Court etiquette: from regulations to the absurd. Louis XIV of France. Courtyard and court holidays

Louis XIV of France. Courtyard and court holidays

Louis had a pleasant, endearing appearance and courtly charm. In dealing with courtiers, ministers, diplomats, he always looked very restrained and showed amazing politeness, in which, depending on the rank, age and merits of his counterpart, there were many shades. He clearly, freely and clearly expressed his thoughts. In addition, he had an excellent memory, which was very useful to him, for example, at meetings of the "Conseil d'En Haut", the politically most important section of the royal council, as well as in numerous discussions with ministers. His behavior in society was prudent, tactful, and eminently moderate. However, these characteristic virtues of the king in the fourth or fifth decade of his life, if not completely disappeared, were still significantly suppressed by his conviction in his own political infallibility. The manifestation of obvious egocentrism also belonged to the negative traits of his character. If, for example, Colbert opened a manufactory, then the "sun king" (since 1662, Louis XIV used the sun as his emblem) believed that this initiative came from him. He tried to impress it on everyone. Humility was certainly not his forte. At least, this applies to 1690-1695, when he began to greatly exaggerate his merits.

Louis XIV ruled with unusual professionalism. This professionalism was based on natural abilities and on the practical experience that Mazarin was able to convey to him, purposefully involving him in meetings and meetings of the royal council, as well as numerous trips around the country.

The much-quoted saying "Accuracy is the courtesy of kings" applies especially to Louis XIV. He was always punctual, listened attentively and did not get tired at the longest meetings. He had an exceptionally developed sense of duty. Along with the busy court life, the king devoted 5 to 10 hours a day, and later more, to intensive work at the desk and at conferences. He was interested in the details of the ongoing processes and could always identify the essential and main directions of development. In this he was helped by his political instinct and ability to quickly perceive. However, he was not very strong in putting forward his own constructive ideas. Hence it is clear that in the field of domestic and foreign policy he followed a long-term program, a kind of "Grand Plan" (grand dessein). Louis XIV showed himself as a pragmatist who used current political events in the interests of the crown and state. At the same time, he never waited, but tried to create a favorable situation for France, to nip anti-French coalitions in the bud or, if this was not possible, to crush them with preventive military actions. He was always firm in matters of dignity, etiquette and ceremonial.

All researchers are unanimous in the fact that the king was very partial to fame. The leitmotif in his "Memoirs" and other documents are such concepts as "my rank, my glory, my greatness, my reputation." Personal glory, personal dignity for Louis XIV were closely connected with the power and well-being of the state. But the interests of the state have always been above the interests of the king. This is how his statement should be understood: “The interests of the state have priority ... Bearing in mind the state, they act for themselves. The well-being of one is the glory of another." Although it cannot be denied that Louis XIV had a tendency to equate his reputation and his interests with those of the state, yet - as this quotation shows - he was quite capable of seeing the difference between his person and the state. He emphasized this difference again on his deathbed: "I am leaving, but the state will always remain."

Louis XIV was more a man of action than of abstract ideas. Nevertheless, in solving state issues, he always adhered to several general principles. These were his deeply felt responsibility for his actions before God, his high opinion of his duties as king, and his determination to always consider the interests of the state. It has already been noted how much importance he attached to his personal authority and the reputation of the state among his contemporaries and descendants. But such views were characteristic not only of Louis XIV. They were widespread while outside as well as in France itself.

The king was actively involved in court life. He was an excellent rider and loved to hunt.

As a gentleman, he was figurative. He willingly danced, appreciated the theater and court holidays, But he lacked the dignity of a soldier and military leader, although in situations associated with a danger to his personality, he showed remarkable fearlessness.

Louis XIV had a good, healthy constitution, coupled with exceptional willpower. With stoic composure, he endured intense pain, moments even mortal dangers. This character trait manifested itself even in childhood, when in November 1647 he fell ill with chickenpox and for some time was even under the threat of death. With amazing endurance he endured the treatment, when he was repeatedly opened the blood. According to numerous contemporaries, he reached old age thanks to his powerful body, and not to the art of doctors who could finish off a weaker person with life-threatening methods of treatment.

Versailles is considered a model of the court and court culture. Louis XIV made a significant contribution to the creation of the myth of Versailles. This resulted in some distortion of reality. To avoid such misunderstandings, it must be constantly remembered that almost half a century of the personal reign of the king was not uniform. And under Louis XIV, the court at first did not have a permanent seat: Fontainebleau (1661, 1679), the Louvre (1662-1666) and the Tuileries (1666-1671) in Paris, where he spent the winter, Saint-Germain-au-Laye (1666-1673 , 1676, 1678-1681) and Versailles (1674, 1675, 1677), which from 1682 became the permanent seat of the court and government. In addition, the court had previously been in Chambord on the Loire and in Vincennes. It is noteworthy that between April 1682 and the day of his death, Louis XIV was in Paris a total of 16 times with short visits.

