Nouns have grammatical meaning. By numbers, specific nouns change. The change in numbers is transmitted using the endings: month-months. real - they call various substances: air, water, capron, oil

In those cases where the dependent grammatical meaning causes a modification of the meaning of the form, it is one of the causes of variants of the main grammatical meaning, i.e. e. the so-called invariant. It is possible to determine the main grammatical meaning by examining the form in a very wide context or without any context at all. In other words, an invariant is a grammatical meaning that is not subject to change under the influence of a dependent grammatical meaning or any additional conditions.

1.0.5. Morphological means of conveying grammatical meaning. Morphological means of conveying grammatical meaning are contained in the form of a word, in other words, in the complex of its word forms. For inflectional languages, these are the following means:

1) Flexion, i.e. inflectional formant; inflection can be external, i.e. this is a suffix that carries a grammatical load: street-s, approach-ed; inflection can be internal, it is an alternation of vowels: foot- feet; find- found. In modern English there is a special type of inflection capable of forming units larger than one word form, i.e. e. phrases: that aunt and uncle's arrival. This is the so-called monoflex. Regular inflection joins the basics: that uncle's arrival. Monoflexion forms a combination of words, not bases, which allows us to consider it as a syntactic formant (1.2.6).

2) word forms grammatical series can be suppletive; in modern languages, in particular in English, these are surviving forms, but very persistent: to be- am - was; good- letter- the best.

3) Analytical Forms. Analytic forms arose later than inflection. They include at least one service and one lexically filled, but possibly more service components: is coming, has been asked, is being built.

Analytic forms are outwardly similar to phrases, and therefore it is important to point out some criteria for their recognition:

1) The general grammatical meaning is made up of a combination of all the components that make up this form; the auxiliary verb conveys more particular intra-paradigmatic meanings of person and number (if these meanings are reflected in the form), but the common tense, voice and modal meaning is added only from all components together. At the same time, each component, taken separately, does not carry information about the general meaning of the form. So, has and given do not inform about the meaning of the perfect, just as had, been, sent.

2) Analytical forms have historically developed from syntactic combinations, mainly from certain types of compound predicate. They turned into analytical forms only when their grammatical association became so close that the syntactic relationship between them disappeared. A very important conclusion follows from this: there can be no syntactic relations between the components of an analytic form.

3) Syntactic relations with the environment in the text are possible only for the entire form as a whole; form components separately cannot have syntactic relations separately. Yes, combined was driving the car element the car is an addition to the entire verb form; in had often remembered element often is a circumstance to the predicate, expressed by the analytical form as a whole.

1. PARTS OF SPEECH
1.1. THEORY OF PARTS OF SPEECH

1.1.1. The theory of classification of parts of speech. The entire vocabulary of English, like all Indo-European languages, is divided into certain lexical and grammatical classes, traditionally called parts of speech. The existence of such classes is not in doubt among any of the linguists, although, as we will see below, their interpretation is not the same for different scientists.

The basic principles of this division into categories, which has existed since ancient times, were explicitly formulated by L. V. Shcherba: these are lexical meaning, morphological form and syntactic functioning. The divisions adopted in different schools do not coincide - both in the number of distinguished parts of speech and in their grouping - but the listed principles really underlie the allocation of word classes. Implicitly, however, in a number of cases (and in the most accepted classifications) the allocation of classes was not based on all of these three features simultaneously.

This is especially clear in relation to English, but it is also true in relation to inflectional languages. Below, when describing the individual parts of speech, we will dwell on this issue each time. Here we only mention those examples that are given in the article on this topic by M. I. Steblin-Kamensky. Numerals are united by their lexical meaning - the value of the exact amount. Otherwise, they behave like nouns or adjectives, with the same paradigm and syntactic positions. Pronouns differ in that, having an extremely generalized meaning, they point to any objects, creatures, abstract concepts, without naming them; otherwise they behave like nouns or adjectives. This kind of crossing, incompatible with strict logic, should not be surprising: not everything in the language fits into logical rules.

In linguistics, there are a number of attempts to build such a classification of parts of speech (lexico-grammatical categories) that would meet the basic requirement of logical classification, namely, would be based on one single principle. As we will see below, these attempts did not justify themselves. The classification of parts of speech continues to be a contentious issue; there are differences among linguists regarding the number and nomenclature of parts of speech.

G. Sweet, the author of the first scientific grammar of the English language, divides parts of speech into two main groups - changeable and unchangeable. Thus, he considers morphological properties to be the main principle of classification. Within the group of declinables, he adhered to the traditional division - nouns, adjectives, verbs. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are combined into a group of invariables ("indeclinables").

Along with this classification, however, Sweet proposes a grouping based on the syntactic functioning of certain classes of words. So, the group of nominal words (noun-words) includes, in addition to nouns, similar in functioning "nominal" pronouns (noun-pronouns), "nominal" numerals (noun-numerals), infinitive and gerund; the group of adjective words includes, in addition to adjectives, "adjective" pronouns (adjective-pronouns), "adjective" numerals (adjective-numerals) participles. The verb group includes personal forms and verbalities; here again the morphological principle turns out to be leading; all impersonal forms, as well as personal ones, have verbal categories of tense and voice.

Thus, verbals - infinitive and gerund - turn out to be classified as nominal words on the basis of their syntactic functioning, and in terms of their morphological properties they also appear in the verb group.

As we can see, Sweet saw the inconsistency of the morphological and syntactic properties of parts of speech; but his attempt to create a coherent grouping led to the fact that lexically and morphologically united digits were fragmented according to syntactic features, and, on the other hand, fragments of lexically and morphologically dissimilar digits were combined. As for the “invariable” group, completely heterogeneous elements are combined in it: adverbs that are members of the sentence, and conjunctions, prepositions and interjections that are not; prepositions that function within predicative units, and conjunctions that connect predicative units.

O. Jespersen, a Danish linguist, author of the "Philosophy of Grammar", the multi-volume "Grammar of Modern English" and a number of other works, was fully aware of the difficulty of reconciling two basic principles - form and function, i.e. e. morphology and syntax without even considering the lexical meaning. He rightly notes that if morphology (changeability and immutability) is taken as the basis for classification, then words such as must, the, then, for, enough must be assigned to the same class; as shown above, this is indeed the weakest side of the Sweet classification.

