of water resources, which should lead not only to improved water quality, but also to guarantee the protection and restoration of aquatic habitats and their biological communities. The report of the Convention, prepared for the Belgrade Ministerial Conference "Environment for Europe", provides data on the effectiveness of measures taken and suggests methods to prevent further deterioration of transboundary water bodies (UNECE Water http://unece.org/env/water/welcome.html) .
Chemical pollution
The growth of the chemical industry is observed worldwide and is of great economic importance in Europe, especially in the countries of the European Union (EU), Switzerland and Russia. The production of toxic chemicals is increasing along with the chemical industry in general. Over the past 5 years, about a billion tons of toxic chemicals have been produced in the EU. In the areas of former accidents and in other places contaminated with obsolete chemicals, their toxic effects on the environment continue (ASEF, 2006).
New problems arise as a result of exposure to low concentrations of chemicals, usually found in complex mixtures, which continue to increase. New hazards of known pollutants are being identified as scientific knowledge grows and their uses expand.
Information on the specific properties and impact of hazardous products of the chemical industry, on emission sources is not sufficient for risk assessment. In 1999, baseline toxicity information was available for only 14% of over 2,000 bulk chemical products, and the situation has hardly improved since then (Eurostat, 2006).
The cost of a belated response to the economy, both in terms of remediation of contaminated areas and in terms of the consequences of exposure to toxic substances on human health, can be very high.
Globalization results in the shifting of environmental burdens to developing countries and the re-importation of risk factors due to transboundary pollution and the importation of contaminated products. The lack of sound data and information across the region means that it is not possible to assess the evolution of the risks posed by chemicals to human health and the environment.
Releases and leaks of chemicals can occur at any stage of their life cycle - during extraction, production, industrial processing, use by related industries and the public, and waste disposal. At any of these stages, local contamination (for example, from poor process management or accidents) and diffuse releases are possible, causing long-term exposure to low levels of toxic chemicals or their mixtures.
Chemicals used in long-life products, such as building materials, can be released into the environment when they are disposed of, even decades after they are manufactured and recycled. This may explain the fact that some chemicals are found in the environment or human tissues long after they have been phased out.
The lack of data on the health and environmental impacts of chemicals released from consumer products and from incidental by-products such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and dioxins, which are produced in combustion processes and released into the environment by industry and transport, is a growing concern. .
One of the ways to inform the public about the degree of danger of consumer products for human health is the EU Rapid Alert System (European Commission, 2006, 2007), which consists of two components: Rapid Alert Systems for Food and Feed (RASFF, http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/rapidalert/index_en.htm) and Rapid Alert System for non-food consumer products RAPEX (Rapid Alert System for non-food consumer products, http://ec.europa. eu/consumers/dyna/rapex/rapex_archives_en.cfm), such as cosmetics, clothing, toys, jewelry, etc. This alert system allows EU member states to take immediate action when they receive a message about a dangerous product through a rapid information exchange system.
In 2005, the RASFF system recorded a significant increase in new risk factors from materials that come into contact with food: lead from ceramic products, chromium and nickel from metal products, and isopropylthioxanthone from cartons. Reports of primary aromatic amines (PAA), suspected carcinogens, have mostly been associated with their migration from kitchen utensils made from nylon imported from China (European Commission, 2006).
Nearly half of the alerts received by RAPEX before 2006 were for goods manufactured in China and imported into Europe. For this reason, in 2006 the EC adopted a Memorandum of Understanding with the Chinese authorities to improve the safety of a wide range of products and a specific plan to improve the safety of toys (European Commission, 2006, 2007).
More precise methods of analysis and the accumulated knowledge of the hazardous properties of many chemicals have made it possible to identify compounds that were not previously considered to be hazardous to health and the environment.
Well-known substances such as heavy metal compounds, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which have been monitored and regulated for a long time, continue to pose challenges. The reason lies in their durability and wide application in new technologies, including nanotechnology.
Previously unknown routes of exposure are being identified, as in the case of acrylamide in foods (ECB, 2002), and other issues associated, for example, with adverse health effects of pesticides (RCEP, 2005).
The environmental hazard of stocks of obsolete chemicals is associated with the possibility of their evaporation, penetration into the soil and groundwater. This can lead to direct or indirect, acute or chronic toxic effects in humans, domestic and wild animals.
According to the International HCH and Pesticides Association (IHPA), past pesticide use of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCCH) and its isomer lindane has generated HCCH wastes estimated at 1,600,000–1,900,000 worldwide. tons, including 1,50,000–5,00,000 tons in Eastern Europe (IHPA, 2006).
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
pops, in English language referred to as POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants), are poisonous and at the same time durable organic substances. These poisons include pesticides and industrial chemicals such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and hexachlorobenzenes (HCBs), as well as highly hazardous dioxins and furans formed as by-products of the chemical industry or from combustion processes. (An extended list of POPs can be found at http://www.ihst.ru/~biosphere/03-3/Stokholm.htm).
Due to the very slow destruction, POPs accumulate in the external environment and are transported over long distances by air, water or mobile organisms. Re-evaporation and condensation of POPs lead to the fact that they are released into the environment in the warmer regions of the planet and then transferred to the cold circumpolar zones. Thus, they reach very remote regions - for example, from tropical regions to the North Sea and further to the North Pole, accumulating in high concentrations in water and staple foods - in particular, in fish. As is known, the Eskimos did not produce or use POPs. However, the concentration of some POPs (for example, the pesticide toxaphene) in the body of the Eskimo is higher than in people living in areas where these substances are used.
The milk of Eskimo mothers contains such high concentrations of POPs that it poses a threat to the health of newborns. Of course, POPs threaten not only people who receive these substances with food, but primarily those who directly use them, for example, when using pesticides in agriculture, especially in developing countries.
POPs, accumulating mainly in the adipose tissue of animals, are often the cause of malignant neoplasms and malformations, and also have a damaging effect on the organs of the endocrine, immune and nervous systems. In this case, those organisms that are located at the end of the food chain, such as whales, seals and humans, suffer the most. The harmful effect of POPs is not limited in time.
A document aimed at eliminating these long-lived toxic substances worldwide was adopted in 2001. This is the Stockholm Convention on POPs (http://chm.pops.int/ , http://www.ihst.ru/~biosphere/03-3/Stokholm.htm). The implementation of the Convention will help to solve the global environmental problems caused by the action of POPs and prevent further damage to human and animal health. Under the Convention, it is required to stop the production and use of POPs, to eliminate stocks of POPs, which will prevent the release of new POPs into the environment. It should be noted that a successful outcome depends entirely on whether the required activities are carried out around the world, and whether the obligations of the leading industrialized states under the Convention to support poor and under-resourced countries will be fulfilled.
Potential toxicological effects of mercury and cadmium
Mercury compounds can affect human health in several ways. The most hazardous to health organic derivative of mercury is methylmercury, which has a particularly harmful effect on the development of the brain of embryos and young children. Mercury remains in the environment and accumulates in fish and other aquatic species, presenting a hazard when contaminated food is consumed. Although fish food products are beneficial, and these benefits usually far outweigh the possible risks of infection, for vulnerable populations, including pregnant women and young children, several EU Member States have already issued specific recommendations to limit the frequency and volume of consumption of certain predatory fish, such as like swordfish, marlin, pike and tuna. In addition, in 2004 the European Commission published specific recommendations for consumers on methylmercury in fish and fish products based on scientific data from the European Food Safety Authority (Watanabe et al., 1996; Clarkson et al., 2003; European Commission, 2004). ).
Cadmium has a cumulative toxic effect on plants, animals and microorganisms and can be transferred from contaminated soils to crops and animals. When ingested with food, it can induce kidney and bone disease (ECB, 2003; UNEP, 2006a).
Despite the measures taken, heavy metals such as mercury, lead and cadmium, as well as POPs, continue to appear in the environment in unsafe concentrations, despite the restriction of their production and use. For example, dioxins that fall under the scope of the Stockholm Convention on POPs are not produced, they are formed as a result of some industrial processes and combustion processes.
Significant emissions have also been found from municipal waste incineration (BUWAL, 2004). As industrial releases of dioxins are tightly controlled, concentrations in biota, including food and human samples, are generally decreasing (Van Leeuwen and Malisch, 2002). High levels of dioxins are still found, for example, in the Baltic Sea.