Relatively frequent until 1682, the change of the seat of the court was associated with high costs. Everything that was necessary for the court and made its life comfortable was transferred from one palace to another: furniture, linen, carpets, lamps, tableware, kitchen utensils, etc. Until 1682, Louis was most often at the New Palace of Saint-Germain-aux-Laye, owned by Henry IV, where his grandson was born. Here he ordered the construction of a magnificent terrace 2.5 km long, from which an unobstructed view of the surrounding landscape opened. On his instructions, and Chambord, Vincennes, Fontainebleau, Saint-Germain-au-Laye, the Louvre and the Tuileries were made significant improvements.

The restructuring and changes of the hunting palace in Versailles left from Louis XIII, Louis XIV began already in 1661. It took more than 5 decades until the magnificent palace was ready in its main parts. Since the beginning of his reign in 1661, the king has been there perhaps 20 times. The first changes began shortly after Mazarin's death and were more about the parklands than the palace. The famous creator of parks André le Notre (1613 - 1700) from 1658 was appointed "inspector general of the buildings and parks of the king."

Large reconstruction works or new buildings began to take shape only in the second half of the 60s and were under the direct and constant control of the king. In this he was supported by the most significant and influential minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619 - 1683). Responsible for the construction work in the palace was the famous Louis de Vaux (1612-1670). Charles le Brun (1619 - 1690), who commanded a whole army of artists, plasterers, carpet makers, and sculptors of Versailles, directed numerous works on decoration and interior design. Even in 1685, when the court had been in Versailles for a long time (since 1682), about 36,000 workers and 6,000 horses were still employed in the huge palace complex.

The construction of the ensemble cost about 77 million livres. Between 1661 and 1683 expenses for the court and royal palaces accounted for 12 - 14% of all public expenditures (from 10 to 15 million livres per year). Until 1684, about 30 million were spent on Versailles, Louvre - 10, destroyed during the revolution of 1789 Marly - 7, Saint-Germain-au-Laye - 5 and laid in the northwestern part of the Versailles Park "porcelain Trianon" - 3 million livres. On average, expenses for Versailles from 1678 to 1682 amounted to 3,853,000 livres per year, and in 1685 - more than 8 million. Without a doubt, the construction of the palace complex in Versailles absorbed unimaginable sums. And yet, with a glimpse into the past, it can be seen as a cost-effective investment. Unique in its proportions, combining the play of all the arts, reflecting the culture of a unique era, Versailles has an impact through the centuries.

While in Germany the flowering of court life occurred either before or simultaneously with the transition from a patriarchal state to an absolute monarchy, in France this structural transition had already been completed by the time of Louis XIV's accession to the throne. Therefore, the court policy of the "Sun King" basically had the task of not only strengthening these conquests, but also expanding them, giving the necessary splendor. From this point of view, the court served the king as an instrument of control over a powerful and influential part of the nobility, the “great” countries, who could mobilize significant forces in their provinces. This high nobility was attracted to the court by various methods, including the distribution of profitable places of income and pepsin, where, given the high costs of representation and the way of life corresponding to their rank, they were more and more dependent on the king.

Madame de Maintenon (1635 - 1719) in 1678 estimated the minimum amount needed for a childless nobleman with 12 servants to live in Versailles at 12,000 livres a year. Only a small part of the nobility could spend such sums for a long time. Thus, the court also had the task of including the highest nobility as much as possible in the sphere of influence of the king, tying it to the personality of the king through etiquette, court life and the control resulting from them.

The royal court and the palaces at its disposal, especially Versailles as the main residence, served to a large extent to demonstrate the greatness, power and reputation of the king and the monarchy to the whole world. Versailles with the park ensemble and the canals laid through it under Louis XIV in all its details was designed for the impression it made. For example, the famous "ladder of ambassadors" in the palace, which led to the front chambers. It was made of multi-colored precious marble, and its frescoes depicted representatives of all the peoples of the world. This staircase led to the majestic bust of the king.

Finally, the king decided to gather around him the best artists, architects, artists, poets, musicians and writers of France, and not just court society. At the same time, Louis XIV pursued the goal of influencing all the art of France, directing it and using it in the interests of his policy. In this aspect, one should consider the commission given to Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to organize the encouragement of representatives of literature, arts and science and use them to glorify the absolutism of Louis. The French Academy, which existed since 1635, founded by Colbert in 1663, was to serve this purpose. 1666 Academy of Sciences, founded in 1671 by the Academy of Architecture, and also opened in 1672 by the Royal Academy of Music.

From 1683 to 1690 there were gradual changes in the specific meaning and external impact of the court. To a superficial contemporary observer, the transformation of Versailles in 1682 into the permanent residence of the court seemed to be a continuation and culminating point of the trend of the past decades. But Versailles gradually turned into a deceptive, external facade, because the courtyard began to be more and more fenced off from the outside world. Fewer and fewer impulses came from Versailles to the outside world; it ceased to set the tone. After 1690, the patronage of the king practically no longer mattered. Life left Versailles to move to Paris and provincial towns. The reasons for the changes were financial difficulties due to wars and economic problems, the aging of the king and not least the growing influence of Madame de Maintenon.

