Lewisite is poisonous. Poisonous substances of blistering action. Aggregate state of mustard gas
Lewisite
Lewisite is a chemical warfare agent (BOV) made from acetylene and arsenic trichloride. Lewisite got its name after the American chemist W. Lewis, who received and offered this substance at the end of the First World War as a BOV. During the period of hostilities, lewisite was not used, but for many years it was developed as a potential chemical weapon in a number of countries, including the USSR.
Technical lewisite is a complex mixture of three organoarsenic substances and arsenic trichloride. It is a heavy, almost twice as heavy as water, oily, dark brown liquid with a characteristic pungent odor (some resemblance to the smell of geranium). Lewisite is poorly soluble in water, highly soluble in fats, oils, petroleum products, easily penetrates into various natural and synthetic materials (wood, rubber, polyvinyl chloride). Lewisite boils at temperatures above 190C, freezes at -10 - - 18C. Lewisite vapor is 7.2 times heavier than air: the maximum vapor concentration at room temperature is 4.5 g/m3.
Depending on the time of year, weather conditions, topography, and the nature of the terrain, lewisite retains its tactical resistance as a chemical warfare agent from several hours to 2-3 days. Lewisite is reactive. It easily interacts with oxygen, atmospheric and soil moisture, burns and decomposes at high temperatures. The resulting arsenic-containing substances retain their "hereditary" trait - high toxicity.
Lewisite is classified as a persistent toxic substance, it has a general poisonous and blistering effect in any form of its impact on the human body. Lewisite also has an irritating effect on the mucous membranes and respiratory organs. The general toxic effect of lewisite on the body is multifaceted: it affects the cardiovascular, peripheral and central nervous systems, respiratory organs, and the gastrointestinal tract. The general poisoning effect of lewisite is due to its ability to disrupt the processes of intracellular carbohydrate metabolism. Acting as an enzyme poison, lewisite blocks the processes of both intracellular and tissue respiration, thereby preventing the ability to convert glucose into products of its oxidation, which comes with the release of energy necessary for the normal functioning of all body systems. The mechanism of the blistering action of lewisite is associated with the destruction of cellular structures.
Lewisite has almost no dormant period; signs of damage appear within 3-5 minutes after it enters the skin or body. The severity of the injury depends on the dose or time spent in an atmosphere contaminated with lewisite. Inhalation of lewisite vapor or aerosol primarily affects the upper respiratory tract, which manifests itself after a short period of latent action in the form of coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge. With mild poisoning, these phenomena disappear after a few days.
Severe poisoning is accompanied by nausea, headaches, loss of voice, vomiting, general malaise. Shortness of breath, chest cramps are signs of very severe poisoning. The organs of vision are very sensitive to the action of Lewisite. Drops of this OM getting into the eyes leads to loss of vision after 7-10 days. Staying for 15 minutes in an atmosphere containing lewisite at a concentration of 0.01 mg per liter of air leads to reddening of the mucous eyes and swelling of the eyelids. At higher concentrations, there is a burning sensation in the eyes, lacrimation, eyelid spasms.
Vapors of lewisite act on the skin. At a concentration of 1.2 mg / l, after one minute, redness of the skin, swelling is observed; at higher concentrations, blisters appear on the skin. The effect of liquid lewisite on the skin is even faster. With a density of infection of the skin in 0.05-0.1 mg / cm2, their reddening occurs; at a concentration of 0.2 mg/cm2, bubbles form. The lethal dose for humans is 20 mg per 1 kg of body weight.
Chemical names: β-chlorovinyldichloroarsine; 2-chloroethenyldichloroarsine; β-chlorovinylarsine dichloride.
Conditional names and ciphers: lewisite; Lewisit (Germany); Lewisite, a-Lewisite, Lewisite A, М-l (during the Second World War), L (USA).
The compound was first obtained in crude form in 1904 by Y. Newland (USA), who at the same time drew attention to its toxic properties. Pure β-chlorovinyldichloroarsine was isolated and characterized in the United States approximately in 1917, and a year later it was adopted by the American army, but did not pass combat testing. Lewisite owes its conditional name to the American chemist W. Lee Lewis, who is credited in the United States with the priority of discovering this substance. In fact, during the First World War, studies of β-chlorovinyldichloroarsine were carried out independently in the USA (W. Lewis), Great Britain (S. Green, T. Price) and Germany (G. Wieland).