Recent data, such as a recent report from the biomonitoring and environmental health program in Flanders, show a strong association between exposure to dioxin-like compounds, PCBs or HCB and infertility problems (Schoeters et al., 2006).
New toxic chemicals
Chemicals whose toxicity is not known are often discovered by accident or through scientific research. The criteria for selecting substances for these tests are high production volume, toxicity, potential for bioaccumulation and persistence causing environmental degradation. Audits provide information for prioritization and more effective monitoring.
Four examples of new groups of chemicals can be distinguished based on the principle of wide and increasing distribution or on the basis of particular persistence and/or high potential for bioaccumulation in the environment. These are brominated flame retardants (BA), platinum group elements, perfluorinated organic compounds and drugs.
Brominated flame retardants (BA)
BAs are used in many products: electronic equipment, upholstered furniture and car seats. They are found everywhere in the environment: in European lakes (Kohler et al., 2005), in deep ocean waters (de Boer et al., 1998), in the Arctic, in the human body, including breast milk (Birnbaum and Staskal, 2004) , as well as in the eggs of seabirds in northern Norway (Knudsen et al., 2005). Recycling of waste electrical and electronic equipment is highly likely to be a potential source of BA releases (Morf et al., 2005).
Geographical patterns of BA distribution, and detection in polar bears, whales, ringed seals and seabirds, are similar to PCBs, indicating that both chemicals are transported to the Arctic and accumulate in the same way (AMAP and ACAP, 2005).
Perfluorinated Organic Compounds (PFOS)
This group of compounds is widely used in fluoropolymers, elastomers (especially perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS)) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). They are found in industrial and consumer products, including metal coatings, flame retardant foams, textiles, packaging materials and cleaning agents (OECD, 2005a; OECD, 2006). PFOS is often found in the environment, especially in wildlife, including marine mammals, and in human tissues (LGL, 2006; BfR, 2006), and is transported to the Arctic by sea currents (Prevedouros et al., 2006).
PFOSA and PFOA have also been detected in human umbilical cord blood, indicating that they are able to cross the placental barrier and enter the fetal circulation (Greenpeace and WWF, 2005). This fact is of particular concern, as PFOSA and PFOA have been found in animal experiments to have reproductive toxicity.
The issue of including PFOS in the Stockholm Convention is currently being discussed. At the EU level, legislation has been passed restricting the sale and use of PFOS since 27 June 2007 (European Commission, 2006).
In early 2006, the US Environmental Protection Agency invited manufacturers to participate in a voluntary program for the global control of PFOA. Participating companies have committed to reducing PFOA emissions and product content by 95% from the 2000 baseline by 2010, and have agreed to make efforts to phase out PFOA completely by 2015 (US EPA, 2006).
Platinum Group Elements (PGE)
PGE releases to the environment are becoming more intense (WHO, 2000; LAI, 2002). In Europe, the main anthropogenic source is emissions from automotive catalytic converters that contain platinum or palladium and rhodium. Other sources are electronics, cancer drugs, and catalysts used in various industrial processes. PGEs are found in airborne particles, road and river sediments, but their distribution and transformation in the environment remains poorly understood.
A recent study of PGE in the Rhine River and its tributaries found low concentrations, which, however, could not be explained by direct discharges alone. According to the authors of the study, the detected amounts of PGE could be associated with atmospheric sediments. This hypothesis is supported by concentration measurements in rain, fog and dust (IWW, 2004).
PGEs affect aquatic toxicity and have a variety of health effects (Ravindra et al., 2004). This concerns predominantly soluble forms, especially halogenated salts, while metal forms are relatively inert (Moldovan et al., 2002).
The relevance of these risks at the low concentrations found in the atmosphere is still under discussion. However, the ability of PGEs to accumulate in the environment and biological tissues, and their presence in remote areas such as the glaciers of Greenland and the Alps (Barbante et al., 2001), indicates the possibility of their transport over long distances and gives cause for concern.
New chemicals - drugs
The impact of diffuse drug sources on the environment is not well understood (Apoteket, 2006). When released into the environment, medicinal substances pose a potential hazard to both ecosystems and the effectiveness of drugs, for example, due to the development of drug resistance in pathogenic microbes as a result of very low, but widespread pollution of water and soil.
No direct health hazard from their insignificant content in drinking water was found. However, this issue has been little studied, with pharmaceutical companies and regulators focusing mainly on drug efficacy and critical environmental impacts, although the main concern is the health and environmental hazards associated with long-term, sub-therapeutic exposure (Jones et al., 2005). Recent data confirm the magnitude of the problem.
Studies of 159 drugs undertaken by the Stockholm County Council showed that 157 are persistent or biodegradable, 54 are bioaccumulative and 97 are highly ecotoxic (Miljöklassificerade läkemedel, 2005).
Within the framework of the EU research project "REMPHARMAWATER", concentrations of 26 substances were measured at the wastewater treatment plant in Gothenburg (Andreozzi et al., 2003). It was possible to detect 14 drugs in concentrations that ranged from nanograms to milligrams per liter; widely used anti-inflammatory and analgesic ibuprofen– was found in the highest concentration: 7 mg/l.
A classification tool for drug hazard assessment based on the measurement of drug persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity was first developed in Sweden (Wennmalm and Gunnarsson, 2005). There is very little data on the effects of medicines on the environment and on human health through the environment, but concern about the dangers of pharmaceuticals increases with increasing use of medicines. In this regard, it was proposed to conduct a drug study focused on environmental impact (Jjemba, 2005).
Toxic pollution of the Baltic Sea
The Baltic Sea is a dumping ground for many persistent and toxic substances (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2005). Heavy metal levels in blue mussels are declining, but concentrations of some pollutants are still up to 20 times higher than in the North Atlantic. POPs such as dioxins and PCBs continue to be of concern; Baltic seafood strongly influences the level of PFOS in the human body (Falandysz et al., 2006).
In the past, the area was also a dumping ground for various wastes, including toxic substances. The soils of the Baltic Sea contain high concentrations of heavy metal compounds, conventional and chemical munitions. After World War II, at least 100,000 tons of conventional munitions and about 40,000 tons of chemical warfare, containing approximately 13,000 tons of chemical warfare agents, were dumped into the Baltic Sea (HELCOM, 2003).
Very little is known about the migration and impacts on species of toxic constituents of chemical munitions in the marine environment (HELCOM, 2003). To date, there is evidence that in a calm state at the bottom of the sea, conventional and chemical munitions do not pose a threat to people. However, if they are disturbed, they become dangerous for fishermen and sailors, and if they are washed ashore, they become dangerous for the entire population. Clearing offshore dumps of chemical weapons and ammunition is technically difficult. More recently, this problem has become relevant in connection with the Nord Stream project (http://www.nord-stream.com/home.html?L=2), formerly known as the North European Gas Pipeline, to lay a pipeline across the Baltic Sea to transport gas from Russia to Western Europe (to Germany and the UK) (Nord Stream, 2006).
Initiatives taken
To provide information on chemicals and facilitate access to it, the website of the global chemicals information portal, eChemPortal (http://webnet3.oecd.org/echemportal/), has been developed.
The last few years in Europe and in the world have been marked by important new agreements and legislation aimed at improving the safety in the field of handling and use of chemicals, with the aim of protecting human health and the environment.
In the EU, in 2007 legislation on the registration, evaluation and authorization of chemicals REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals, http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/reach/reach_intro.htm) was adopted. Its key elements are:
Uniform requirements for new and existing substances, such as toxicological testing and information;
- transfer of chemical research responsibilities from competent authorities to manufacturers and importers;
- attraction of consumers;
- more effective risk communication system through chemical safety reports.
According to recent estimates, the implementation of the new REACH legislation will bring benefits from 2 to 50 times more than the cost of it.
The development of the legislation of the Russian Federation on chemicals is in a transitional stage. The basis for the development of these laws was the strategic document "Fundamentals of the state policy in the field of ensuring chemical and biological safety for the period up to 2010 and beyond" (http://www.scrf.gov.ru/documents/37.html), approved by the President December 4, 2003.