The daily life of the king proceeded mainly in public, among a large court staff, numbering about 20 thousand people. Visitors, curious people and a large number of petitioners mixed in with the noble court society in the vast castle premises. In principle, every subject could exercise the right to submit a petition to the king. From 1661, Louis XIV encouraged this practice. The monarch saw this as an opportunity to get to know the immediate concerns and needs of his subjects. Later, at Versailles, every Monday and in the premises of the royal guard, a large table was set up on which petitioners put their letters. Until 1685, the Marquis de Louvois (1641-1691), secretary of state for military affairs and minister (since 1672) was responsible for the further passage of these petitions. They were processed by secretaries of state and, provided with a corresponding report, were transferred to the king, who made a decision on each case personally.

Great festive performances, theatrical and musical performances were organized at the court, but there were many other opportunities for entertainment. Along with the great magnificently staged festive performances, the “Great Carousel” in the Tuileries in June 1662, arranged in the gardens of Versailles in the spring of 1664, a multi-day court festival “Fun of the Enchanted Island”, “Great Divertissement” remained in the memory of the court society, the noble families of Paris and posterity » 1668, as well as the «Versailles Divertissement» of July and August 1674. The increase in the number of courtiers participating in these festivities makes it possible to clearly see the growing attractiveness of the court. If in 1664 only about 600 “courtesans” were present at the festival “Fun of the Enchanted Island”, then 4 years later there were already more than 1500 of them at the festivities on the occasion of the conclusion of the Peace of Aachen (by the way, Molière’s comedy “Georges Danden” was presented). In 1680, about 3,000 nobles lived in Versailles as long-term guests. The influx of nobles, as well as the growing number of court staff and servants, made it necessary to expand the city of Versailles, officially founded in 1671.

The king caused timidity in those who could only observe him from a distance and therefore knew him poorly. But if this barrier was overcome, then an amiable monarch appeared before the interlocutors, possessing in the highest degree not only tact, but also humor. Despite all the boundaries established by etiquette, Louis XIV tried not to lose friendly relations. He maintained such relations, for example, with Mazarin, Colbert, Louvois, Duke of Saint-Aignan (1607 - 1687), with his ministers, "first valets", as well as the "chief quartermaster of the king's music" Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687 ), who, as they said, could afford almost everything, and with the famous comedian Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, nicknamed Molière (1622-1673), etc.

Long-term close relationship with Colbert was based primarily on the unlimited trust that Louis XIV had in him. The minister constantly proved his modesty and devotion, that he was worthy of trust. He showed himself to be a faithful servant of the king, not only in the performance of political and administrative functions, but also in special cases relating to the personal life of the king. So, it is known that every time Mademoiselle de la Vallière (1644 - 1710), the king's maitre, was about to give birth, he made all the necessary preparations. First of all, he made sure that only reliable people were involved in the participation, so that nothing would become known to the public. Later, when La Vallière fell out of favor with the king and the Marquise de Montespan (1641-1707) took her place, Colbert's wife took care of the upbringing of La Vallière's children, while Colbert himself again had to assume the role of the trusted king in matters with Montespan. Through him there was a correspondence of the king and temporary metres.

The complication of relations between the king and Colbert was due to the growing rivalry between the comptroller general of finances and Louvois, which eventually escalated into open tension between the two ministers. That Louis XIV could quickly fall out of favor is shown by the example of the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Simon Arnold, Marquis de Pomponnet (1618-1699), who was abruptly dismissed in November 1679. Colbert and Louvois also played their role here. The king accused Pomponnet of weakness and too much compliance shown during the peace negotiations at Pimwegen (1678/79).

The way of life of the king and his dealings with the metresses were sharply criticized by respected clerics, sometimes even in the presence of the whole court. In his memoirs, Louis XIV admitted to the Dauphin that by doing so he set a bad example that should not be followed. First of all, the king warned the Dauphin against abandoning the affairs of state because of love stories. The king must in no case allow his master to influence him in political decisions. Otherwise, in such matters, the king should exercise as much restraint as possible. Louis XIV adhered to this in all his love affairs between 1661 and 1683. So, for example, while Queen Maria Theresa (1638 - 1683) was alive, he visited her every night.

The exact number of love stories of the king is a mystery. The best known are his affairs with the unmarried Louise-Françoise de la Baume-le-Blanc, later the Duchess de la Vallière (1644-1710) and with the married Francoise-Athenais de Rochechouart, Marquise de Montespan (1641-1701). The fruit of a relationship with la Vallière, which probably lasted from 1661 to 1667, was four children, of whom two survived. Mademoiselle de Blois was legally legitimized by the fact that her mother received the title of Duchess of La Vallière. In January 1680, Louis Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti (1661 - 1709) married her. The son, Louis de Bourbon, Count of Vermandois (1667 - 1683) was legitimized in February 1669 and in November of the same year he was awarded the rank of Admiral of France.

Marquise de Montespan from 1667 to 1681 gave the king eight children, of whom four reached adulthood. Louis-August de Bourbon, duc de Megnes (1670 - 1736) was legitimized in December 1673. Shortly thereafter, he received high military knowledge. His sister Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, Mademoiselle de Nantes, born in 1673 and legitimized, married Louis III, Duke of Bourbon-Conde in 1685. Her sister, born in 1677 and legalized in 1681, Françoise-Marie de Bourbon, named, like her half-sister, Mademoiselle de Blois, in February 1692 married Philip II, Duke of Orleans (1674 - 1723) , later regent. The last child from this relationship, Louis Alexandre de Bourbon, Count of Toulouse (1676 - 1737), legitimized in 1681, two years later received the title of Admiral of France, and in 1694 - Duke and peer of Damville. As these facts show, Louis XIV showed great paternal care for his illegitimate children.