US military experts pinned great hopes on lewisite due to the fact that this agent, having a blistering effect comparable in strength to mustard gas, does not have a period of latent action. In skin-resorptive toxicity, it is three times higher than mustard gas. In addition, the technical product obtained in the USA caused rather severe irritation of the mucous membranes of the eyes and upper respiratory tract. Later it was found that pure β-chlorovinyldichloroarsine (the so-called α-lewisite or lewisite A) has almost no irritant effect. Impurities have an irritating effect, especially bis-(β-chlorovinyl)-chlorarsine (ClCH=CH) 2 AsCl (β-lewisite or lewisite B). However, the latter is inferior to α-lewisite in general poisonous and blistering action.
During the Second World War, Lewisite was produced in the United States by enterprises of all chemical arsenals - Edgewood, Pine Bluff, Huntsville and Denver, but even before the end of the war it was withdrawn from the army due to insufficiently high combat effectiveness compared to mustard gas. However, it can be used as an additive to mustard gas to lower the freezing point of the latter. In addition, it is possible that the cheapness and ease of obtaining lewisite can stimulate its production by countries with a relatively underdeveloped chemical industry.
Lewisite has a general poisonous and blistering effect in any way of exposure to the body and regardless of the type of combat state. Technical agents also have an irritating effect.
The general toxic effect of lewisite is due to its ability to disrupt intracellular carbohydrate metabolism. When considering the toxic properties of HD, it was mentioned that in the cells of all organs and tissues, sequential anoxic cleavage of glucose through glucose-6-phosphate to pyruvic acid is carried out. The latter undergoes oxidative decarboxylation according to the scheme:
This process is carried out in the presence of a pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme system that combines several enzymes and coenzymes. One of the coenzymes (non-protein prosthetic groups) is lipoic acid:
It is associated with an apoenzyme (the protein part of the two-component pyruvate oxidase enzyme and during catalysis (reaction 3.9) it turns either into an oxidized (disulfide) or into a reduced (with two mercapto groups) form:
Lewisite interacts with the mercapto groups of dihydrolipoic acid and thus excludes the enzyme from participating in redox processes:
As a result, the energy supply to all organs and tissues of the body is disrupted. The local action of lewisite is due to the acylation of skin proteins.
The propensity to form cyclic arsine sulfides has made it possible to create agents for the prevention and treatment of lesions with these agents. These include 2,3-dimercaptopropanol (BAL) and 2,3-dimercaptopropanesulfonic acid sodium salt (Unithiol):
They are used in the form of solutions and ointments and are able not only to prevent the reaction of Lewisite with pyruvate oxidase, but also to reactivate the inhibited enzyme.
Lewisite, unlike HD, has almost no latency period; signs of damage to them appear within 2-5 minutes after entering the body. The severity of the lesion depends on the dose or time spent in an atmosphere contaminated with lewisite.
Inhalation of a vapor or aerosol of lewisite primarily affects the upper respiratory tract, which manifests itself after a short period of latent action in the form of coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge. With mild poisoning, these phenomena disappear after a few hours, with severe poisoning, they last several days. Severe poisoning is accompanied by nausea, headaches, loss of voice, vomiting, general malaise. Subsequently, bronchopneumonia, shortness of breath, chest cramps develop - signs of very severe poisoning, which can be fatal. Convulsions and paralysis are signs of an approaching death. Relative toxicity by inhalation LCτ 50 1.3 mg·min/l.
The eyes are very sensitive to lewisite. Contact with OM drops in the eyes leads to loss of vision in 7-10 days. Staying for 15 minutes in an atmosphere with a lewisite concentration of 0.01 mg/l leads to reddening of the eyes and swelling of the eyelids. At higher values of Cτ, there is a burning sensation in the eyes, lacrimation, photophobia, eyelid spasms.
Vaporized lewisite also acts on the skin. At Сτ 1.2 mg·min/l the skin turns red and swells, at Сτ 1.3 mg·min/l small blisters appear.