Jespersen proposed a dual system: along with writing down the traditional parts of speech, which he considers in their morphological design and conceptual content, these same classes are analyzed from the point of view of their functioning in syntactic combinations (sentences and phrases). This or that word can be primary (primary), i.e. be the core of a phrase, or the subject of a sentence; secondary (secondary), i.e. directly defining the primary, and tertiary (tertiary), i.e. subordinate to the secondary. Yes, in the phrase a furiously barking dog noun dog- primary, barking, directly defining it is secondary, and the adverb furiously- tertiary. This is the so-called three-rank theory; Jespersen elaborates further on the relations that are conveyed by these ranks, for which see below, in the syntax section (2.2.6). However, Jespersen does not reject either the traditional division into parts of speech or the traditional syntactic positions. Thus, the theory of three ranks finds itself in a somewhat intermediate position, between morphology and syntax, although, as can be seen from the above, it is closer to syntax. It is probably fair to say that the theory of three ranks is one of the first attempts to give a unified classification based on the position (function) of the word in units larger than the word; however, morphological classification, syntactic functions and three ranks overlap each other all the time, intertwining and creating redundant, unnecessary units of analysis. Among the works whose authors are trying to find a unified principle for classifying parts of speech, the book by Ch. K. Fries "The Structure of English" (Ch. Fries. "The Structure of English") deserves special attention. Freese rejects the traditional classification and tries to build a class system based on the position of a word in a sentence. By means of substitution tables, Freese identifies four classes of words, traditionally called nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Thus, class 1 includes all words that can occupy the position of a word concert in a sentence The concert was good and words tax in offer The clerk remembered the tax; class 2 words take word position is/was, remembered in the same sentences; class 3 words are in position good in models The (good) concert was good, and left class 4 - in position there in the model

The is/was there

These models are broken down into subtypes, which we do not present here. Freese is consistent with the positional principle, and thus not only nouns belong to class 1, as can be deduced at first glance from the above diagram. Any word that can take a stand concert in the given example, belongs to class 1; as Freeze points out, class 1 includes any words that can take a position before words of class 2, i.e. e. before the verb in the personal form; yes, words man, he, the others, another belong to class 1, since they are able to take a position before the word of the second class came.

Creme of four classes, Freese distinguishes 15 groups. They also use a consistently positional principle, and words of the most diverse types fall into these groups. "Fries calls these groups "function words", and, indeed, some of the words included in these groups are, in general, very close to those categories that we we call the official parts of speech (1.11-15).

Yes, in a group BUT are all words capable of occupying a position the, i.e. to be a definition, or a determinant. Here is a list of words of one group column BUT, given by Freese: the, no, your, their, both, few, much, John "s, our, four, twenty ...

Freese points out that some of these words may appear in the position of class 1 words in other utterances, but this should not confuse the reader; the important thing is that they can all take a position the. We are not we will list here all the groups; we only point out that there are groups that include one or two words (groups C, H, N include words not, there - there is, please respectively). Morphological properties, as we see, are completely ignored, but syntactic functions, strictly speaking, are not taken into account: thus, modal verbs are separated from class 2 (full-valued verbs); group co-modal verbs AT act in the same predicative function, as well as lexically full-valued verbs.

It can be seen from the foregoing that Freese's attempt at classifying, while interesting in concept, does not reach its goal; he does not actually create a classification, and the proposed subdivision turns out to be very confusing, classes and groups mutually overlap, the same word appears in several digits. At the same time, Friz's material contains interesting data on the distribution of word categories and their syntactic valency. The calculation of the relative frequency of classes and groups is also interesting: groups containing mainly service parts of speech have a high frequency.

Freese is the only structuralist who tried to create a classification of lexico-grammatical categories on the basis of one consistently applied feature. J. Trager and G. Smith proposed a double classification - according to morphological paradigmatics and according to syntactic functions. This dual analysis is not absolutely parallel, but that is why it does not create a clear picture.

Below we will focus on the classifications proposed by the structuralists G. Gleason and J. Sledd.

G. Gleason rightly criticizes the usual school definitions of parts of speech based on their semantic content; in doing so, however, he overlooks the fact that the classification itself is implicitly based not on these definitions, but on the three features discussed at the beginning of this section. Gleason proposes a classification based on two formal features - morphological form and word order. He divides the entire vocabulary into two large groups: a group that has formal signs of inflection, and a group that does not have such signs. The first group naturally includes nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. However, strictly following the sign of the presence of a paradigm, Gleason excludes from this group all those words that, for one reason or another, do not have this paradigm. Yes, adjective beautiful does not belong to this group because it has no form *beautifuller, *beautifullest. The second group includes classes distinguished by positional features, but it also includes the words of paradigmatic groups excluded from them, as described above. So, beautiful, which occupies the same positions as the adjective fine, belongs to the second group; it belongs to a wider class called "adjectivals", which includes adjectives proper ("adjectives"). By the same token, "pronominals" is a broader class than "pronouns". Classes that occur in the same positions form "constituent" classes. However, Gleason does not define or list them exactly; it is also unclear whether he includes auxiliary parts of speech in these groups, although, apparently, he considers prepositions to be a special class.

It is easy to see that the classification proposed by Gleason is even less systematized than that of Freese: one and the same word can simultaneously belong to two classes, others to one; classes are not in a system relationship to one another.

J. Sledd's classification is very close to Gleason's principles. He also distinguishes between "inflectional" and "positional" classes. Basic positional classes: nominals, verbals, adjectivals, adverbials; they are joined by eight smaller classes: auxiliary verbs, determiners, prepositions, conjunctions, various categories of pronouns. Here we find the same vague criteria as those of Gleason; some pronouns occupy the same positions as nouns, but are allocated to a special class; interrogative pronouns are positionally indistinguishable from other pronouns (for example, demonstratives), but are allocated to a special class explicitly on the basis of their lexical meaning, etc. Sledd's classification is as unconvincing as the previous ones.

At the same time, one cannot ignore two very positive points in the theories of Gleason and Sledd. First, both of them note the importance of derivational affixes as indicators of parts of speech; secondly, and most importantly, both of these linguists drew attention to the heterogeneity of the properties of certain units within certain lexico-grammatical categories. It is on this that their proposed division into narrower groups is based, containing those units that, by all their characteristics, have the right to be attributed to a given part of speech, and wider ones, which include units that have only a part of the necessary features.