The old French kings were terrified of drowning out the fresh and free voice of Gallic wit by the tricks of etiquette. They really adopted the ceremonial of the Burgundian court, but took care to leave enough slits for direct communication with others. Henry IV liked simple, open conversation. He forbade the children to call him cold "Monsier" (master), he wanted to be just "papa". He did not accept such an absurd institution of the German courts as "Prugelknabe" (scapegoat), for children of noble birth, who were comrades in the games of young princes, but if the princes behaved badly, then spanking was prescribed for their little friends. Henry IV gave a special order to the tutor of his son, so that he would roughly beat the boy if he would be outrageous. On November 14, 1607, the king writes to the teacher:

“I wish and order that the Dauphin be whipped with rods whenever he becomes stubborn or starts doing something bad; I know from my own experience that nothing will benefit like a good flogging.”

Henry (Henri) IV, also called Henry of Navarre (1533-1610) French king (since 1589), killed by religious fanatic Ravaillac (Ravaillac) ( approx. ed.)

Louis XIV (Louis the Great) (1638-1715) - French king (since 1643) ( approx. ed.)

The era of Louis XIV is most often associated with large-scale festivities, balls, theatrical performances, masquerades, hunting and other amusements. Louis devoted a lot of time to such activities, especially during the ministry of Cardinal Mazarin and in the first period of his independent reign. Since Cardinal Mazarin practically did not allow him to public affairs, the young Louis could only be king in public. This was achieved by Mazarin, who, after the Fronde, needed to strengthen royal power, and, consequently, his own. He believed that this strengthening should take place through propaganda in various fields of art: literature, painting, sculpture, architecture. But, since French society was for the most part illiterate, the most effective method was the manifestation of the image of power, which became the young Louis XIV.

Louis loved to dance and knew how to do it well, so the cardinal directed propaganda into the mainstream of theatrical art. Ludovic first appeared on stage at the age of thirteen in the "Ballet Cassandra". This was the first major celebration after the internal political crisis, which opened a series of productions in which Louis constantly performed dance parts. According to Voltaire, Louis XIV distinguished himself in important dances, befitting his majestic appearance and not degrading his dignity.

So the theater became one of the king's favorite pastimes. In this regard, it is impossible not to mention two outstanding figures of theatrical art of the second half of the 17th century - Jean-Baptiste Lully and Jean-Baptiste Molière. Both of them quickly won the favor of the king and formed a successful creative tandem to glorify the greatness of Louis XIV. The courtiers were unhappy with such favor of the king to Lully and Moliere. Many called Lully an Italian swindler, constantly pointed out his vices, but Louis forgave Lully everything, turning a blind eye to many shortcomings. Thus, J.-B. Lully was appointed Surintendent of Music. Much of the court was also opposed to Molière; without the support of the king, he would have lost his authority, his troupe, and all means of subsistence. But Louis XIV, guided by his own interests, neglected the opinion of the court. As the French historian Francois Bluche writes, Louis sees in Molière not a shamefully excommunicated by preachers and not a buffoon, but a deep, witty, subtle, very prolific, imaginative author who shares a meal with him, who knows how to correct morals, without moralizing, always ready carry out unexpected orders of the king.

One of the most famous joint productions of Molière and Lully is the comedy-ballet The Tradesman in the Nobility. The plot was written on the initiative of the king himself, he asked Lully to write a "funny Turkish ballet" after a visit to France by a Turkish pseudo-ambassador, whose name was Soliman-aga, in November 1669. The ticklishness of the situation was that in fact he was not an ambassador, but only misled the king. This was the first time that the embassy of the Great Porte was received before the eyes of all Europe, and the king arranged everything in the most grandiose way: when it turned out that the "ambassador" was just a simple Turk, ill-wishers were not slow to laugh at Louis XIV. Therefore, in this situation, it was the best way out - to lead this general ridicule. Thus, Lully's order for the Turkish ballet became a kind of spell against the danger of becoming a laughingstock. On October 14, 1670, he was presented to the court at the Château de Chambord.

Louis no longer took a direct part in the productions. By this time he had given up dancing. For the first time, the court did not see Louis on stage at the premiere of Molière's "Brilliant Lovers" on February 7, 1670. There are different opinions about the reasons for this change.

Voltaire sees the reason in the fact that Louis, when the tragedy of Jean Racine "Britanic" was staged in Saint-Germain, heard the words that struck him, and he ceased to appear on stage. The lines were devoted to the addiction of the Roman emperor Nero to participation in folk spectacles.

Philippe Bossan does not share this point of view and cites data from the Journal of Royal Health, which records the testimony of royal doctors that the king prepared for this role and rehearsed until he fell ill. This version seems quite plausible, but Bossan puts forward an alternative point of view, concluding that Ludovic knew that he was a brilliant dancer and, as a professional, knew when he should leave the stage.