The registration system for harmful substances has been operational since 1992, and the system for safety data sheets (MSDS) since 1994. The efficiency of these systems remains low. In addition, there are no uniform requirements for labeling and general classification criteria. Instead, standards depend on the category of product, and labels depend on expertise in interpreting test results. There is no unified approach to testing, with the exception of pesticides, and tests are not always based on the methods recommended by the OECD.
The problem of harmonizing the standards adopted by Russia with the provisions of international law and international treaties remains open. The GHS and REACH are of particular interest for the development of the Russian classification, labeling and registration system (Ruut and Simanovska, 2005).
Radioactive waste is a problem for Russia
In conclusion, I would like to note another important problem for Russia - the situation with the import of radioactive waste.
According to the materials of the portal http://www.antiatom.ru/pr/pr051116.htm, “Over the past 4.5 years, Rosatom has imported to Russia about 300 tons of spent nuclear fuel (SNF)… Another type of radioactive waste that is imported into Russia is "uranium tails", which are radioactive waste from the uranium enrichment process. Extremely toxic "tails" are stored in the so-called cylinder storage with a capacity of about 12.5 tons per cylinder. Cylinders are subject to corrosion. If leaked, hexafluoric acid (UF6) can cause skin burns and, if inhaled, damage to the lungs. In the event of a fire in a cylinder storage, a large release of toxic waste into the atmosphere can occur in 30-60 minutes. If the contents of one cylinder enters the atmosphere, the lethal concentration of toxic substances in the air will remain within a radius of 500-1000 m.
It remains to express the hope that the convincing materials of this article will contribute to a closer attention of the public and authorized persons to the environmental situation in Russia and in the border countries.
We are responsible for our children and for what kind of Earth we will leave them.
Daria Chervyakova, for the Internet magazine "Commercial Biotechnology"
Used materials:
Antiatom.ru portal. “ECOLOGISTS PRESENT A UNIQUE REPORT ON THE IMPORT OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE INTO RUSSIA”, http://www.antiatom.ru/pr/pr051116.htm
Mosecomonitoring, http://www.mosecom.ru/
"Fundamentals of the state policy in the field of ensuring chemical and biological safety for the period up to 2010 and beyond", (http://www.scrf.gov.ru/documents/37.html
"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)", http://www.ihst.ru/~biosphere/03-3/Stokholm.htm
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, http://chm.pops.int/ , http://www.ihst.ru/~biosphere/03-3/Stokholm.htm
Nord Stream, http://www.nord-stream.com/home.html?L=2
"eChemPortal", http://webnet3.oecd.org/echemportal/
EEA (European Environment Agency), 2007. "Protection of the European Environment - The Fourth Assessment". State of the environment report No 1/2007. (http://reports.eea.europa.eu/state_of_environment_report_2007_1/).
RASFF (Rapid Alert Systems for Food and Feed), http://ec.europa.eu/food/food/rapidalert/index_en.htm
RAPEX (Rapid Alert System for non-food consumer products), http://ec.europa.eu/consumers/dyna/rapex/rapex_archives_en.cfm
REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals), http://ec.europa.eu/environment/chemicals/reach/reach_intro.htm
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Impact of environmental pollution on human health.
General characteristics. The quality of the environment significantly affects the health of the population. Practically all chemical substances and physical radiations, to one degree or another, have a harmful effect on human health, and the level of their presence in the environment is important here (concentration of a substance, dose of radiation received, etc.). In case of adverse effects, mutagenic and carcinogenic effects are of paramount importance. The impact of pollution on the childbearing function and health of children is dangerous. A large number of chemicals are characterized by an impact on the metabolic, immune and other systems that perform the protective functions of the body; their change contributes to the development of non-communicable diseases, a large proportion of which are cardiovascular and oncological diseases.
As evidenced by experimental and epidemiological studies, environmental factors, even at a low level of impact, can cause significant health problems for people. Environmental pollution, despite relatively low concentrations of substances, due to the long duration of exposure (almost throughout a person's life) can lead to serious health problems, especially for such fragile groups as children, the elderly, patients with chronic diseases, pregnant women.
The most dangerous environmental pollutants. Large volumes of various chemicals, biological agents released into the environment with a low level of control of industrial, agricultural, household and other pollutants do not allow us to establish clearly enough the measure of the health hazard of technogenic pollutants contained in the atmospheric air or soil, drinking water or food.
The most dangerous and toxic heavy metals are cadmium, mercury and lead. A relationship has been established between the amount of cadmium, lead, arsenic found in water and soil and the incidence of malignant neoplasms of various forms among the population of ecologically disadvantaged areas.
Cadmium contamination of foodstuffs usually occurs due to contamination of soil and drinking water from sewage and other industrial wastes, as well as from the use of phosphate fertilizers and pesticides. In the air of rural areas, the concentration of cadmium is 10 times higher than the levels of the natural background, and in the urban environment, the standards can be exceeded up to 100 times. Most of the cadmium a person receives from plant foods.
Mercury, as another heavy metal biocide, has two types of circuits in nature. The first is associated with the natural exchange of elemental (inorganic) mercury, the second, the so-called local, is due to the processes of methylation of inorganic mercury entering the environment as a result of human activities. Mercury is used in the production of caustic soda, paper pulp, the synthesis of plastics, and in the electrical industry. Mercury is widely used as fungicides for dressing seed. Every year, up to 80 thousand tons of mercury in the form of vapors and aerosols are released into the atmosphere, from where it and its compounds migrate into the soil and water bodies.
In modern conditions, the main source of environmental pollution with lead compounds is the use of leaded gasoline. Naturally, the highest concentrations of lead are found in the atmospheric air of cities and along major highways. In the future, when included in the food chain, lead can enter the human body with products of both plant and animal origin. Lead can accumulate in the body, especially in bone tissue. There is evidence of the effect of lead on the growth of diseases of the cardiovascular system. Experimental data indicate that the development of cancer in the presence of lead requires 5 times less carcinogenic hydrocarbons.
Drugs, mainly antibiotics, which are widely used in animal husbandry, also pose a great danger to human health. The significance of their contamination of livestock products is associated with an increase in allergic reactions in humans to drugs. Currently, 60 types of domestic antibiotics are used for the needs of agriculture. Pesticides are much more dangerous due to the possible inclusion in the trophic chains. Currently, 66 different pesticides are approved for use in agriculture, which, in addition to their specific effect on agricultural pests, have adverse long-term effects of various kinds (carcinogenic, embryotoxic, teratogenic, etc.). According to the US National Academy of Sciences, toxicologists have relatively complete information about the health effects of only 10% of pesticides in use today and 18% of drugs in use. At least 1/3 of pesticides and drugs do not pass any toxicity tests. For all the chemicals used in the world, the problem is even more serious: 80% of them have not passed any tests.
It is well known that nitrates and nitrites are far from harmless to the body. Nitrates, used as mineral fertilizers, are found in the highest concentrations in green vegetables, such as spinach, lettuce, sorrel, beets, carrots, cabbage. Especially dangerous are high concentrations of nitrates in drinking water, since when they interact with hemoglobin, its functions as an oxygen carrier are disrupted. There are phenomena of oxygen starvation with signs of shortness of breath, asphyxia. In severe cases, poisoning can be fatal. It has been experimentally proven that nitrates also have mutagenic and embryotoxic effects.
Nitrites, which are salts of nitrous acid, have long been used as a preservative in the manufacture of sausages, ham, and canned meat. Another danger of finding nitrites in food products is that in the gastrointestinal tract, under the influence of microflora, nitro compounds with carcinogenic properties are formed from nitrites.
Radionuclides that enter the human body also mainly with food are stable in ecological chains. Of the fission products of uranium, strontium-90 and caesium-137 (having a half-life of about 30 years) are of particular danger: strontium, due to its similarity with calcium, very easily penetrates into the bone tissue of vertebrates, while cesium accumulates in muscle tissues, replacing potassium. They are able to accumulate in the body in quantities sufficient to cause damage to health, remaining in the infected body for almost its entire life and causing carcinogenic, mutagenic and other diseases.
Features of the impact of atmospheric pollution. The impact of air pollution is varied, ranging from unpleasant odors to increased morbidity and mortality, including from cardiovascular disease. Exposure to atmospheric pollutants most often leads to a weakening of the immune system, which is accompanied by a decrease in the body's resistance and increased morbidity. According to American scientists, in cities with a low level of pollution during an influenza epidemic, the average number of diseases increases by 20%, and in cities with a high level - by 200%.