The effect of liquid lewisite on the skin is felt almost immediately after contact with it. When the infection density is 0.05-0.1 mg/cm 2 redness of the skin occurs; an infection density of 0.2 mg/cm 2 inevitably leads to blistering. Lethal skin-resorptive toxodosis for humans LD 50 20 mg/kg.
When lewisite enters the gastrointestinal tract, profuse salivation and vomiting occur, accompanied by colicky pains. In the future, bloody diarrhea appears, blood pressure drops, phenomena of damage to internal organs (kidneys, liver, spleen) develop. Lethal dosef oral intake LD 50 5-10 mg/kg.
Pure β-xdorvinyldichloroarsine is a colorless liquid with almost no odor. Over time, it acquires a purple or dark red color. However, a technical product is usually obtained, which is not an individual substance, and in addition to β-chlorovinyldichloroarsine (α-Lewisite) contains bis-(β-chlorovinyl)-chlorarsine (β-Lewisite) and arsenic trichloride. In turn, α-lewisite exists in the form of two spatial isomers that differ in physical properties (Table 3.1).
The most toxic in the mixture is trans-α-lewisite, which is mainly formed during the preparation of organic matter. The cis-isomer occurs when the trans-isomer is heated or ultraviolet, so most of the physical constants of technical lewisite are the same or close in value to the corresponding trans-α-lewisite constants.
Table 3.1
Physical properties of α-lewisite isomers
Poisonous substances of blistering action (mustard gas, lewisite and others) have a multilateral damaging effect. These persistent agents in the drop-liquid and vapor state affect the skin and eyes, when inhaled vapors - the respiratory tract and lungs, when ingested with food and water - the digestive organs. A characteristic feature of the action of mustard gas is the presence of a latent period (the lesion is not detected immediately, but after a while - 4 hours or more), while the effects of lewisite appear much faster. Signs of damage are reddening of the skin, the formation of small blisters, which then merge into large ones and burst after two or three days, turning into difficult-to-heal ulcers. In case of any local lesions of the skin-abscess agents, they cause a general poisoning of the body, which manifests itself in fever, malaise, complete loss of legal capacity, accompanied by changes in the blood, dystrophic disorders in the structure of internal organs.
nitrogen mustard
Nitrogen mustard - trichlorotriethylamine (US Army code - HN-1, HN-2, HN-3).
Colorless oily liquid, practically odorless. Like its sulfur counterpart, it is heavier than water. It dissolves in it worse than sulfur mustard and penetrates more slowly into porous materials. Unstable under the action of light and destroyed when heated. Unlike sulfur mustard, it freezes at minus 34.4 °C, which is important for choosing a toxic agent when used in winter.
The physiological picture of the lesion is similar to that of sulfur mustard. Inhalation toxicity LCt50, mg×min/l:
Skin-resorptive toxodose LD50= 10-20 mg/kg
Nitrogen mustard has a damaging effect only in the form of an aerosol; when the area is contaminated, it is not able to form vapor with a damaging concentration. In terms of its toxic effects, it is close to its sulfur analogue, but, inferior to it in the rate of development of local lesions, it is capable of causing a strong resorptive effect.
Mustard degassing carried out by oxidizing and chlorinating agents.
industrial production
From hydroxyethylamines by exchanging the OH group for chlorine.
Indication and protection
The presence of mustard gas vapor is determined using an indicator tube (one yellow ring) with chemical reconnaissance devices VPKhR and PPKhR. To protect against mustard gas, a gas mask and a protective kit are used, as well as weapons and military equipment of the shelter, equipped with filter-ventilation installations, blocked slots, trenches and communication passages.
Signs of defeat
Mustard gas has a damaging effect in any way of penetration into the body. Lesions of the mucous membranes of the eyes, nasopharynx and upper respiratory tract appear even at low concentrations of mustard gas. At higher concentrations, along with local lesions, general poisoning of the body occurs. Mustard gas has a latent period of action (2-8 hours). At the time of contact with mustard gas, skin irritation and pain effects are absent. Areas affected by mustard gas are prone to infection. Skin lesions begin with redness, which appears 2-6 hours after exposure to mustard gas. A day later, at the site of redness, small blisters are formed, filled with a yellow transparent liquid. Subsequently, the bubbles merge. After 2-3 days, the blisters burst and an ulcer that does not heal for 20-30 days is formed. If an infection gets into the ulcer, then healing occurs after 2-3 months.