Despite the fact that Louis XIV no longer danced on the stage, theatrical performances continued and were in demand. It is impossible not to note the contribution of Louis XIV to the development of the French theater. Under his influence, many famous works of theatrical art were created today.

However, the activities of the French king in the field of culture were not limited to the theater area. The greatest cultural event in the life of France, and especially in the life of the courtiers, was the construction of a new royal residence - Versailles.

The palace was erected on the site of a small hunting pavilion built in 1623 under Louis XIII. Louis XIV also drew attention to this place, even before 1661 he ordered the rebuilding of service buildings to accommodate kitchens and stables.

Active construction begins in 1669-1670. The main architect until 1670 was Louis Levo, after his death, the construction was continued by his son-in-law Francois d "Orbe, and then Jules Hardouin-Mansart. They were instructed to surround the castle with three facades of white stone, which were facing west, north and south. This allowed to triple the area of ​​the palace.

In addition to these architects, the landscape architect Andre Le Nôtre, who was appointed general inspector of construction in 1657, took part in the construction of the palace and park complex. Le Nôtre completely transforms the area around the palace without changing the natural landscape. Ponds and overgrown reservoirs turn into magnificent fountains and round pools. To create a majestic park perspective, he replants entire forests from Ile-de-France and Normandy.

Also, an important role in the creation of the palace was played by the artist Charles Lebrun, who received the title of "the first royal painter". He painted the Military Hall and the Hall of Peace in Versailles, as well as the Apollo Gallery in the Louvre and the interiors of the Saint-Germain castle.

Even before the completion of the construction of the Palace of Versailles, Louis spent holidays in it. In May 1664, the first royal feast of the "Fun of the Magic Island" is held. Then other holidays follow, in the plots of which the theme of the Sun is carried. Many holidays were arranged in honor of the military victories of Louis XIV. For example, after returning from a military campaign in Franche-Comte in July and August 1674, the king arranges a "Great Divertissement". This celebration was a series of theatrical performances, fireworks, gondola rides along the park's grand canal.

In 1677, Louis decides to move the government and the court to Versailles. In this regard, the construction of the complex continues. In order to connect the apartments of the king and queen, Jules Hardouin-Mansart builds a Grand Gallery above the terrace, on both sides it closes the salon of Peace and the salon of War. In 1678, the southern wing of the palace was built, and from 1682 to 1684, the office of the royal council and two ministerial wings appeared, and the northern wing was erected in 1685-1689 to restore symmetry. Thus, government officials and court society were gathered in one place.

After the final move of the court to Versailles, the atmosphere that prevailed at the court of the French king in the sixties of the 17th century disappears. The time when the courtiers moved from castle to castle for the king or accompanied him in war is over. Now everything is subject to a strict charter and order rules the court.

Strict etiquette and a "code of ranks" attached great importance to the hierarchical position of the courtiers. Jean-Christian Ptifis points out that the developed rules are a system of sophisticated political prescriptions. All this gave rise to envy among those close to the king. Being a courtier is not an easy task. It is important to always remain on your guard to avoid a trap or become a victim of a conspiracy. Life at the court also leads to huge expenses: it is necessary to maintain a mansion, horses, servants, and constantly order new magnificent robes. Having established the court hierarchy of the nobility, Louis XIV deprived it of political autonomy. Thus, the nobility was firmly attached to the king, which helped to avoid possible noble rebellions or outbreaks of discontent.

So, numerous holidays were closely intertwined with state policy, wars and rebellions. Court intrigues also sometimes influenced politics or diplomacy. However, often the peasants starved while the nobility indulged in amusements at court. But it was an integral part of the life of the 17th century and the absolute monarchy in general.

But if you look at it from the other side, then court festivities gave rise to a huge number of works of art that have survived to this day. The contribution of Louis XIV is invaluable: under him, the French Academy of Sciences was opened, at the request of Colbert, the Academy of Architecture joins the Academy of Arts and Sculpture, forming a single institution.

In our opinion, the statement of Voltaire is interesting, who in the "History of the Reign of Louis XIV" pays much attention to court life: "The court and the reign of Louis XIV are distinguished by such brilliance, such splendor that even the smallest details of his court are entertaining for posterity, as they were the subject of curiosity for Europe and for all his contemporaries. The rays of glory of his reign illuminated his slightest deeds."

Yakovleva Maria

Istvan Rath-Veg (From the book "From the history of human stupidity")