According to Russian researchers (1994), it was found that the degree of impact of atmospheric pollution on the incidence of the population depends on age: the least sensitive is the group of the population aged 20–39 years, and the most sensitive is the group of children aged 3 to 6 years ( 3.3 times) and the age group of the population over 60 years (1.6 times).
Research by the Institute of Ecology and Environmental Hygiene of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences established a relationship between the level of total air pollution and the rates of allergic morbidity in children. Thus, in Moscow, the proportion of children with frequent acute respiratory infections (acute respiratory infections) in very polluted areas was 8%, and in less polluted areas - 1.2%. In Togliatti, children living in the area affected by emissions from the Northern Industrial Hub were 2.4–8.8 times more likely to suffer from upper respiratory tract diseases and bronchial asthma than children living in a relatively clean area.
In the last decade, the total atmospheric emissions from vehicles have increased significantly, which account for more than 2/3 of the total atmospheric emissions in Russia, and in different cities these emissions account for 45 to 85% of air pollution. As a result, approximately 30% of the country's urban population breathes air in which the concentration of harmful substances exceeds sanitary and hygienic standards by 10 or more times. In general, according to the data of the sanitary and epidemiological service, in 1992 more than 60 million people lived in conditions of constant excess of the MPC in the atmospheric air of a number of harmful substances.
In cities with a developed metallurgical industry, the adult population is more likely to suffer from diseases of the circulatory system (by 1.5 times) and the digestive system (by 1.7), and children are almost 1.5 times more likely to suffer from diseases of the respiratory and digestive organs, as well as skin diseases. and mucous membranes of the eyes. Living in the centers for the placement of the petrochemical industry and organic synthesis leads to an increase in the incidence of children with bronchial asthma (2-3 times) and diseases of the skin and mucous membranes (2 times).
The impact of air pollution on health is most clearly demonstrated by the data of studies conducted in areas where plants for the production of protein-vitamin concentrates (PVC) and microbiological synthesis products are located, where, with a 2–3-fold increase in the overall incidence, an increase in allergic diseases up to 2–12 times was revealed. In the cities of Angarsk and Kirishi, where BVK factories are located, the increase in the incidence has become catastrophic - up to 20-28 times, which has repeatedly led to social tension and demonstrations of the population against the functioning of these industries.
Influence of water pollution. According to the UN, up to 1 million items of previously non-existent products are produced in the world, including up to 100,000 chemical compounds, of which about 15,000 are potential toxicants. According to expert estimates, up to 80% of all chemical compounds entering the external environment sooner or later end up in water sources. It is estimated that more than 420 km3 of wastewater is thrown out annually in the world, which is able to make about 7 thousand km3 of clean water unusable.
The state of water supply of the population of Russia is unsatisfactory. An analysis of the quality of drinking water conducted by the Institute of Human Ecology and Environmental Hygiene of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences in a number of Russian cities indicates that water quality does not meet hygienic requirements in 80–90% of centralized water supply systems. About 1/3 of the population uses drinking water from decentralized sources, which in 32% of cases also does not meet quality requirements. In general, about 50% of the population of the Russian Federation continues to use drinking water that does not meet sanitary and hygienic standards.
It is known that more than 80% of the water consumed in our country is taken from surface waters, the most common pollutants of which are oil products, phenols, hydrocarbons, iron compounds, ammonium nitrogen, heavy metals (cadmium, chromium, zinc, arsenic, mercury, etc.), chlorides, sulfates, nitrates, nitrites, etc.
Due to insufficient technical support, the existing drinking water quality control system in our country does not allow to fully determine the degree of danger of water pollution for human health. The World Health Organization has recommended water monitoring since 1992 for about 100 indicators, most of which directly affect health. Domestic GOST 2874-82 "Drinking water" contains standards for only 28 indicators.
Danger of accumulation of pollution along trophic chains. As follows from the above, the consumption of contaminated food is accompanied by the accumulation (accumulation) of pollutants along the trophic chains in the ecosystem. The phenomenon associated with the relative increase in the concentration of pollutants in organisms as one moves up the food chain is called the biotic accumulation of chemicals in an ecosystem. Thus, pesticides (for example, DDT), radioactive elements, etc. accumulate in the organisms of consumers. An oyster can contain 70,000 times more DDT than in the water where it lives. Ultimately, a person is a super predator in a socio-natural ecosystem, being at the end of the trophic chain, suffers more than other biological organisms (“ecological boomerang effect”).
Below are given as an example the empirical values of the accumulation coefficient of radioactive phosphorus-32 contained in the river water of the Columbia River due to discharges of waste from a plutonium reactor, along a conditional food chain:
PHYTOPLANKTON - FISH - MAN.
1 1000 5000
Even greater values of the coefficient of accumulation of radioactive elements are found in the marine environment. For example, according to the measurements of American scientists, the accumulation coefficients in phytoplankton for a number of isotopes: iron-55, lead-210, phosphorus-31 and zinc-65 have values from 20,000 to 40,000. Therefore, food chains in the marine environment can initiate the accumulation of some radioactive elements in quantities significantly exceeding radiation safety standards.
The above estimates of the accumulation factors of chemically and radiation hazardous pollutants in the environment show that even at their low concentrations in environmental components, due to the effect of biotic accumulation along trophic chains, food products (especially of animal origin) may contain substances harmful to health at concentrations significantly higher than the MPC.
On the possible increase in environmental impacts on health. According to WHO experts, data in the 80s. In the twentieth century, the state of health of a modern person is 50% determined by lifestyle, 10% by medicine (although the role of medicine is huge in rescuing the wounded and sick, but unfortunately, it still has little effect on the level of health), 20% by heredity , and the role of environmental factors (quality of the environment) in the state of health is given about 20%. The last figure shows that although in the 1980s the influence of environmental pollution on human health was not decisive, it was nevertheless quite noticeable.
The colossal growth in industrial production and the many-fold increase in emissions of pollutants into the environment over the past two decades suggest a significantly increased impact of environmental factors on human health. Forecast estimates of the Irkutsk professor Yu.M. Gorsky, published in his work “Fundamentals of Homeostatics” (see Problems of the Environment and Natural Resources // Overview of VINITI, 2000. N 5), show that the following changes can be expected for the Irkutsk region and a number of other regions of Russia by 2005 : the role of environmental factors will increase to 40%, the effect of the genetic factor - up to 30% (due to negative changes in the genetic apparatus), and the role of lifestyle and medicine in maintaining health will decrease to 25 and 5%, respectively. Even a healthy lifestyle will not be able to stop the deterioration of human health if the nation begins to degenerate. According to WHO estimates, it is known that if damage to the genetic apparatus in newborns reaches 10%, then the degeneration of the nation inevitably begins. According to Yu. Gorsky, there are already several such "environmentally hot spots" in Russia, where the specified limit has been exceeded.
The above estimates require more careful analysis. The pessimistic forecast of the development of a possible scenario of health deterioration in the coming years, considered here, shows that the current state of the environment on the planet requires a set of operational measures to improve the environment, while the processes of degradation of the biosphere have not yet assumed (if not already assumed) the nature of irreversible changes. One of the most effective measures, in our opinion, should be considered the use of the recently obtained positive results of a comprehensive study of the human genome, which will reduce the impact of genetic and environmental factors on human health by reducing the level of genetic disorders in the human body.
In conclusion, we note that in the pursuit of independence from nature, society today has reached a critical state of alienation from it, thereby creating a real threat to its own existence on the planet. This alienation manifests itself most clearly in the unrestrained growth of material consumption, in the cultivation of ever new needs for things. In striving for independence from the forces of nature, society and the individual, increasingly violating natural ecological ties, forget about their responsibility for the world around them.
Having gone into space and created artificial conditions for long-term life under water and underground, a person remains a biological species and must comply with certain evolutionary conditions of the state of the environment (temperature, pressure, gas composition of atmospheric air, chemical composition of food, and much more). In recent decades, due to the high pace of industrialization, there have been clear trends towards the deterioration of environmental conditions, which raises concerns about maintaining favorable conditions not only for human existence, but also for the natural environment as a whole. However, the problem of environmental degradation is not of biological origin, but is caused by social factors and reflects the contradictions of the interaction between society and nature, the aggravation of which is associated with the irrational use of natural resources, the consumer and sometimes predatory attitude of man to nature, and the low level of ecological culture.