When inhaled vapors or aerosols of mustard gas, the first signs of damage appear after a few hours in the form of dryness and burning in the nasopharynx, then severe swelling of the nasopharyngeal mucosa occurs, accompanied by purulent discharge. In severe cases, pneumonia develops, death occurs on the 3-4th day from suffocation. Eyes are especially sensitive to mustard gas vapors.
When exposed to mustard gas vapors on the eyes, there is a feeling of sand in the eyes, lacrimation, photophobia, then redness and swelling of the mucous membrane of the eyes and eyelids occur, accompanied by copious discharge of pus.
Eye contact with drip-liquid mustard gas can lead to blindness.
If mustard gas enters the gastrointestinal tract, after 30-60 minutes there are sharp pains in the stomach, salivation, nausea, vomiting, then diarrhea (sometimes with blood) develops.
First aid
Drops of mustard gas on the skin should be immediately degassed with a PPI. Rinse the eyes and nose with plenty of water, and rinse the mouth and throat with a 2% solution of baking soda or clean water. In case of poisoning with water or food contaminated with mustard gas, induce vomiting, and then inject a gruel prepared at the rate of 25 g of activated charcoal per 100 ml of water.
Lewisite
Lewisite - β-chlorovinyldichloroarsine (US Army code - L). Lewisite got its name after the American chemist W. Lewis, who received and offered this substance at the end of the First World War as a BOV. During the period of hostilities, lewisite was not used, but for many years it was developed as a potential chemical weapon in a number of countries, including the USSR.
Chemical formula:
Technical lewisite is a complex mixture of three organoarsenic substances and arsenic trichloride. It is a heavy, almost twice as heavy as water (r=1.88 g/cm3), oily, dark brown liquid with a characteristic pungent odor (some similarity to the smell of geranium). This smell makes it difficult to use lewisite, since with normal sensitivity of the olfactory organs, it becomes noticeable at inactive concentrations of the poison in the air. Lewisite is poorly soluble in water, highly soluble in fats, oils, petroleum products, easily penetrates into various natural and synthetic materials (wood, rubber, polyvinyl chloride). Lewisite boils at a temperature of 196.6 °C, freezes at a temperature of minus 44.7 °C, Tmelt = -10-15 0C
Lewisite is 5 times more volatile than sulfur mustard, its vapors are 7.2 times heavier than air: the maximum concentration of vapors at room temperature is 4.5 g/m3.
Depending on the time of year, weather conditions, topography, and the nature of the terrain, lewisite retains its tactical resistance as a chemical warfare agent from several hours to 2-3 days. Lewisite is reactive. It easily interacts with oxygen, atmospheric and soil moisture, burns and decomposes at high temperatures. The arsenic-containing substances formed in this case (for example, the slightly soluble chlorovinyl arsine oxide formed during hydrolysis) retain high toxicity, often no less than that of lewisite itself.
Toxicological characterization
It has a general toxic and blistering effect with any effect on the body. The general toxic effect is due to the ability to disrupt intracellular carbohydrate metabolism. The first signs of damage: irritation of the mucous membrane of the nasopharynx, causing sneezing and coughing, later - chest pain, nausea, headaches. In case of poisoning with a large amount - convulsions, loss of consciousness, death. Vapor and liquid lewisite affects the skin with the formation of ulcers without a latent period. Inhalation toxicity LCt50=1.3 mg×min/l, skin-resorptive toxodose LD50= 5-10 mg/kg
Lewisite is easily degassed by all oxidizing agents (chloramines, DTS-HA solutions, iodine solutions, hydrogen peroxide, etc.)
Thus, blister agents are strong alkylating agents, the use of which can create lesions with persistent, slow-acting lethal agents.