Thus, all attempts to create a classification of language units based on a single principle have failed. The traditional classification is as good as (though perhaps not better than) anything that has been tried to replace it, and has the advantage of being widely known. We will therefore continue to proceed from the traditional classification, with one significant modification in the treatment of parts of speech within each group.

1.1.2. The theory of field structure of parts of speech. The complexity of the ratio of units within each part of speech, which was mentioned above and which was noticed by Gleason and Sledd, fits well into the theory of the grammatical field developed by V. G. Admoni on the material of the German language and set out in the book by G. S. Shchur “Field Theory in linguistics” (M., 1974) 1 . The morphological field theory is as follows. In each part of speech there are units that fully possess all the features of this part of speech; it is, so to speak, its core. But there are also units that do not have all the features of a given part of speech, although they belong to it. The field, therefore, includes central and peripheral elements, it is non-uniform in composition. The task of the linguist is to determine the composition of the field, to identify the central and peripheral elements and to determine in what ways they are close to other parts of speech.

1.1.3. Parts of speech significant and official. The largest subdivision of parts of speech is two large groups: significant and auxiliary parts of speech. significant parts

1 Semantic field theory was previously developed by I. Trier, L. Weisgerber and other Western linguists. The theory of the functional lexico-grammatical field is associated mainly with the names of Soviet linguists (E. V. Gulyga and E. I. Shendels, A. V. Bondarko, M. M. Gukhman), V, G, Admoni considers proper morphological fields, speeches include such units that have a lexical meaning, i.e. the concepts are called: table, dog, joy, strength; to bring, to cry, to enumerate; big, difficult; soon, well. In other words, they denote permanent denotations. Having a lexical meaning, the words of significant parts of speech are able to occupy one or another syntactic position in a sentence, i.e. function as members of a sentence, and also be the core of a phrase. Thus, when delimiting significant parts of speech from service ones, lexical and syntactic criteria coincide. Morphological properties also to a certain extent join them: only significant parts of speech have inflection. However, among significant parts of speech, not all have an inflectional paradigm; therefore, the morphological feature is not restrictive in all cases.

Service parts of speech do not have the property of being the subject of thought, i.e. e. do not have independent lexical meaning. Thus, such units as of, and, since, the, for they do not name separate concepts (cf. such words as relation, meaning etc., which name these concepts). The purpose of the service parts of speech in the language is to indicate certain relationships between the words of the significant parts of speech, between sentences or phrases, or to clarify the grammatical meaning of the significant parts of speech: the color of the sky, dogs and cats, the dog, a dog.

The allocation of certain parts of speech, both significant and official, is debatable; there are such “basic” parts of speech, the existence of which no linguist doubts (for example, a noun, a verb, an adjective, an adverb); among the service parts of speech, there is no doubt the existence of such categories as prepositions, conjunctions. On the other hand, much remains doubtful regarding the legitimacy of singling out words of the category of state and, in part, modal words in significant parts of speech; the boundaries of particles in the group of auxiliary parts of speech are not entirely clear. Not all linguists agree with the allocation of articles as a service part of speech; it may be doubtful to classify the postpositive as a service part of speech.

It is necessary to clearly distinguish between service parts of speech and service words. Service words belong to significant parts of speech, but under certain conditions they lose their lexical content and retain only their grammatical function. Auxiliary verbs are the most typical case of this kind. These are verbs capable of performing with their own lexical content, for example, the verb have in a sentence I have a new television set. However, in the form of the perfect, the same verb loses its lexical meaning, acting as an auxiliary : I have lost my gloves. At the same time, it does not turn into a service part of speech, but functions as a service word.

NOUN

The grammatical meaning of a noun.

A noun is a significant part of speech that has the meaning of objectivity. Objectivity - a grammatical meaning, due to which verbal units - the names of both objects proper and non-objects (abstract concepts, actions, properties, etc.) - function in the language in a similar way to the names of objects proper. Derivational means of verbal, adjective nouns create an opportunity for the names of states, properties, qualities, etc. to function syntactically along with the names of objects: movement, strangeness, activity. These formations are called syntactic derivatives. Their morphological functioning is in many cases limited: not all syntactic derivatives are able to participate in the morphological categories of the name. This is one of the most important features of the field structure of a noun.

1.2.2. Word formation of a noun. The inflectional apparatus of nouns is very poor. As for its morphemic structure, it should be noted here that a one-syllable structure is very common, in which the root, stem and word coincide in sound design (although they differ functionally). At the same time, the noun has a word-formation apparatus, which is much more diverse than the apparatus of inflection. In grammatical terms, this is important because suffixes, in addition to their semantic function, are indicators that a given word belongs to nouns.

The suffix structure is observed mainly in two large groups: in person nouns and in abstract nouns.

The following face suffixes are most characteristic: -er, -ist, -ess, -her- singer, naturalist, authoress, legatee. Of the suffixes of abstract nouns, the most characteristic are: -ness, -ion, (-ation, -ition), -ity, -ism, -ance, -ment- lateness, rotation, ignition, security, socialism, elegance, movement.

Note: Only the most common suffixes are listed here. The frequency is set according to the book "The structure of the English noun" (M., 1975).

1.2.3. Noun subclasses. Nouns are divided into common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are a generalized name for any object denoted by them: river can refer to any river, dog- to any dog pleasure- to any feeling of pleasure. Proper names, in contrast, do not have a generalizing conceptual content; they are the name, the nickname of individual individual creatures or objects, they are assigned specifically to this individual, but do not apply to other similar phenomena. So, John- most likely the name of a male person, but, in fact, it can also be assigned to a dog, elephant, etc .; spot can be the name of a dog, cat, horse, etc.; the Cutty Sark- the name of the famous English clipper (high-speed ocean vessel), but it does not contain an indication of this reference and could be the name of a cafe, cinema, cottage. Proper names are not devoid of grammatical categories inherent in common nouns; However, grammar is primarily concerned with common nouns that have a generalizing meaning.

Since nouns objectively name any phenomena of linguistic reality, they are represented by a wide variety of lexical groups. Interacting with grammatical categories, these groups create a branched field structure of the noun.

The set of morphological grammatical categories of a noun is very poor. Undoubtedly there is a category of number. The existence of the category of case is extremely controversial. The grammatical category of gender does not exist in English.