However, society, culture, man in relation to nature have not only destructive, but also creative potential, they are able to overcome the ecological crisis. A major transition is taking place in the ecological consciousness of mankind today. Previously, people themselves created ecological dead ends and then thought about how to get out of them, how to overcome the created danger to life. Today, the main efforts should be directed to the development of such forms of social activity that would reduce the environmental risk to an absolute minimum and ensure the environmental safety of life. As for all mankind, for Russia, the way out of the ecological crisis is seen in the transition to a model of sustainable (non-destructive, non-depleting and non-polluting) development, which is seen as the only alternative to the unrestrained economic growth characteristic of the market model of nature management.
In modern conditions, scientifically based and cost-effective systems of state, socio-political and economic management of nature management and environmental protection are being created in developed countries. In many countries, state environmental policy is being developed at various levels of government and centralized financing of environmental activities is provided, the role of the scientific community in solving environmental problems is increasing. These measures can be carried out only on the basis of a new social and economic policy, on environmental education and training, which should lead to a change in man's attitude to nature and his behavior in the environment. In this process, the role of environmental knowledge is especially growing.
The environment is the totality of everything that is around a person during his life. It consists of natural components, such as: earth, air, water, solar radiation, and man-made, which include all manifestations of human civilization. The health of the human body is directly or indirectly affected by a variety of properties and qualities of all environmental environmental factors. About this, about the influence of environmental factors on human health, we are with the editors of the site www..
Let's consider the most important of them:
1. climatic factors
Weather conditions have an impact on the well-being and normal performance of a person. With this in our time, no one will argue. For example, if the air temperature has dropped significantly, you need to protect the body from hypothermia. Without doing this, a person risks getting sick with acute respiratory diseases.
Environmental factors such as changes in atmospheric pressure, air humidity, electromagnetic field of the planet, precipitation in the form of rain or snow, movement of atmospheric fronts, cyclones, gusts of wind - lead to a change in well-being.
They can cause headaches, exacerbation of diseases of the joints, drops in blood pressure. But weather changes affect different people differently. If a person is healthy, then his body will quickly adjust to the new climatic conditions and unpleasant sensations will bypass him. In a sick or weakened human body, the ability to quickly adjust to changes in the weather is impaired, so it suffers from general malaise and pain.
Conclusion - try to maintain the state of health at the proper level, respond in a timely manner to environmental changes and climatic factors will not cause you discomfort. To acclimatize the body, do exercises daily, walk for an hour, observe the daily routine.
2. Chemical and biological factors
Technogenic activities of people lead to an increase in emissions of production waste into the environment. Chemical compounds from waste enter the soil, air and water spaces, and then, through the use of contaminated food and water, inhalation of air saturated with harmful elements, they enter the body. As a result, all human organs, including the brain, contain several milligrams of poisons that poison life. Exposure to toxic substances can cause nausea, coughing, and dizziness. If they regularly get inside, then the development of chronic poisoning is possible. Its signs: fatigue, constant fatigue, insomnia or drowsiness, apathy, frequent mood swings, impaired attention, psychomotor reactions. If you suspect signs of chronic poisoning, you should undergo a medical examination and take action, and possibly even change your place of residence if this threatens your life and health.
3. Food
Eating is one of the basic instincts of the body. The intake of nutrients necessary for normal life comes from the external environment. The health of the body largely depends on the quality and quantity of food. Medical studies have shown that for the optimal course of physiological processes, a necessary condition is a rational, nutritious diet. The body daily needs a certain amount of protein compounds, carbohydrates, fats, trace elements and vitamins. In the case when nutrition is inadequate, irrational, conditions arise for the development of diseases of the cardiovascular system, digestive canals, metabolic disorders.
For example, constant overeating of foods rich in carbohydrates and fats can cause obesity, diabetes, vascular and heart muscle diseases.
The use of genetically modified organisms and products containing high concentrations of harmful substances leads to a deterioration in general health and the development of a wide range of diseases. But all this comes to a person precisely from the environment, so be vigilant when choosing food!
Of course, this review is not at all complete, and one can write a weighty volume about the influence of each of the listed and not listed environmental factors on a person ... but, unfortunately, the framework of the informational article does not allow this. But this is not the main thing, the main thing is that as many people as possible be puzzled by these problems - which I hope for!
Elena_Nevskih, www.site
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International Independent
Ecological and Political University
Penza branch
Faculty of Ecopsychology and Philology
Specialty: Philology
Subject: Environmental problems of our time
Topic: The impact of environmental pollution on humans
abstract
Penza 2000
The impact of environmental pollution on humans.
I Classification and forms of environmental pollution. 3
II The state of health of the population.
1. Reducing the number of healthy population. 12
2. Factors affecting health and life expectancy. fourteen
3. Medical and sanitary provision of human security. twenty
III Ways to solve environmental problems. 23
I. Pollution of the natural environment is the introduction into this or that ecological system of living or non-living components or structural changes that are not characteristic of it, interrupting the circulation of substances, their assimilation, the flow of energy, as a result of which this system is destroyed, or its productivity is reduced.
A pollutant can be any physical agent, chemical substance and biological species that enters or occurs in the environment in quantities that are beyond its usual concentration, limiting natural fluctuations or average natural background at the time in question.
The main indicator characterizing the impact of pollutants on the environment is the maximum allowable concentration (MAC). From the standpoint of ecology, the maximum permissible concentrations of a particular substance are the upper limits of limiting environmental factors (in particular, chemical compounds), at which their content does not go beyond the permissible boundaries of the human ecological niche.
Pollution ingredients are thousands of chemical compounds, especially metals or their oxides, toxic substances, aerosols. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), up to 500 thousand chemical compounds are currently used in practice. At the same time, about 40 thousand compounds have properties that are very harmful to living organisms, and 12 thousand are toxic.
The most common pollutants are ash and dust of various compositions, oxides of non-ferrous and ferrous metals, various compounds of sulfur, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, radioactive gases, aerosols, etc. The greatest air pollution is accounted for by carbon oxides - about 200 million tons per year, dust - about 250 million tons per year, ash - about 120 million tons per year, hydrocarbons - about 50 million tons per year. The saturation of the biosphere with heavy metals - mercury, gallium, germanium, zinc, lead, etc. - is progressing. When fuel, especially coal, is burned with ash and exhaust gases, more than is extracted from the bowels of the environment: magnesium - 1.5 times, molybdenum - 3 times, arsenic - 7 times, uranium and titanium - 10 times, aluminum, iodine, cobalt - 15 times, mercury - 50 times, lithium, vanadium, strontium, beryllium, zirconium - 100 times, gallium and germanium - 1000 times, yttrium - tens of thousands of times.
Percentage of harmful emissions produced by countries in 1995: USA - 23%, China - 13.9%, Russia - 7.2%, Japan - 5%, Germany - 3.8%, all others - 47.1% .
Environmental pollution is divided into:
1. natural - caused by some natural phenomena, usually catastrophic (floods, volcanic eruptions, mudflows, etc.);
2. anthropogenic - arise as a result of human activities.
Among the anthropogenic pollution are the following:
a) biological - accidental or as a result of human activity;
b) microbiological (microbial) - the appearance of an unusually large number of microbes associated with their mass distribution on anthropogenic substrates or environments changed in the course of human economic activity;
c) mechanical - contamination of the environment by agents that have a mechanical effect without physical and chemical consequences;
d) chemical - a change in the natural chemical properties of the environment, as a result of which the average long-term fluctuation in the amount of any substances over the period under consideration increases or decreases, or the penetration into the environment of substances that are normally absent in it or are in concentrations exceeding the MPC;
e) physical - a change in the natural physical state of the environment.
The latter is subdivided into:
a) thermal (thermal), resulting from an increase in the temperature of the environment, mainly due to industrial emissions of heated air, water, and exhaust gases;
b) light - violation of the natural illumination of the area as a result of exposure to artificial light sources, leading to anomalies in the life of plants and animals;
c) noise - is formed as a result of an increase in the intensity and frequency of noise above the natural level;
d) electromagnetic - appears as a result of changes in the electromagnetic properties of the environment (from power lines, radio, television, the operation of some industrial installations, etc.), leading to global and local geophysical anomalies and changes in subtle biological structures;
e) radioactive - associated with an increase in the natural level of content in the environment of radioactive substances.