Industrial production (acquisition)
Interaction of arsenic trichloride with acetylene in the presence of catalysts - metal chlorides. Lewisite is obtained from acetylene and arsenic trichloride in the presence of mercuric chloride, according to the equation:
С2H2 + AsCl3 = (HgCl2) => Lewisite
Historical background on agents of blistering action
Chemical names b, b“ - dichlorodiethyl sulfide. Conditional names and ciphers: mustard gas; Schwefelyperit, Yperit, Lost, Gelbkreuz, Senfgas, VM-stoff (Germany); H, HD. formerly HS, G34 and M.O (during WWI), mustard, mu-stardgas (USA); Yperite, Yc, Yt (France).
b, b“-dichlorodiethyl sulfide was first obtained in pure form by W. Mayer (Germany) in 1886. In fairness, it should be noted that the publication of V. Mayer on the substance was preceded by a number of works by other authors, who, of course, dealt with b, b “- dichlorodiethyl sulfide, but it was not isolated. So, back in 1822, the French chemist G. Despret, investigating the reaction of ethylene with sulfur chlorides, obtained an oily liquid, which he did not identify. In 1859, A. Niemann (Germany) and in 1860 F. Guthrie (England), studying the same reaction, obtained reaction mixtures that had a blistering effect. Both of them believed that they were dealing with technical bis-(2-chloroethyl) disulfide.
German chemists W. Lommel and W. Steinkopf in the spring of 1916 proposed the use of b, b “-dichlorodiethyl sulfide on the battlefield. Their names were immortalized in the name of this poisonous substance in Germany: "Lost".
The first application of the substance "Lost" took place on the night of July 12 of July 13, 1917, near the city of Ypres in Belgium. It pursued the goal of disrupting the offensive of the Anglo-French troops. Within four hours, 50,000 chemical artillery shells marked with a yellow cross were fired at the allies prepared for the offensive. 2,490 people received injuries of varying degrees, of which 87 were fatal. The purpose of the application was achieved: the British and French units were able to resume the offensive on this sector of the front only after three weeks.
A new poisonous substance in France and Russia was named mustard gas after the place of first use. Subsequently, this name became the most common. In England and the USA, the name "mustard gas" reflects the peculiar smell of the compound. In total, 7,659 tons of mustard gas were produced in Germany during the First World War, of which at least 6,700 tons were used. Unexploded German shells of the “Yellow Cross” picked up on the battlefield allowed the Allies to quickly establish the structure of mustard gas and organize its production in a short time. France was the first to establish mustard gas production. In June 1918, the first shots were fired from its side with its own mustard shells at the positions of the German troops. Until the end of the war, about 2 thousand tons of mustard gas were produced in France, although its production capacity at that time was estimated at 150 tons / day. In the USA and England, only small installations functioned during the war: England produced approximately 500 tons of mustard gas until the end of the First World War, and the USA 040 tons of mustard gas.
By the beginning of World War II, mustard gas had taken a leading place in the arsenal of chemical weapons in Germany and the United States (there it received the code H for technical, HS in later HD for distilled 0V) and was called the “king of gases”. During the war years in the former fascist Germany, there were three plants for the production of mustard gas with a total capacity of 65 thousand tons / year: in Ammendorf. Gendorf and Hülse. On May 1, 1944, the stock of mustard gas in Germany amounted to 24,350 tons.
The industrial production of HD in the USA was organized in 1918 on the territory of the Edgewood Arsenal (Maryland). During the Second World War, industrial mustard gas was produced at the factories of three new arsenals created in 1942 - in Huntsville (Alabama), Pine Bluff (Arkansas) and Denver (Colorado). By 1945, H and HD accounted for over 58% of all poisonous substances purchased by the army from industry, i.e., about 85 thousand tons,
Lewisite also easily reacts with thiols, forming the corresponding low-toxic substitution products, the use of 2,3-dimercaptopropanol, unithiol, in the treatment of lesions with lewisite is based on this reaction.
The interaction of lewisite with gaseous ammonia does not lead to the substitution reaction of chlorine at the arsenic atom: due to the fact that lewisite, being substituted by dichloroarsine, is a Lewis acid, a volatile adduct is formed with ammonia, which is a Lewis base:
ClCH=CHAsCl 2 + 4NH 3 ClCH=CHAsCl 2 4NH3
which, when heated to 500-800 ° C in an ammonia atmosphere, decomposes with the formation of acetylene and elemental arsenic:
2 2HC≡CH + 2As + 6NH 4 Cl + N 2,
this sequence of reactions has been proposed as an industrial method for destroying lewisite.