1.2.4. The problem of the category of the genus. The category of gender in English disappeared completely by the end of the Middle English period. The designation of biological sex exists in the language, but purely lexical or word-building means are used: boy- girl, cock- hen, bull- cow; waiter- waitress, lion- lioness; he-goat- she-goat. The same is observed in a number of Indo-European languages ​​when denoting gender differences: teacher-nitsa, doctor-sha, tiger-itsa; German Lowe- Lowin, Lehrer- Lehrerin.

B. Strang, author of Modern English Structure, and several other authors argue that English has a category of noun gender on the basis that it is possible to substitute a name with a pronoun indicating biological sex or inanimateness: he, she, it. This point of view seems completely unacceptable, since we are talking about the substitution of the name by another part of speech and the transfer of the feature of this other part of speech to a noun that does not have this feature. And for pronouns, the indicated meaning is purely lexical and has nothing to do with the grammatical meaning.

1.2.5. Number category. The main meaning of the category of number is the opposition of singleness and plurality of objects. Multiplicity means more than one. The singular number is transmitted in the base form, i.e. e. a form that has no endings and coincides with the stem (1.0.1.) The plural is indicated in writing by the formant -s, which is realized as a series of allomorphs - /z/, /s/, /iz/ depending on the nature of the final sound of the base (dogs/z/, potatoes /z/; books, cats/s/; classes, bushes/iz/). Such is the productive inflectional pattern of the plural form; it can be called an "open model", since new words that appear in the language are formed in the plural in this way.

Authors seeking to maximally formalize the description of the language, in particular structuralists, usually consider the absence of an ending in the singular as the presence of a zero suffix. However, the null suffix is ​​not a morpheme, i.e. e. a linearly distinguishable segment having a sound form (1.0.1). It seems, however, possible to speak of the zero exponent (1.0.1) without writing it as a morpheme.

Along with the open model, there are a number of closed groups; the nouns included in them form plural forms with the help of unproductive means assigned only to these nouns. These are suffixes that function only within these groups: a) suffix -ep, attached to two nouns - oxen, children; b) suffixes of Latin plural forms, borrowed together with those nouns that they formed in Latin : -i (nucleus- nuclei); -a (stratum- strata); -ae (antenna- antennae). The list of these nouns is small, and, what is very important, nouns that are in wide use appear in Proper English forms: along with termini- the form terminuses; along with antennae- antennas. Descriptivists Harris, Hockett and others consider the suffix -ep as an allomorph (variant) of a morpheme s/z based on their same function; Obviously, if we accept this point of view, the above endings of Latin borrowings should also be included here. Such a point of view is possible only if the morpheme is defined as a purely functional element, regardless of its sound design. Meanwhile, the allomorph is established on the basis of the sound and semantic community (1.0.1). On the other hand, the functional commonality of the various plural suffixes cannot be denied. We propose the term "functional synonyms", which will denote certain grammatical means that are functionally similar, but are not allomorphs.

The words act as the building blocks of language. To convey thoughts, we use sentences that consist of combinations of words. In order to be linked into combinations and sentences, many words change their form.

The section of linguistics that studies the forms of words, types of phrases and sentences is called grammar.

Grammar has two parts: morphology and syntax.

Morphology- a section of grammar that studies the word and its change.

Syntax- a section of grammar that studies word combinations and sentences.

In this way, word is object of study in lexicology and grammar. Lexicology is more interested in the lexical meaning of the word - its correlation with certain phenomena of reality, that is, when defining a concept, we try to find its distinctive feature.

Grammar, on the other hand, studies the word from the point of view of generalizing its features and properties. If the difference between words is important for vocabulary house and smoke, table and chair, then for grammar, all these four words are absolutely the same: they form the same forms of cases and numbers, have the same grammatical meanings.

Grammatical meaning e is a characteristic of a word from the point of view of belonging to a certain part of speech, the most general meaning inherent in a number of words, independent of their real material content.

For example, words smoke and house have different lexical meanings: house- this is a residential building, as well as (collected) people living in it; smoke- aerosol formed by products of incomplete combustion of substances (materials). And the grammatical meanings of these words are the same: noun, common noun, inanimate, masculine, II declension, each of these words can be determined by an adjective, change by cases and numbers, act as a member of a sentence.

Grammatical meanings are characteristic not only of words, but also of larger grammatical units: phrases, components of a complex sentence.

Material expression of grammatical meaning is grammatical tool. Most often, grammatical meaning is expressed in affixes. It can be expressed with the help of function words, alternation of sounds, changes in the place of stress and word order, intonation.

Each grammatical meaning finds its expression in the corresponding grammatical form.

Grammatical forms words can be simple (synthetic) and complex (analytical).

Simple (synthetic) grammatical form involves the expression of lexical and grammatical meanings in the same word, within a word (consists of one word): was reading- the verb is in the past tense.

When the grammatical meaning is expressed outside the lexeme, complex (analytical) form(combination of a significant word with an official): I will read, let's read! In Russian, the analytical forms include the form of the future tense from imperfective verbs: I will write.

Individual grammatical meanings are combined into systems. For example, singular and plural values ​​are combined into a system of number values. In such cases, we are talking about grammatical category numbers. Thus, we can talk about the grammatical category of tense, the grammatical category of gender, the grammatical category of mood, the grammatical category of aspect, etc.

Each grammatical category has a number of grammatical forms. The set of all possible forms of a given word is called the paradigm of the word. For example, the paradigm of nouns usually consists of 12 forms, for adjectives - of 24.

The paradigm is:

universal– all forms (full);

incomplete- there are no forms;

private according to a certain grammatical category: declension paradigm, mood paradigm.

Lexical and grammatical meanings are in interaction: a change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in both its grammatical meaning and form. For example, the adjective voiced in the phrase ringing voice is qualitative (has forms of degrees of comparison: voiced, louder, most voiced). It's the same adjective in the phrase media is a relative adjective (voiced, i.e. formed with the participation of the voice). In this case, this adjective has no degrees of comparison.

And vice versa grammatical meaning some words may directly depend on their lexical meaning. For example, the verb run away in the meaning of "move quickly" is used only as an imperfective verb: He ran for quite some time until he collapsed completely exhausted. The lexical meaning (“to escape”) also determines another grammatical meaning - the meaning of the perfect form: The prisoner escaped from prison.

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Lecture 19 Noun

In this lecture, the noun is systematically considered as a part of speech.

Noun

In this lecture, the noun is systematically considered as a part of speech.