SUBMISSION BEFORE THE EARTH LORD

In 1719, after many years of diligent research, the German historian Johann Christian Lunig published a two-volume pile under the pretentious title of Tatrum ceremoniale. The author described, discussed, commented on the ceremonials that he observed at the courts of the rulers of European countries.
Lunig explained the need for ceremonials as follows:
"Great individuals" are the representatives of the Almighty on Earth, created in His likeness, and their purpose is to be like Him in everything. God has ordered the entire Universe, and His representatives on Earth, who strive in every possible way to become like Him, must strictly observe the established ritual. When common people see with their own eyes the all-encompassing order in the behavior and customs of their masters, they tend to imitate them, thereby strengthening the welfare of the entire state. But if people only see confusion and confusion, they will begin to doubt that their master is the true representative of God on Earth. They will cease to have respect for the ruler, and in those states where this happens, chaos will reign. Therefore, the great monarchs have established rules that they themselves and their entire court must obey.
As the church altar and the sanctuary behind its fence were intended for the god and his ministers-priests, who thus separated themselves from the people, so the deputies of god - the king and his courtiers - were isolated from the masses in the reserve created by them.
This reserve was surrounded by a gilded curtain of court etiquette. The yarn from which this curtain was woven was brought from the East, where each ruler called himself the son of the Sun, or the brother of the Moon, or, at worst, the cousin of the stars. From the subjects it was required that they treat their earthly ruler with the same servile adoration, as well as his so majestic "relatives".
The etiquette of servility and humiliated obedience to the lord spread from the East to Byzantium, and from there, with the help of the crusaders, it passed to Western Europe. Each monarch adapted all the magnificent ceremonials more comfortably to his needs.
“All those who blasphemously dare to deny our divine origin will be expelled from service, and their property will be confiscated,” read an imperial decree issued in Rome in 404 CE. e.
Each order of the Byzantine emperor was considered sacred, and it was supposed to be treated as the word of God. It was necessary to address the emperor: "Your Eternity."
Since he was the personification of a god, he should have been worshiped as a god. The strictest rules of court ceremonial demanded that foreign ambassadors, like their subjects, fall prostrate at the imperial feet. The Bishop of Cremona described how he was honored to see the emperor. The emperor sat on a golden path in the shade of a golden tree with golden branches and golden leaves. Artfully made birds perched on the branches. Two lions of pure gold, as if alive, looked at the approaching visitor from their elevations located to the left and right of the throne. As the messenger approached the throne, the artificial birds began to sing, and the lions roared like thunder. The bishop and his attendants prostrated themselves before the throne, according to the rules of etiquette. When they looked up, both the emperor and his throne disappeared: a secret mechanism lifted the entire structure up. And from there, from a height, the divine imperial eyes cast lightning-like glances at the dumbfounded envoy.
The monarchs of Western Europe did not demand such excessive humiliation, which, according to Eastern concepts, was considered the norm. They were satisfied that the visitors, who were awarded an audience, knelt down. This inconvenient way of expressing one's respect was apparently born in Spain, and later began to be used at the court of the Austrian emperor. The Austrian emperors must have been fond of contemplating such a display of humiliated obedience, for they were tirelessly looking for more and more reasons to demand from their subjects that they kneel. Petitioners had to submit their petitions on their knees; in other cases, it was enough to bend one knee. There were detailed strict rules that provided for when it was necessary to kneel on both knees, and when it was possible to do with one. When the emperor passed through the city, every pedestrian was obliged to bow one knee as a sign of respect for a high person. Even important persons moving in carriages were not relieved of this duty - they had to stop their carriage, get out and express their humility: the ladies squatted, and the men knelt.
In the reign of Maria Theresa, these rules were somewhat relaxed. The writer and philosopher Lessing, who clearly lacked the skills of court gymnastics, stumbled on his own foot when he was introduced to the Empress. She graciously allowed Lessing not to repeat such a difficult exercise.
The court of Versailles never adopted Spanish etiquette, despite its seductive pomp and ceremony. It was too harsh for French tastes. But in England, the pantaloons on the knees of the courtiers were worn out to the extreme. The French marshal Vieilleville in 1547 was invited on some occasion to dine with King Edward VI. The marshal's memoirs conveyed to us his impressions of this glorious feast:
“Dinner was served by the Knights of the Order of the Garter. Approaching the table, each time they fell to their knees. The dishes were taken from them by the lord chamberlain, who, kneeling down, offered them to the king. It seemed very strange to us, the French, that the most prominent representatives of the English aristocracy, including famous military leaders, had to kneel every now and then, while in France even pages, entering the rest, only bow one knee.

SPANISH ETIQUETTE

Spanish etiquette was the most severe of all. The royal couple of Spain were literally "untouchable". Once, when the queen was riding, the horse raced and threw the sovereign horsewoman from the saddle. Two officers rushed to her, picked up the queen, freed her legs from the stirrup. In short, they saved her life. However, the brave officers immediately turned their horses and galloped at full speed. They had to cross the border of their country to avoid the death penalty for touching the queen's body.
Philip III received severe burns while sitting in front of the fireplace, only because the only grandee who was granted the privilege of moving the royal chair had gone somewhere.
Maria Anna of Austria was betrothed to King Philip IV. On the way to Spain, she was solemnly welcomed in all the cities through which she passed. In one of the cities, the mayor presented her with a dozen pairs of silk stockings. The royal bride's majordomo sternly pushed the box with the gift aside, saying to the taken aback mayor: "You should know that the Queen of Spain has no legs." It is said that the poor princess lost consciousness at these words, because she thought that in Madrid they would cut off her legs in the name of observing the immutable laws of Spanish etiquette.