When interacting with aqueous solutions of hypochlorites of alkali and alkaline earth metals, as well as with N-chloramines, α-lewisite undergoes oxidative hydrolysis to β-chlorovinylarsenic acid:
ClCH=CHAsCl 2 + [O] + 2H 2 O ClCH=CHAs(O)(OH) 2 + 2HCl
Oxidation of lewisite with aqueous solutions of hypochlorites is one of the degassing methods.
Toxic action
Lewisite is classified as a persistent toxic substance. It has a general poisonous and blistering effect. It is toxic to humans under any form of exposure, is able to penetrate the materials of protective suits and gas masks. Lewisite also has an irritating effect on the mucous membranes and respiratory organs.
General toxic action
The general toxic effect of lewisite on the body is multifaceted: it affects the cardiovascular, peripheral and central nervous systems, respiratory organs, and the gastrointestinal tract. The general poisoning effect of lewisite is due to its ability to interfere with the processes of intracellular carbohydrate metabolism. Acting as an enzyme poison, lewisite blocks the processes of both intracellular and tissue respiration, thereby preventing the ability to convert glucose into its oxidation products, which comes with the release of energy necessary for the normal functioning of all body systems.
Skin blister action
The mechanism of the blistering action of lewisite is associated with the destruction of cellular structures. Acting in a drip-liquid state, lewisite quickly penetrates into the thickness of the skin (3-5 minutes). There is practically no latent period. Signs of damage immediately develop: pain, burning sensation at the site of exposure is felt. Then inflammatory skin changes appear, the severity of which determines the severity of the lesion. A mild lesion is characterized by the presence of painful erythema. The defeat of the average degree leads to the formation of a superficial bubble. The latter is quickly opened. The erosive surface epithelializes within a few weeks. A severe lesion is a deep, long-term non-healing ulcer. When the skin is affected by lewisite vapor, a latent period lasting 4-6 hours is observed, followed by a period of diffuse erythema, primarily in exposed areas of the skin. Acting in high concentrations, the substance can cause the development of superficial blisters. Healing on average 8-15 days.
Signs of defeat
Lewisite has almost no period of latent action, signs of damage appear within 3-5 minutes after it enters the skin or body. The severity of the injury depends on the dose or time spent in an atmosphere contaminated with lewisite. Inhalation of lewisite vapor or aerosol primarily affects the upper respiratory tract, which manifests itself after a short period of latent action in the form of coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge. With mild poisoning, these phenomena disappear after a few days. Severe poisoning is accompanied by nausea, headaches, loss of voice, vomiting, general malaise. Shortness of breath, chest cramps are signs of very severe poisoning. The organs of vision are very sensitive to the action of Lewisite. Drops of this OM in the eyes lead to loss of vision after 7-10 days.
Dangerous concentrations
Staying for 15 minutes in an atmosphere containing lewisite at a concentration of 0.01 mg per liter of air leads to reddening of the mucous eyes and swelling of the eyelids. At higher concentrations, there is a burning sensation in the eyes, lacrimation, eyelid spasms. Vapors of lewisite act on the skin. At a concentration of 1.2 mg / l, after one minute, redness of the skin, swelling is observed; at higher concentrations, blisters appear on the skin. The effect of liquid lewisite on the skin is even faster. With a density of infection of the skin in 0.05-0.1 mg / cm², their reddening occurs; at a concentration of 0.2 mg/cm² bubbles form. The lethal dose for humans is 20 mg per 1 kg of weight, i.e. lewisite with skin resorption is approximately 2-2.5 times more toxic than mustard gas. However, this advantage is somewhat offset by the absence of a period of latent action, which makes it possible to take the antidote in a timely manner and / or treat the affected areas of the skin using an individual anti-chemical package. When Lewisite enters the gastrointestinal tract, profuse salivation and vomiting occur, accompanied by acute pain, a drop in blood pressure, and damage to internal organs. The lethal dose of lewisite when it enters the body is 5-10 mg per 1 kg of body weight.
Protection from defeat
Protection against the damaging effect of lewisite is achieved by using modern gas masks and special protective suits.
Antidotes
Compounds containing sulfhydryl groups that easily interact with lewisite are used as antidotes - Unithiol (sodium dimercaptopropane sulfate) and BAL - " B British BUT nti L yuzit" (dimercaptopropanol). Unithiol is highly soluble in water and, therefore, more effective than BAL; in case of severe lesions, unithiol can be used intravenously; BAL is used in oil solutions. The therapeutic breadth of unithiol (1:20) is also significantly higher than that of BAL (1:4).