Lecture plan

19.1. The general meaning of a noun.

19.2. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns.

19.3. Grammatical meanings of gender, number, case of nouns.

19.4. Declension of nouns.

19.5. The transition of words of other parts of speech into a noun.

19.1. General meaning of a noun

A noun is a part of speech that denotes an object and answers the questions who? or what ?, has signs of gender, number and case, in a sentence it is most often the subject or object.

19.2. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns

The principles for highlighting the lexical and grammatical categories of nouns are different, so one noun belongs to several categories at the same time. For example:

19.3. Grammatical meanings of gender, number and case of nouns

Determining gender for nouns

Among the words in -а (-я) there are nouns that can be classified, depending on gender, either to the masculine or to the feminine gender: He's so touchy - She's so touchy. Such words are called words of the general gender (cry-baby, self-taught, slob, razin, fox, fidget, bully, ignorant, touchy, goody, sweet, etc.).

Number is an inflectional grammatical category of a noun that indicates the number of animate and inanimate objects. The category of number is formed by the grammatical meanings of the singular and plural.

Determining the meaning of a number in nouns

Case is an inflectional grammatical category that expresses the syntactic relations of a noun to other words in a phrase and sentence.

19.4. Noun declension

Table 1 reveals the content of the concept declination in the first value, table 2 - in the second.

Table 1

table 2

19.5. Transition of words of other parts of speech into a noun

The transition to the category of nouns of other parts of speech is called substantiation.

Compare: children's clothing - equipped children's

doctor on duty - dining room attendant

child studying at school - school student

Noun. Lexical and grammatical meaning

The main semantic feature of a noun is objectivity. But objectivity does not always come down to concreteness: table, tree, person- these nouns have a denotation that is clear for children's understanding, while run, patience, property, expressing objectivity, yet the child is not perceived as objects. These are abstractions. Therefore, the initial acquaintance with nouns takes place on a specific material. This is the first step in mastering the noun as a part of speech.

In the mechanism of this awareness, the role of questions who? what?. At first these are questions of the nominative case, but in the future they change according to cases - whom? what? etc. Later, the mechanism of asking questions expands and becomes universal.

However, A.M. Peshkovsky drew attention to the fact that when posing a question to a word or word form, a person must already by some kind of inner instinct catch and generalize some properties of the word to which the question refers. Apparently, the question is based on the ability, until now little studied, called linguistic instinct, or linguistic intuition.

The ability to put questions to words is a transition from morphology to syntactic relations, to connections within a sentence. This skill requires, at a minimum, familiarity with its main members. And this is the second stage of awareness of the distinctive features of the part of speech. Such logic assumes familiarity with the subject and predicate at the early stages of the formation of concepts about parts of speech. The second stage is functional; he studies the function of a noun in a speech construction that conveys the speaker's thought.

The third stage is connected with the permanent properties of the noun: this, in particular, is the grammatical gender of nouns - a sign that in Russian is not always justified denotatively. Daughter and son- the gender of these nouns does not cause any doubts in children, but it is difficult for them to understand why ceiling male, wall - feminine, these signs are grammatical in nature, expressed by endings: zero and -a. But the case is even more complicated: the word mouse denotes both female and male. It is no coincidence that there are attempts to enter the word mouse: Once a cat caught a mouse(S. Mikhalkov).

The fourth stage is a change in the form of a word, i.e. the formation of the plural form does not cause difficulties. Case change, i.e. declension is much more difficult for children to understand: the meanings of cases, the spelling of unstressed endings, and partly prepositions with case forms cause great difficulties.

The assimilation of the declension is facilitated by case questions and especially the inclusion of the case form in the sentence, even if it is small: What do we not have? We don't have water.

All these four steps are only preparatory, because the formation of the concept of "noun as a part of speech" continues, the concept is enriched with new features. And yet, by the end of the initial stage of learning, many types of nouns are not yet included in the system of grammatical work: nouns of the general gender, indeclinable, nouns in -me, on the -ya, -ya, substantiated adjectives of the type canteen, student, verbal nouns of type acceleration, dependency etc. Declension of nouns in the plural is introduced only in complicated programs.

Topic "Gender of nouns"

Primary school students turn to this topic twice: when introducing a general concept of gender as a grammatical category, and when distinguishing between types of declension - 1st, 2nd and 3rd. And also later, when studying the names of adjectives, since the generic form of adjectives depends on the gender of the noun to which the adjective refers, with which it agrees.

As already noted, the gender of nouns is weakly associated with the concepts of "male/female". Consequently, here, too, one has to rely on linguistic instinct, on intuition. According to the methodological tradition, the gender of a noun is determined by the pronoun: that, that, that (mine, mine, mine). But we must not forget that this technique is only suitable for working with children whose native language is Russian, or with early bilinguals.

Consequently, the semantic basis for working on the gender of nouns is ineffective; work should be done on grammatical features, syntactic combinations (based on linguistic intuition) or on morphological features: masculine nouns, as a rule, have a zero ending in the nominative singular, neuter - endings -about her, female - graduation -and I or zero, and the stem ends in a soft consonant with a letter b.

Children for whom Russian is not their native language learn the gender of nouns with great difficulty, especially if there is no such category in their native language at all (such are the Turkic languages).

In the work on the generic features of nouns, in addition to language analysis and determining the gender of nouns in its course, the following exercises are recommended (oral and written):

a) the formation of pairs of masculine and feminine nouns by type master- hostess, weaver - weaver, Englishman-Englishwoman. During execution, there may be cases when pairs are not obtained: driver, astronaut;

b) compiling phrases such as the agreement “noun + adjective” when studying the topic “Declination of adjective names” in different case forms;

c) compiling dictionaries with the distribution of nouns by gender, by generic characteristics, etc.;

d) compiling sentences and short texts on an antonymic basis, for example: Brother and sister were not alike: he was blond, she was brunette;

e) research task: prove what kind of nouns: steppe, Vanya, cattle and cattle, mouse, pain, Kazan, penguin, orphan;

f) research task: to trace which parts of speech are characterized by the category of gender and how it is expressed in them. What parts of speech can change by gender? How?

On the example of the gender of nouns, the concept of a linguistic (lexico-grammatical) category is formed, since the sign of the gender takes place in all significant parts of speech, except for the adverb.