Etiquette at the Court of Louis XIV

When Louis XIV - the "Sun King" - ascended the throne of the Bourbons, court ceremonial became refined and elaborate. The king likened himself to the Sun, around which the universe revolves. And he considered the brilliance of the Versailles court as a reflection of the life-giving radiance of his own person.
Let's mentally fast-forward three centuries and look at the ceremonial in the bedroom of the "Sun King". The action takes place at that morning hour when Louis XIV usually wakes up: the nobles, who enjoy the privilege of being present at the awakening and dressing of the king, enter the bedroom one by one; the princes, the manager of the king's court, the head of the royal wardrobe and four chamberlains are also sent there.
Now the solemn act of getting out of bed can begin. The king leaves his famous bed, which is located exactly along the axis of the Versailles park. For just as the Sun rests in the center of the sky, so the "Sun King" must be in the center of his court. A short morning prayer is followed by an equally short morning ablution procedure: the main footman simply pours a few drops of perfume on the royal hands. The first chamberlain puts shoes on the king's feet and passes the robe to the chief chamberlain, who places it on the king's shoulders. Now his majesty is sitting in a chair. The royal barber removes his nightcap and combs his hair, while the first chamberlain holds a mirror.
All these details were extremely important and were of exceptional importance to those who were at the court of Versailles. It was considered a high distinction to be allowed to put shoes on the king's feet or help him put on a robe. Other courtiers treated the holders of such privileges with undisguised envy. The sequence in which morning routines were performed was set by the king himself and never changed.
Then followed the second part of the solemn ceremony, which could be called "undressing." In this action were engaged the head of the wardrobe, who helped the king on the one hand, and the main footman, who helped him on the other hand. When the king changed his shirt, the ceremony was even more pompous: the wardrobe attendant handed the shirt to the first chamberlain, who passed it on to the Duke of Orleans, the second person in the state after the king. The king took the shirt from the duke's hands and draped it over his shoulders. Then, with the help of two chamberlains, he took off his nightgown and put on his daygown. After that, in the ranks of the established order, appointed dignitaries approached the king and dressed him in various parts of the toilet: they put on shoes, fastened diamond clasps, pinned medals on ribbons. Then one of the most noble princes of France performed an important duty: he kept yesterday's clothes while the monarch shifted the contents from her pockets into a new suit. After that, the head of the wardrobe offered the king a choice of three embroidered handkerchiefs, which were served on a golden tray; finally, he also handed over to the ruler a hat, gloves and a cane.
On cloudy, gloomy days, when artificial lighting was required in the morning, the chief chamberlain asked the king in a whisper who would be granted the honor of holding the candles. The king called the name of one of the nobles present. The chosen one, bursting with pride, took a candelabra with two candles and held it throughout the entire procedure of dressing the king. I must say that even the lighting system was brought in line with the rules of court etiquette. Only the king had the right to use a candelabra for two candles. All other mortals had to make do with simple candlesticks. There were also strict rules about clothing. Since Louis was fond of gold embroidery on his dress, no one was allowed to wear anything like that. True, sometimes, as a sign of the highest favor, the king granted especially distinguished courtiers and statesmen the right to sew gold braid on clothes. This permission was issued by a special document with the appropriate seal, which was signed by the king and the first minister.
The performance was repeated every morning and always in the presence of an admiring audience. When it ended, the king left the bedroom, surrounded by a swarm of courtiers. In the empty bedroom, however, the ceremony continued. There was a king bed to be made. There were written rules about what the ego was supposed to do.
The royal bed itself served as an object of reverence. Those who passed through the bedroom had to bow to the bed as a sign of respect.<...>
At the vain court of the vain monarch there was a man who, amid all the pomp and brilliance, kept a sober head. It was the Minister of Finance Colbert, whose ingenuity was manifested in the fact that he taxed not only salt and flour, but also human vanity. He introduced a price list for all court privileges and positions. The right to be the chief cook cost 8 thousand francs, and, for example, the high position of majordomo was valued at one and a half million francs. However, the game was worth the candle. Anyone who received a position at court acquired an influential position, which opened up many opportunities to replenish the wallet devastated by Colbert.