Possible forms of environmental pollution are shown in Figure 3.2.
The direct objects of pollution (acceptors of pollutants) are the main components of the ecotone: atmosphere, water, soil. Indirect objects of pollution are the components of the biocenosis - plants, animals, microorganisms.
Anthropogenic sources of pollution are very diverse. Among them are not only industrial enterprises and a heat and power complex, but also household waste, animal husbandry, transport waste, as well as chemicals introduced by humans into ecosystems to protect useful products from pests, diseases, and weeds.
At industrial enterprises, environmental pollutants are divided into four classes depending on the toxicity index (in this case, local concentration - LC):
1. Extremely dangerous (LC 50<0,5 мг/л).
2. Highly dangerous (LK 50<5 мг/л).
3. Moderately dangerous (LC 50<50 мг/л).
4. Low-hazard (LC 50>50 mg/l).
Substances polluting the environment are also subdivided according to their state of aggregation into 4 classes: solid, liquid, gaseous, mixed.
Industrial emissions into the environment can be classified according to other criteria:
1. On the organization of control and withdrawal - into organized and unorganized:
a) organized industrial release - release entering the environment (air and water basins) through specially constructed gas ducts, water conduits and pipes;
b) unorganized industrial release - release into the environment in the form of irregular spontaneous water or gas flows resulting from imperfection of process equipment or violation of its tightness, absence or poor operation of equipment for exhausting gases or removing contaminated water in places of loading and storage of raw materials, materials , waste, finished products (for example, dusting of waste rock dumps, unregulated surface runoff of industrial enterprises).
2. According to the withdrawal mode - continuous and periodic. Thus, the removal of blast-furnace gas is considered continuous, and the removal of converter gas is considered periodic.
3. By temperature - when the temperature of the flow (gas, water, mixed) is higher, lower or equal to the ambient temperature.
4. By localization - emissions occur in the main, auxiliary, ancillary industries, in transport, etc.
5. According to the signs of cleaning - into clean, normatively cleaned, partially cleaned, discarded without cleaning.
In this case, purification refers to the separation, capture and transformation into a harmless state of a pollutant coming from an industrial source.
Industrial emissions into the environment are divided into primary and secondary.
Primary emissions are emissions that enter the environment from various sources, and secondary ones, being products of the formation of primary ones, can be more toxic and dangerous than the first ones. A typical transformation of some substances is their photochemical oxidation.
Sources of environmental pollution by industry are classified depending on the object of pollution: atmosphere, water basin, lithosphere.
Sources of air pollution:
1. By appointment:
a) technological - contain tail gases after capturing at the blowdown units of apparatuses, air vents, etc. (emissions are characterized by high concentrations of harmful substances and very small volumes of air removed);
b) ventilation emissions - local exhaust from equipment and general exhaust;
2. By location;
a) unshaded, or high, located in the zone of an undeformed wind flow (high pipes, point sources that remove pollution to a height exceeding the height of the building by 2.5 times);
b) darkened, or low, - located at a height 2.5 times less than the height of the building;
c) ground - near the earth's surface (openly located technological equipment, industrial sewage wells, spilled toxic substances, scattered production wastes).
3. By geometric shape:
a) point (pipes, shafts, roof fans);
b) linear (aeration lamps, open windows, closely located exhaust shafts and torches);
4. According to the mode of operation: continuous and intermittent action, salvo and instantaneous. In the case of volley emissions, a large amount of harmful substances enters the air in a short period of time; are possible in case of accidents or incineration of fast-burning production waste at special destruction sites. With instantaneous emissions, pollution spreads in a fraction of a second, sometimes to a considerable height. Occur during blasting and emergency situations.
5. According to the propagation range:
a) on-site, when the pollutants emitted into the atmosphere form high concentrations only on the territory of the industrial area, and no noticeable pollution is observed in residential areas (a sanitary protection zone of sufficient size is provided for such emissions);
b) off-site, when the emitted pollution is potentially capable of creating high concentrations (of the order of MPC for the air of settlements) on the territory of a residential area.
Sources of pollution of the water basin:
1. Atmospheric waters carry masses of pollutants (pollutants) of industrial origin washed out of the air. When flowing down the slopes, atmospheric and melt water carry away masses of substances. Especially dangerous are runoff from city streets, industrial sites, carrying masses of oil products, garbage, phenols, acids.
2. Municipal wastewater, which includes mainly domestic wastewater, contains faeces, detergents (surfactant detergents), microorganisms, including pathogens. About 100 km 3 of such waters are formed annually in the country as a whole.
3. Agricultural waters. Pollution with these waters is due, firstly, to the fact that an increase in the yield and productivity of land is inevitably associated with the use of pesticides used to suppress pests, plant diseases, and weeds. Pesticides enter the soil or are washed away over long distances, ending up in water bodies. Secondly, animal husbandry is associated with the formation of large masses of solid organic matter and urea. These wastes are not toxic, but their masses are huge and their presence leads to severe consequences for aquatic ecological systems. In addition to organic matter, agricultural wastewater contains a lot of biogenic elements, including nitrogen and phosphorus.
4. Industrial wastewater generated in a wide variety of industries, among which the most actively consume water are ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, wood chemical, and oil refining industries. During the development of reservoir deposits in our country, every year 2.5 billion km 3 of drainage mine and slag waters are formed, contaminated with chloride and sulfate compounds, iron and copper compounds, which are not suitable even as industrial water and must be cleaned before discharge.
Pollution of water systems is a greater danger than air pollution. The processes of generation or self-purification proceed much more slowly in water than in air.
Sources of pollution of the lithosphere.
1. Residential buildings and household enterprises. Among the pollutants: household waste, food waste, feces, construction waste, heating system waste, household items that have become unusable, waste from public institutions, hospitals, canteens, hotels, etc.
2. Agriculture. Fertilizers, pesticides used in agriculture and forestry to protect plants from pests, diseases and weeds. Waste of livestock and agricultural products.
3. Thermal power engineering. The formation of a mass of slag during the combustion of coal, the release into the atmosphere of soot, unburned particles, sulfur oxides that end up in the soil.
4. Transport. During the operation of internal combustion engines, nitrogen oxides, lead, hydrocarbons and other substances are released that settle on the soil and plants.
5. Industrial enterprises. Industrial waste contains substances that have a toxic effect on living organisms. The wastes of the metallurgical industry contain salts of non-ferrous and heavy metals. The engineering industry releases cyanides, arsenic and beryllium compounds into the environment. In the production of plastics and artificial fibers, benzene and phenol wastes are generated. Pulp and paper industry waste - phenols, methanol, turpentine, bottoms.
With soil pollution, self-purification almost does not occur. Toxic substances accumulate, which contributes to a gradual change in the chemical composition, disruption of the unity of the geochemical environment and living organisms. From the soil, toxic substances enter the organisms of animals and humans.
II. 1. The definition of the concept of "health" has been in the focus of attention of doctors since the advent of scientific medicine and to this day remains the subject of discussion. We can say that health is the absence of disease. The famous physician Galen from Pergamum wrote back in the 2nd century that health is a state in which we do not suffer from pain and are not limited in our life activity. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers health as a positive state that characterizes the personality as a whole, and defines it as a state of complete physical, spiritual (psychological) and social well-being, and not just the absence of disease and disability.
Public health is the main feature, the main property of the human community (the population of a certain territory), its natural state. Public health reflects both the individual adaptive reactions of each individual person and the ability of the entire community to work most effectively, protect the country, help the elderly and children, protect nature, etc., that is, to fulfill their social tasks, as well as to reproduce and educate new healthy generations to fulfill their biological functions.
The quality of public health quite convincingly reflects the conditions of life, i.e. is an indicator of these conditions and serves as an indicator of the fitness (adaptation) of a particular community of people to their environment.
One can get a certain idea of the quality of public health in our country by comparing the medical statistics of Russia and the United States.