Topic "Number of nouns"

Unlike the category of gender, the number of nouns reflects reality, i.e. denotes more than one item. Therefore, abstract (abstract) nouns have only a single number - patience, smell. If from some of them it is possible to form a plural form, then the generalized meaning disappears, specific meanings arise: The wind carried the smell of hay- I can easily distinguish the smells of different trees: spruce, pine, the smell of bird cherry. These semantic subtleties can be the subject of research.

However, in traditional textbooks, a restrained, cautious attitude towards such lexical-semantic groups of nouns as abstract ones is accepted. But children easily understand the impossibility of changing many proper names by numbers: Baikal(lake), Paris, Thumbelina, Koschey the Immortal, Venus(planet), etc. Features of such nouns can be the subject of research work of students.

Practical exercises in the formation of plural forms begin in grade I, in the system of grammatical propaedeutics based on observations of the read and spoken text: first the meaning, then the form of expressing the meaning of the plural. The concept of "ending" is still ahead, but children distinguish the plural form from the singular form.

In the second grade, children already distinguish formal features. There is not much theoretical material on this topic: this is the concept of "plural", the way (form) of expressing the plural, the relationship between the concepts of "one" and "many". Particular cases of this form are considered practically, in particular in written exercises.

The most common exercises, in addition to fixing plural nouns in the course of language analysis:

a) the formation of plural forms of nouns given in the singular. Various options: with stressed and unstressed endings; with a hard or soft base; words from different thematic groups; pairs of antonyms, etc.;

b) the formation of the singular from the plural form: trees, horses, sleigh(conflict word) names, pictures, cases etc.;

c) the formation of phrases in the singular and in the plural: brick house - brick houses; small suggestions: The boys were fishing in the river The boy was fishing...;

d) construction of sentences and fragments of text with a change not only in the number of the noun, but also in the content caused by a change in number: The boy ... brought two perches; The boys ... brought a whole bucket of crucian carp;

e) research tasks: selection of words for nouns that do not have a singular - only a plural (for example, sled, swing) do not have a plural (cold, space) with justification.

Generalization on the topic "Plural" - at the end of grade IV, in the form of a table reflecting the features of the plural forms in all studied parts of speech.

Topic "Declination of nouns"

The topic is difficult, but very rich in possibilities. It reveals the mechanisms for including nouns in speech constructions: in phrases, sentences, in the text.

It is also rich in spelling, because it provides a theoretical basis for checking the spelling of unstressed case endings.

The declension of nouns could be given to students dogmatically, in the form of ready-made declension tables, with cases and case endings highlighted (note that this was done before). But modern methodology chooses a functional approach that helps children understand the functions of all case forms in expressing thoughts, in the best performance of a communicative task.

Already in the elementary grades, declension is considered as a change in form, i.e. endings of nouns expressing various variants of relations to other words, connections with them in a sentence. Moreover, each case can express not one type of these connections, but several: these are the meanings of the cases.

There are six cases in Russian, and indirect cases can have prepositions (children should know the prepositions of each case).

The theoretical material in this topic is the concepts of “declension of names”, “cases themselves with their questions and prepositions”, “case forms, i.e. endings”, “meanings of cases” (at least some, so that children understand the functions of cases), “stressed and unstressed endings”.

To the meanings of cases one should go from the text, from its meaning, FROM the sentence and its internal connections. Case questions play a secondary role, but for schoolchildren they are convenient and - based on linguistic intuition - unmistakable.

Based on the analysis of the text, a table of cases is built:

Nouns are also inclined outside the text: in this way, speed, clarity in the ability to change words in cases is worked out.

Conclusion: case forms allow you to express various meanings, various connections in a sentence, in speech, in a text.

Case forms are formed with the help of endings: children name the endings of different cases. In the record, endings are highlighted or indicated by the symbol - .

At this stage, spelling work begins: unstressed case endings are checked by stressed ones (phonemic method: a weak position of phonemes is checked by a strong position). Accented word endings Spring unstressed noun endings of the same type can be checked book. pear, shirt.

In the topic “Declination of nouns”, the main difficulty is still ahead: these are three types of declension (other types are not given in the initial classes). These types differ on two grounds that are quite accessible: on a generic basis and on the endings of case forms in the nominative singular.

The table of generic endings for nouns is already known to schoolchildren: masculine - zero ending, feminine - endings -and I or zero ending with a soft stem, neuter ending -about her(nouns in -and I,-we, -me are not given in elementary grades at the traditional level).

The order of studying the three declensions is chosen according to the goals of learning and according to the readiness of students: research or dogmatic.

In the first case, schoolchildren select examples of nouns according to the gender table, decline them in writing, and single out endings; so that there are no mistakes, they take such examples in which there are no unstressed endings.

Then they compare, examine the endings and make sure that, judging by the endings, the case forms line up quite clearly in three groups:

The organizing role of the teacher is mainly to ensure that there are no such nouns that constitute a deviation from the general rule. Cases with soft and hard foundations can not be given immediately, left in the second place. The case with animate nouns also does not have to be given immediately, it can be transferred to the stages of deepening the topic.

The advantage of the research option is that the declension of nouns immediately appears to students as a system.

The dogmatic method also has its advantages, since it allows you to gradually introduce the 1st, 2nd, 3rd declensions; As for the process of declension, writing, highlighting endings, then all this takes place in the second version. Here it is not difficult to notice also research moments, observations, conclusions, generalizations.

After clarifications, the three declensions are summarized in a single table:

To save space, a condensed table is given here. But when working with children, it is advisable to reproduce questions, include case forms in phrases and sentences in order to understand and explain the meanings of cases in accessible cases. Along the way, the functions of prepositions, options about and about, attention is drawn to the hard and soft stems of inflected nouns and to the fact that, in essence, endings -about and -e- this is one ending: [akno], . In order to deepen the understanding of the meanings of case forms, it is advisable to introduce them (forms) in various combinations: genitive case: what or who is not there, what do we not see, what do we not know? - There is no wall: we do not see the horse, the corner of the window is visible; we don't have salt; Kolya returned from the city of Irkutsk...

The role of prepositions in the formation of case forms can be studied by schoolchildren by the method of a linguistic experiment: in fact, without a preposition, the genitive case form may not work out: returned- where? From the city. I'm bored. Why?- Without a book. Without you...

Accusative case: what do we see, who was called? We see a forest in the distance. Invite a neighbor over. Another problem arises - word compatibility: it is not studied theoretically, but practically combinations are in every sentence.