SHOE WITH RED HEEL

In Byzantium, only the emperor had the right to wear red shoes: along with the crown, they were a sign of imperial power. After the fall of the Byzantine Empire, red shoes made their way into Paris. True, on the way they lost their soles and uppers, so that only red heels reached the court of the French kings. It was they who became an integral part of the high society attire, according to which the court nobility could always be distinguished from the petty nobility without titles and ranks.
The court of each monarch was a closed little world. This applied not only to the brilliant court of Versailles, but also to the residences of insignificant German princes, who vying with each other sought to imitate great models. The horizon of this little world was outlined by a hierarchy of ranks. It can be likened to a stepped pyramid, along which the courtiers, pushing and crowding, made their way up to the top, crowned by the monarch.
Every courtier dreamed of getting a rank above the one he was forced to be content with. In order to achieve this goal, he was ready to pay any price, to use any - even dishonest - means. Just to rise above the others, just to get one step closer to the crowned idol.
The complex issues of seniority in the court ranks deserve detailed study. Let's start with the court of Versailles, where ambition became completely pathological in its frenzy.
At the top of the court pyramid were the princes of royal blood, followed by the rest of the princes, then the dukes and peers, who, by virtue of their hereditary rights and position, were granted the highest posts and privileges. For lower rank aristocrats, there was also a strict order of precedence.
Note that title and power do not necessarily go hand in hand. It was possible to be a powerful minister, an undefeated military leader, a governor of a colony, and at the same time have a lower rank at court than that of a royal teenager of royal blood. On the battlefield, the marshals of France commanded both princes and peers, but the court rank of marshals was low, and their wives were not entitled to the promised stool.
Madame de Sevigny wrote enthusiastically in one of her letters about the "divine stool". Prosaically speaking, it was a chair without armrests and backrest. This seemingly unremarkable type of furniture played an incredibly important role in the life of the French court.
When the king or queen sat down in front of the crowded court, all the court dignitaries remained standing. Of the women, only princesses were allowed to sit down, but not in chairs, but on stools. Women were allowed to sit on stools in the absence of their majesties. Every situation that could arise in connection with the use of a stool was carefully provided for by the rules of court etiquette. For example, royal children in the presence of their father or mother could only sit on stools and only in their absence had the right to use chairs. In the presence of the royal couple or their children, princesses and duchesses of royal blood could sit on stools, and in the company of royal grandchildren they had the right to use chairs with straight backs, but not armchairs.
The list of rules "to whom to sit on what in front of whom" is far from exhausted. The cardinals stood in front of the king, but sat on stools in front of the queen and royal children, and being in the company of princes and princesses of royal blood, they had the right to occupy chairs. The same rule determined the behavior of foreign princes and Spanish grandees.
The stool code is just one example of those with even the smallest privilege demonstrating it publicly in the presence of those who aspired to receive the same distinction.
At court receptions, ladies of lower rank had to bend down to kiss the hem of the queen's dress. Princesses and peers were also required to kiss the lady’s clothes, but they were allowed to kiss the skirt already, therefore, bows for them were provided in a lightweight version. The rules of the court accurately determined even the comparative sizes of trains. Here is that table:

Queen - 11 yards
king's daughters - 3 yards,
granddaughters of the king - 7 yards,
princesses of royal blood - 5 yards,
other princesses and duchesses, 3 yards.

Considering that the Parisian yard corresponded to 119 centimeters, it will be clear that even three yards was enough to raise clouds of dust.
“Minima non curat proctor,” says a Latin proverb. This means something like this: "Significant people do not deal with trifles."

Abridged translation from English by B. Koltovoi.

Rat-Veg I. Tinsel of court etiquette // Science and life, 1968. No. 1. Pp. 100-104.

there is a question. What was the etiquette at the court of Louis XIV?

• Etiquette (from the French etiquette - a label, a card with rules that first appeared at the court of Louis 14) - etiquette - (not written), generally accepted rules of conduct in society.

  At the court of Louis XIV, where every little thing was ritualized through the efforts of the "sun king". The ceremonies of that time raised the king to the level of an inaccessible deity. In the morning, when the king woke up, the main keeper of the bedchamber and several courtiers put on a dressing gown, and not only who rendered what service, but also their movements, was painted. Then the doors of the bedchamber were opened, and the courtiers of the highest ranks could see the king, bowing in a deep bow. The king said a prayer and went into another room where he dressed, while representatives of the highest nobility again served him, while the main courtiers, who had the right to do so, saw this process, standing at a distance in respectful silence. Then the king retired to the chapel at the head of the procession, and on his way dignitaries who were not awarded an audience stood in rows, repeating their petitions in the hope that, passing by, Louis XIV would hear them and even, perhaps, say: "I will think about it." During the royal meal, all courtiers had to stand in complete silence. The king sat in a chair. The queen and princes, if they were present, had the right to sit on chairs, and other members of the royal family on stools. The king could do the greatest honor to a noble lady by allowing her to sit on a stool; men had no such privilege, but they all aspired to it for the sake of their wives.
  It is clear that in such conditions, issues of primacy were of fundamental importance, and no one conceded, as in the Middle Ages, their privileges and rights to another. Those who received a special honor (for example, to carry a candle in the royal bedchamber) could receive additional social and, no less important, material advantages over others.
  Ranks, favors, money, estates - everything was obtained precisely at the court, in the crowd of courtiers, subordinate to this strictest hierarchy. The courtiers were forced to spend long hours standing daily, endure the boredom of the royal meal and the humiliating duties of servants in order to be noticed by the king. Years spent in this way had a detrimental effect on their character and intelligence, but brought tangible material benefits.

  Requirements for courtiers.
  Obviously, court obligations required certain qualities from a nobleman. Conduct manuals of the time survive, of which one of the most famous is The Courtier by Count Castiglione. According to him, the courtier should be kind and attentive, avoid gossip, slander and lies. His manners had to look natural without awkwardness, he had to speak several languages ​​well, be able to play cards, not pay attention to financial losses, sing, draw, dance, play musical instruments, practice sports that were fashionable at that time, but by no means games of the common people. In war, he was advised to avoid unnecessary risk if he was outside the field of command. His politeness was supposed to increase depending on the rank of the interlocutor, and in relation to the king his manners should have resembled the behavior of a servant before the master. It is clear that not all of these norms were implemented in practice, but the rules of conduct in relation to the king had to be strictly observed.

• when Chlodvik woke up, his relatives came in turn to dress him. Then the courtiers did his hair. And so on until he was fully dressed. When the beef was brought to Clovis, everyone had to stand up and bow to the beef. Later, his favorite napkin was brought in to her, too, everyone bowed.