Infant mortality in Russia is 2 times higher, standardized mortality from all causes is 1.55 times higher for men and 1.35 times higher for women; mortality of men from malignant neoplasms is 1.27 times higher; from diseases of the circulatory system in men, mortality is 1.87 times higher, in women - 1.98 times; from injuries and poisoning in men is 1.85 times higher, in women - 1.65 times. Mortality of men from tuberculosis is 17 times higher. The incidence of hepatitis A in Russia is 7.5 times higher, bacillary dysentery - 12.5 times, tuberculosis - 4.2 times. In Russia, the quality of public health is lower, although the United States is not the world leader in the quality of public health.
Age-specific mortality rates for the entire population of Russia (the number of deaths per year per 1000 people of the corresponding age group) are shown in Table 5-1.
Mortality changes sharply in all age groups within a short period of time - 1993 and 1994. in relation to 1990, corresponding to the critical situation experienced by society. A slight improvement in the situation in 1995 and a continuation of the positive trend in 1996 should be noted.
II. 2. A person throughout his life is under the constant influence of a whole range of environmental factors - from environmental to social. In addition to individual biological characteristics, all of them directly affect its vital activity, health and, ultimately, life expectancy. The approximate contribution of various factors to the health of the population is assessed in four positions: lifestyle, genetics (biology) of a person, the external environment and health care. (Table 19.1)
Lifestyle has the greatest impact on health. Almost half of all cases of diseases depend on it. The second place in terms of impact on health is occupied by the state of the human environment (at least one third of diseases are determined by adverse environmental influences). Heredity causes about 20% of diseases
At present, when medicine has defeated many epidemic infectious diseases, and smallpox has been practically eliminated throughout the globe,
the role of health care in preventing diseases of modern man has somewhat decreased.
Prevention of diseases depends on many reasons, starting with the socio-economic policy of the state and ending with a person's own behavior. Health and life expectancy are influenced by individual adaptive reactions of each member of society with its social and biological functions in certain conditions of a particular region. The concept of “human health” cannot be quantified. Each age has its own diseases. In urban conditions, human health is affected by five main groups of factors: living environment, industrial, social and biological factors, and individual lifestyle. (Table 19.2)
When assessing the health of the population, such an important factor as the factor of regional peculiarity is also taken into account, which consists of a number of elements: climate, relief, degree of anthropogenic pressures, development of socio-economic conditions, population density, industrial accidents, catastrophes and natural disasters, etc. . It is a matter of great concern that at present the Russian Federation in terms of mortality and average life expectancy steadily occupies one of the last places among industrialized countries.
On the eve of the First World War in 1913, per 1,000 inhabitants of Russia, 45.5 were born and 29.1 died. Thus, the natural increase was 16.4 people. In 1960, when the demographic revolution was basically completed in most of the country, the number of births per year was 24.9 thousand people, and deaths - 7.1 thousand people, the natural increase was 17%. One of the main reasons for the changes that took place was the rapid decline in mortality. Even at the turn of the 20th century, life expectancy was only 32 years. In 1970 - 1980. it more than doubled and reached more than 73 years.
The reduction in mortality was greatly facilitated by the efforts of medicine in the fight against infectious diseases, in particular with "children's" infections: measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, poliomyelitis, etc.
In recent years, with the beginning of the transition to a "market economy", the demographic situation in the country has become critical. Mortality began to exceed the birth rate by 1.7 times, and in many territories of Russia - by two to three times. According to demographers' forecast, by the year 2000 the death rate in Russia will be almost twice as high as the birth rate. For 10 years (from 1987 to 1996) was born 6 million years less than for the previous 10 years.
The infant mortality rate in Russia is 22.5 times higher than in Japan. The mortality rate of children aged 1 to 4 years is 4-5 times higher than in developed countries.
Now the population of Russia is declining by almost a million people a year, there are only 5 million children under the age of 6. At the same time, more than half of them have certain diseases. Today we are talking about the survival of the Russian people. The nation's gene pool is under threat.
Evidence of this is the data from the state report "On the state of health of the population of the Russian Federation in 1992". For the first time in 1992, the country's population declined. A decrease in the population was noted in 40 out of 79 Russian regions (in 1991, a similar situation took place in 33 regions).
In 1995, one of the lowest birth rates in the world was registered in Russia - 9.2 babies per 1,000 people, while in 1987 it was 17.2 (for reference: in the USA - 16 babies per 1,000 people). Today, the average birth rate per family is 1.4 versus 2.14 - 2.15 required for simple reproduction of the population.
According to experts, by 2040 Russia expects not only a reduction in the population as a whole, but also in the population of working age by almost a quarter.
Significantly reduced life expectancy. If in the early 70s the life expectancy of Russians was about 2 years lower than in the developed countries of Europe, North America, Australia and Japan, then at present this difference is 8-10 years. According to estimated data in Russia, the maximum level of life expectancy for men was noted in 1986 (66.6) years, and for women in 1987 (76.7). In 1994, the average life expectancy for men was 59.1 years, for women, 72.1 years. Currently, men live an average of 57-58 years, women - 70-71 years. This is the last place in Europe.
For comparison: in 1992 - 1993, in the United States, life expectancy for men was 72.2 years, for women - 79.2 years, in most other countries within the boundaries of 72 - 75 and 79 - 81 years, and in Japan - 76.5 and 83.1 years for men and women, respectively.
An analysis of the trend of reducing life expectancy by age groups shows that the largest reductions in the indicator occur mainly in the groups of 40-44, 45-49 and 50-54 years, as well as some jumps in the group of 16-19 years, especially for men. Unprecedented mortality of men of working age from accidents, poisoning, injuries. For the countries of Europe, the USA, Japan, the proportion of deaths from these causes is 5-5.5 percent, in Russia 22-25 percent, i.e. - 4 times higher. Maternal mortality in Russia is 5-10 times higher than the same indicator in developed countries.
Typically, the number of deaths increases in proportion to population growth. Unique in world practice is the dynamics of mortality characteristic only for Russia: an increase in the number of deaths occurs with a decrease in the population. There is a high probability of a negative trend developing in a fairly long term. One of the reasons for this trend is the ever worsening ecological state of the territory of Russia.
In Russia, the structure of mortality, which is not typical for any country in the world, has formed. In 1995, one third of the dead (672 thousand people) died at working age. Of these, 80% are men (550 thousand people).
There is no such difference in the world between the life expectancy of a man and a woman - 12-14 years.
All this indicates that without changes in the political, socio-economic and environmental situation on the territory of Russia, a “terrible explosion” is possible in the foreseeable future, with a catastrophically decreasing population and a decrease in life expectancy.
In recent years, an unstable sanitary and epidemiological situation has been developing in the country: the number of intestinal infections, the number of tuberculosis and venereal diseases is growing, and typhus is already spreading.
According to experts, 70% of the Russian population lives in a state of prolonged psycho-emotional and social stress, which depletes the adaptive and compensatory mechanisms that support health. This is evidenced by an increase in the number of mental illnesses, an increase in cases of reactive psychoses and neuroses, depression, alcoholism and drug addiction (about 2 million people). In Russia, there is practically no promotion of a healthy lifestyle.
The growth of morbidity and disability in childhood is alarming. In 4-5 times the incidence of newborns has increased, in 2-3 times - in children. Delays in the development of children are increasingly being noted (according to the Ministry of Health of Russia, at present there are about 80% of chronically ill children in schools, and according to the forecast, by the year 2000 there will be more of them).
The rate of increase in the level of mortality from accidents, poisoning, injuries is much higher than from diseases of the circulatory system, respiratory organs and digestion, which in the recent past occupied leading positions among the causes of death. To a large extent, this is the result of an exacerbation of the criminogenic situation.
Mortality is growing from diseases associated with the deteriorating environmental situation (acute respiratory diseases, congenital anomalies, anemia, leukemia), from malignant neoplasms.
The country's population is rapidly aging. If before the war people younger than working age accounted for 38.8% of the country's population, now it is 22.4%. On the contrary, the number of people older than working age increased from 8.6% to 20.5%, and together with the disabled - 25.2%. If in 1939 there were six workers per non-working person, then in 1996 there were less than two. According to forecasts until 2010, the number of employed and unemployed will equalize.
All these indicators: fertility, mortality, morbidity, life expectancy - the main indicators of the level and quality of life of the population are currently acquiring major political and economic significance.