More and more observations. It turns out that the prepositional case is called prepositional because the form of this case is used with prepositions (o, in, on).

A table of prepositions used with case forms of nouns is compiled.

Deepening the topic "Declination of nouns" is possible through the introduction of options complicating the system: indeclinable nouns of the type coffee, coat; plural declensions of nouns; noun type declensions student; type miracle - miracles and many others. others

Theoretical work:

generalization of all grammatical changes of nouns;

Correlation of formal and semantic in the system of noun form changes;

connections of declension forms and syntactic connections in a phrase and a sentence.

The most important types of student exercises

§one. General characteristics of the noun

The noun is an independent significant part of speech.

1. grammatical meaning- "subject".
Nouns are words that answer the questions:
Who? , What?

2. Morphological features:

• constants - common noun / proper, animate / inanimate, gender, type of declension;
• changeable - number, case.

3. Syntactic role in a sentence any, especially often: subject and object.

The kids love the holidays.

As an appeal and introductory words, the noun is not a member of the sentence:

- Sergey!- my mother calls me from the yard.

(Sergey- address)

Unfortunately, it's time to go do your homework.

(Unfortunately- introductory word)

§2. Morphological features of nouns

Nouns have a set of morphological features. Some of them are permanent (or immutable). Others, on the contrary, are non-permanent (or changeable). Unchangeable signs refer to the whole word as a whole, and changeable to the forms of the word. So noun Natalia- animated, own, female, 1 cl. In whatever form it may be, these signs will be preserved. Noun Natalia may be in the form of and many others. numbers, in different cases. Number and case are inconstant signs of nouns. In the illustration, dotted lines lead to such non-permanent or variable morphological characters. It is necessary to learn to distinguish which signs are permanent and which are non-permanent.

§3. Common nouns - proper nouns

This is the division of nouns according to the features of the meaning. Common nouns denote homogeneous objects, i.e. any object from their series, and proper nouns call a separate specific object.
Compare nouns:

• child, country, river, lake, fairy tale, turnip - common nouns
• Alexey, Russia, Volga, Baikal, "Repka" - own

Common nouns are varied. Their ranks by value:

• specific: table, computer, document, mouse, notebook, fishing rod
• abstract (abstract): surprise, joy, fear, happiness, miracle
• real: iron, gold, water, oxygen, milk, coffee
• collective: youth, foliage, nobility, spectator

Proper nouns include names of people, nicknames of animals, geographical names, names of works of literature and art, etc.: Alexander, Sasha, Sashenka, Zhuchka, Ob, Ural, "Teenager", "Gingerbread Man" etc.

§four. Animation - inanimateness

Animate nouns call "living" objects, and inanimate - not "living".

• Animated: mother, father, child, dog, ant, Kolobok (hero of a fairy tale, acting as a living person)
• Inanimate: orange, ocean, war, lilac, program, toy, delight, laughter

For morphology, it is important that

• in plural in animate nouns
  Near the school, I saw familiar girls and boys (vin. pad. = born. pad.), and in inanimate nouns wine form. pad. matches the shape. pad.: I love books and films (vin. pad. = im. pad.)
• in the singular for animate masculine nouns wine form. pad. matches the form. fall:
  The fox saw Kolobok (vin. fall. = genus. fall.), and for inanimate nouns of masculine gender wine form. pad. matches the shape. pad.: I baked a gingerbread man (wine. pad. = im. pad.)

The rest of the nouns have the form im., vin. and genus. cases are different.

Means, sign of inanimateness can be determined not only based on the meaning, but also on the set of word endings.

§5. Genus

gender of nouns is a permanent morphological feature. Nouns do not change by gender.

There are three genders in Russian: male, female and average. The sets of endings for nouns of different genders differ.
In animate nouns, the reference to the masculine or feminine gender is motivated by gender, since the words denote male or female persons: father - mother, brother - sister, husband - wife, man - woman, boy - girl etc. The grammatical sign of gender correlates with gender.
For inanimate nouns, the belonging of the word to one of the three genders is not motivated. The words ocean, sea, river, lake, pond- different gender, and the gender is not determined by the meaning of the words.

The morphological indicator of the genus is the endings.
If the ending word has:

a, y or a, oh, e in the singular and s, ov, am, s or ow, ah, ah in plural , then it is a masculine noun

a, s, e, y, oh, e in the singular and s, am or s, ami, ah in the plural, it is a feminine noun

oh, a, u, oh, om, e in the singular and ah, ah, ah, ah, ah in the plural, it is a neuter noun.

Do all nouns belong to one of the three genders?

No. There is a small group of amazing nouns. They are interesting in that they can refer to both males and females. These are the words: smart girl, glutton, sleepyhead, greedy, crybaby, ignorant, ignorant, wicked, bully, slob, wicked, muddler, slobber, daredevil etc. The form of such words coincides with the form of feminine words: they have the same set of endings. But the syntactic compatibility is different.
In Russian you can say:
She is so smart! AND: He is so smart! The meaning of the gender of an animate person can be found out by the form of a pronoun (as in our example) or an adjective, or a verb in the past tense: Sonya woke up. AND: Sonya woke up. Such nouns are called common nouns.

Common nouns do not include words that name professions. You may already know that many of these are masculine nouns: doctor, driver, engineer, economist, geologist, philologist etc. But they can designate both male and female persons. My mother is a good doctor. My father is a good doctor. Even if the word names a female person, then adjectives and verbs in the past tense can be used in both masculine and feminine: The doctor came. AND: The doctor came.

How to determine the gender of immutable words?

There are invariable nouns in the language. All of them are borrowed from other languages. In Russian, they have a gender. How to determine the genus? It's easy if you understand what the word means. Let's look at examples:

Monsieur - madam- in words denoting an animated person, gender matches gender.

Kangaroo, chimpanzee- words for animals male.

Tbilisi, Sukhumi- words - city names - male.

Congo, Zimbabwe- words - names of states - neuter.

Mississippi, Yangtze- words - names of rivers - female.

Coat, muffler- words denoting inanimate objects are more often neuter.

Are there any exceptions? There is. Therefore, it is recommended to pay attention to unchangeable words and remember how they are used. The gender is expressed not by the ending (there are no endings for indeclinable words), but by the form of other words that are connected with the unchangeable noun in meaning and grammatically. These can be adjectives, pronouns or verbs in the past tense. For example:

Mississippi wide and full.

Short adjectives in the form of f.r. indicate that the word Mississippi zh.r.

§6. declination

declination is a type of word change. Nouns change in number and case. Number and case are variable morphological features. Depending on what forms the word has in different numbers and cases, in the totality of all possible forms, nouns belong to one of the declensions.

Nouns have three declensions: 1st, 2nd and 3rd. The vast majority of Russian nouns are nouns of the 1st, 2nd or 3rd declension. The type of declension is a constant, unchanging morphological feature of nouns.

The 1st declension includes feminine and masculine words with endings a, I in its original form.
Examples: mom, dad, grandfather, water, earth, Anna, Anya, lecture - ending [a].

The 2nd declension includes masculine words with zero ending and neuter gender with endings about, e in its original form.
Examples: father, brother, house, Alexander, sea, lake, building - ending [e] , genius, Alexey.

The 3rd declension includes null-ending feminine words in its original form.
Examples: mother, mouse, night, news, rye, lie.

initial form- this is the form of the word in which it is usually fixed in dictionaries. For nouns, it is the nominative singular form.

Pay attention to the words traditionally called nouns on ia, ie, uy : lecture, building, genius.

What is the correct ending for these words?

Do you remember that the letters I and e, which are written at the end of such feminine and neuter nouns after vowels, and the letter and - vowel represent two sounds? Lecture- [i'a], building- [i’e], and the sound [i’] is the last consonant of the base. So, in words like lecture ending [a], in words like building- [e], and in words like genius- null ending.

So the feminine nouns are: lecture, station, demonstration belong to the 1st declension, and masculine: genius and middle: building- to the 2nd.

Another group of words requires commentary. These are the so-called neuter nouns me , the words path and child. These are inflected nouns.

Inflected nouns- these are words that have endings characteristic of forms of different declensions.
There are few such words. All of them are very ancient. Some of them are common in today's speech.

List of nouns on me: stirrup, tribe, seed, burden, udder, crown, time, name, flame, banner.

For their spelling, see All spelling. Spelling of nouns

§7. Number

Number- this is a morphological feature that is changeable for some nouns and unchanged, constant for others.
The vast majority of Russian nouns change in number. For example: home - at home, girl - girls, elephant - elephants, night - nights. Nouns that change in number have both singular and plural forms and endings corresponding to these forms. For a number of nouns, the singular and plural forms differ not only in endings, but also in the stem. For example: man - people, child - children, kitten - kittens.

A smaller part of Russian nouns does not change in numbers, but has the form of only one number: either singular or plural.

Singular nouns:

• collective: nobility, children
• real: gold, milk, curdled milk
• abstract (or abstract): greed, anger, kindness
• some of their own, namely: geographical names: Russia, Suzdal, Petersburg

Plural nouns:

• collective: shoots
• real: cream, cabbage soup
• abstract (or abstract): chores, elections, twilight
• some own, namely geographical names: Carpathians, Himalayas
• some specific (objective), watches, sledges, as well as a group of nouns denoting objects that consist of two parts: skis, skates, glasses, gates

Remember:

Most things denoted by nouns that have only the form of a singular or plural person cannot be counted.
For such nouns, the number is an invariable morphological feature.

§eight. case

case- this is a non-permanent, changeable morphological feature of nouns. There are six cases in Russian:

1. Nominative
2. Genitive
3. Dative
4. Accusative
5. Instrumental
6. Prepositional

You need to firmly know the case questions, with the help of which it is determined in which case the noun is. Since, as you know, nouns are animate and inanimate, there are two questions for each case:

• I.p. - who what?
• R.p. - who?, what?
• D.p. - to whom; to what?
• V.p. - who?, what?
• etc. - who?, what?
• P.p. - (About who about what?

You see that for animate nouns the questions of win.p. and genus. etc., and for the inanimate - to them. p. and wine. P.
In order not to be mistaken and correctly determine the case, always use both questions.

For example: I see an old park, a shady alley and a girl and a young man walking along it.
I see (who?, what?) a park(vin. p.), alley(vin. p.), girl(vin. p.), human(vin. p.).

Do all nouns change by case?

No, not all. Nouns that are called invariable do not change.

Cockatoo (1) sits in a cage in a store. I approach the cockatoo (2) . This is a big beautiful parrot. I look at the cockatoo (3) with interest and think: - What do I know about the cockatoo (4)? I don't have a cockatoo (5) . With cockatoo (6) interesting.

Word cockatoo met in this context 6 times:

• (1) who?, what? - cockatoo- I.p.
• (2) I approach (to) whom ?, what? - (k) cockatoo- D.p.
• (3) look (at) whom?, what? - (to) cockatoo- V.p.
• (4) know (about) whom?, what? -( o) cockatoo- P.p.
• (5) no one?, what? - cockatoo- R.p.
• (6) wondering (with) whom?, what? - (with cockatoo)- etc.

In different cases, the form of immutable nouns is the same. But the case is easily determined. Case questions, as well as other members of the sentence, help with this. If such a noun has a definition expressed by an adjective, pronoun, numeral or participle, i.e. word that changes in cases, then it will be in the form of the same case as the invariable noun itself.

Example: How much can you talk about this cockatoo?- (about) who?. how? - P.p.

§9. The syntactic role of nouns in a sentence

The mother is sitting by the window. She leafs through a magazine, looks at photographs of people and nature. My mother is a geography teacher. "Mom," I call her.

Mother - subject

Near the window - circumstance

Magazine- addition

Photo- addition

Of people- definition

nature- definition

Mother- subject

Teacher- predicate

Geography- definition

Mother- appeals, as well as introductory words, prepositions, conjunctions, particles are not members of the sentence.

test of strength

Check your understanding of the contents of this chapter.

Final test

1. What nouns denote individual specific objects, and not groups of homogeneous objects?

   • proper names
   • Common nouns

2. Which group of nouns has the most variety of meanings?

   • proper names
   • Common nouns

3. Is animateness-inanimateness expressed grammatically: by a set of endings?

4. How can you find out the gender of a noun?

   • By value
   • By compatibility with other words (adjectives, pronouns, past tense verbs) and by endings

5. What are the names of nouns that have endings characteristic of different declensions?

   • Indeclinable
   • Differing

6. What is the sign of the number of nouns good, evil, envy?

   • Permanent (immutable)
   • non-permanent (changing)