The given data give grounds to conclude that the state of health of the population is deteriorating due to the socio-economic, economic, environmental situation in cities and villages in the whole country and requires additional socio-hygienic and environmental studies.
II. 3. In recent decades, the problem of preventing the adverse effects of environmental factors on human health has moved to one of the first places among other global problems.
This is due to the rapid increase in the number of factors different in nature (physical, chemical, biological, social) factors, the complex spectrum and mode of their influence, the possibility of simultaneous (combined, complex) action, as well as the variety of pathological conditions caused by these factors.
Among the complex of anthropogenic (technogenic) impacts on the environment and human health, a special place is occupied by numerous chemical compounds widely used in industry, agriculture, energy and other areas of production. Currently, more than 11 million chemicals are known, and in economically developed countries over 100 thousand chemical compounds are produced and used, many of which actually affect humans and the environment.
The impact of chemical compounds can cause almost all pathological processes and conditions known in general pathology. Moreover, as knowledge about the mechanisms of toxic effects deepens and expands, new types of adverse effects (carcinogenic, mutagenic, immunotoxic, allergenic, embryotoxic, teratogenic and other types of actions) are revealed.
There are several fundamental approaches to the prevention of the adverse effects of chemicals: a complete ban on production and use, a ban on entering the environment and any impact on humans, replacing a toxic substance with a less toxic and dangerous one, limiting (regulating) the content in environmental objects and the levels of impact on workers and the general population. Due to the fact that modern chemistry has become a determining factor in the development of key areas in the entire system of productive forces, the choice of a prevention strategy is a complex, multi-criteria task, the solution of which requires analysis as a risk of developing immediate and long-term adverse effects of a substance on the human body, its offspring. , the environment, and the possible social, economic, medical and biological consequences of the ban on the production and use of a chemical compound.
The determining criterion for choosing a prevention strategy is the criterion of preventing (preventing) a harmful action. In our country and abroad, the production and use of a number of hazardous industrial carcinogens and pesticides is prohibited. A ban has been introduced on the contact of workers and the release into the environment of the most biologically active chemical compounds, for example, certain drugs.
MPC of atmospheric pollution is the maximum concentration that does not have a direct or indirect adverse effect on the health of a person and the health of subsequent generations throughout a person’s life, does not reduce working capacity and does not worsen his well-being, as well as sanitary and living conditions.
The methodological foundations of hygienic regulation of atmospheric pollution are formulated as follows:
1. Only that concentration of a chemical substance in the atmosphere is recognized as permissible, which does not have a direct or indirect harmful or unpleasant effect on a person, does not affect well-being and performance.
2. Addiction to harmful substances in the air is considered as an adverse effect.
3. Concentrations of chemicals in the atmosphere that adversely affect vegetation, local climate, atmospheric transparency and living conditions of the population are considered unacceptable.
The current practice of hygienic regulation of pollutants in the atmospheric air is based mainly on the first two criteria of harmfulness. The environmental effects of atmospheric pollution are rarely taken into account when developing MPCs.
Industrial chemicals in the conditions of production act within 6-8 hours on persons of working age who undergo preliminary (before entering work) and periodic medical examinations.
The MPC of harmful substances in the air of the working area is defined as the concentration that during daily (except weekends) work for 8 hours (but not more than 41 hours a week) for the entire period of activity does not cause the occurrence of diseases or abnormalities in the health of the worker and his descendants detected by modern research methods during work or in the long term of life.
The objects of standardization at enterprises are: the organization of work on labor protection, control of the state of working conditions, the procedure for stimulating work to ensure labor safety, the organization of training and instructing workers on labor safety, the organization of labor safety control and all other work that the labor protection service is engaged in.
III. Environmental protection standards are aimed at preserving the Earth's gene pool, restoring ecosystems, preserving monuments of the world cultural and natural heritage, etc. They are used in the organization of buffer zones of nature reserves, natural national parks, biosphere reserves, green areas of cities, etc. Production and economic standards are designed to limit the parameters of the production and economic activities of a particular enterprise in terms of environmental protection of the natural environment. These include technological, urban planning, recreational and other standards of economic activity.
Technological standards include: the maximum allowable emission (MPE) of harmful substances into the atmosphere, the maximum allowable discharge (MPD) of pollutants into water bodies and the maximum allowable amount of combustible fuel (MPT). These standards are established for each source of pollution entering the environment and are closely related to the profile of work, the volume and nature of pollution of a particular enterprise, workshop, unit.
Urban planning standards are developed to ensure environmental safety in the planning and development of cities and other settlements.
Recreational standards define the rules for the use of natural complexes in order to provide conditions for a good rest and tourism.
Options for the final disposal of radioactive waste (RW) for their various categories were proposed by the IAEA in 1982-1984.
For IV and V categories (medium and low-level waste with short-lived nuclides), it is allowed to dispose of them in liquid form (injection) into deep permeable formations and, in the form of hardening pulps, into low-permeability rocks. The use of the nuclide decay duration as the main classifying feature when considering RW disposal issues is quite justified, since the requirements for the disposal technology, geological formations, depth and location of disposal are largely determined by the period of time during which the waste will remain toxic.
General requirements for the final stages of radioactive waste management:
1. Waste must be isolated from the living environment and direct human activities, the habitat of animals and the development of vegetation.
2. The place of storage or disposal of waste should be difficult to access for accidental or intentional entry; waste should not be exposed to natural catastrophic events capable of removing waste from storage.
3. The boundaries of structures, territory or geological environment (subsoil) in which wastes are located must be clearly defined and established taking into account possible natural phenomena. Within the boundaries of storage or disposal, activities not related to waste are not allowed or limited.
4. Isolation of waste within the established boundaries should be provided for the necessary time until the nuclides and other components pose a danger to humans and the environment, or for a realistically predictable period of time.
5. To reduce the exposure of personnel and the public, preliminary operations for the preparation, processing, and transportation of waste, accompanied by the release of radioactivity into the environment, exposure to radiation, should be minimized.
6. During storage of RW or after their disposal in the storage facility, processes should not develop that worsen the conditions for waste isolation and lead to the release of waste components outside the storage facility, requiring special work on storage or reburial of waste.
7. RW storage or disposal sites should occupy the minimum possible areas and volumes, have a minimal impact on natural resources and various types of activities for their use in adjacent territories.
The world is engulfed in a severe ecological and social crisis, which is rapidly developing, and no less severe economic wars. As a result, humanity faced a choice of the direction of its development, since, on the one hand, the rapidly growing economy came into collision with the global environment, and on the other hand, economic growth could not solve social problems, especially the problems of poverty and hunger. The choice turns out to be difficult. Or humanity, having completely destroyed the nature of the land, may (??), solve social problems, but will inevitably face an ecological catastrophe, or find an alternative to such a choice and solve social problems, avoiding an ecological catastrophe. A person must realize himself as a part of the biosphere and its main component - the biota that forms the environment, feel the enormous complexity of this self-regulating system, which the human mind is unlikely to fully understand, much less replace with a technical system. A person must understand and normally perceive his role in the mechanism of maintaining the stability of the biosphere. The new ecological paradigm - the theory of biotic regulation of the environment is aimed at:
1. conservation of wildlife;
2. preservation of mankind on Earth;
3. preservation of civilization;
4. understanding the meaning of life;
5. creation of a more just social system;
6. transition from the philosophy of war to the philosophy of peace and partnership;
7. transition to a healthy lifestyle;
8. love and respect for future generations.
Solving environmental problems depends on us. We must understand that everything is heading towards the extinction of life on Earth, and urgent action must be taken. It is necessary to massively introduce people into the environmental protection program. To do this, you need to choose the right solution to environmental problems.
Used Books
1. Danilov-Danilyan V.I. "Ecological problems" M.: MNEPU, 1997.
2. Danilov-Danilyan V.I. "Ecology, nature conservation and environmental safety" M.: MNEPU, 1997.
3. Mebel B. “Environmental Science. How the world works” M.: Mir, 1993.
4. Moiseev N.N., Stepanov S.A. "Russia in the surrounding world" M.: MNEPU, 1998.
5. Protasov V.F. "Ecology, health and environmental protection in Russia" M.: Finance and statistics, 1999.