Both unithiol and BAL react both with free lewisite and with the products of its interaction with sulfhydryl groups of enzymes, restoring their activity.
Conversion
It is likely that lewisite is the only chemical warfare agent whose stockpile is economically viable to destroy—the process produces pure arsenic, the raw material for the production of gallium arsenide semiconductor.
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An excerpt characterizing Lewisite
Meanwhile, it is difficult to imagine a historical person whose activity would be so invariably and constantly directed towards the same goal. It is difficult to imagine a goal more worthy and more in line with the will of the whole people. It is even more difficult to find another example in history where the goal set by a historical person would be so completely achieved as the goal towards which Kutuzov’s entire activity was directed in 1812.Kutuzov never talked about the forty centuries that look from the pyramids, about the sacrifices that he brings to the fatherland, about what he intends to do or has done: he did not say anything at all about himself, did not play any role, he always seemed the most simple and ordinary man and said the most simple and ordinary things. He wrote letters to his daughters and m me Stael, read novels, loved the company of beautiful women, joked with generals, officers and soldiers, and never contradicted those people who wanted to prove something to him. When Count Rostopchin on the Yauzsky Bridge galloped up to Kutuzov with personal reproaches about who was to blame for the death of Moscow, and said: “How did you promise not to leave Moscow without giving a battle?” - Kutuzov answered: "I will not leave Moscow without a fight," despite the fact that Moscow had already been abandoned. When Arakcheev, who came to him from the sovereign, said that Yermolov should be appointed head of artillery, Kutuzov replied: “Yes, I just said it myself,” although he said something completely different in a minute. What did it matter to him, who alone then understood the whole enormous meaning of the event, among the stupid crowd that surrounded him, what did he care about whether Count Rostopchin would attribute the disaster of the capital to himself or to him? Even less could he be interested in who would be appointed chief of artillery.
Not only in these cases, but incessantly this old man, who by experience of life had reached the conviction that the thoughts and words that serve as their expression are not the essence of people's engines, spoke words that were completely meaningless - the first that came to his mind.
But this same man, who so neglected his words, never once in all his activity said a single word that would not be in accordance with the sole goal towards which he was going during the whole war. Obviously, involuntarily, with a heavy certainty that they would not understand him, he repeatedly expressed his opinion in the most diverse circumstances. Starting from the battle of Borodino, from which his discord with those around him began, he alone said that the battle of Borodino was a victory, and he repeated this verbally, and in reports, and reports until his death. He alone said that the loss of Moscow is not the loss of Russia. In response to Loriston's proposal for peace, he replied that there could be no peace, because such was the will of the people; he alone, during the retreat of the French, said that all our maneuvers were not needed, that everything would become better by itself than we wished, that the enemy should be given a golden bridge, that neither Tarutino, nor Vyazemsky, nor Krasnensky battles were needed, what with what someday you need to come to the border, that for ten Frenchmen he will not give up one Russian.
And he is alone, this court man, as he is portrayed to us, a man who lies to Arakcheev in order to please the sovereign - he alone, this court man, in Vilna, thereby deserving the sovereign's disfavor, says that further war abroad is harmful and useless.
But words alone would not prove that he then understood the significance of the event. His actions - all without the slightest retreat, all were directed towards the same goal, expressed in three actions: 1) strain all their forces to clash with the French, 2) defeat them and 3) expel them from Russia, facilitating, as far as possible, disasters of the people and troops.
He, that procrastinator Kutuzov, whose motto is patience and time, the enemy of decisive action, he gives the battle of Borodino, dressing the preparations for it in unparalleled solemnity. He, that Kutuzov, who in the battle of Austerlitz, before it began, says that it will be lost, in Borodino, despite the assurances of the generals that the battle is lost, despite the unheard-of example in history that after the battle won, the army must retreat , he alone, in opposition to everyone, claims until his death that the battle of Borodino is a victory. He alone during the entire retreat insists on not giving battles, which are now useless, not starting a new war and not crossing the borders of Russia.
Now it is easy to understand the meaning of an event, unless we apply to the activity of masses of goals that were in the head of a dozen people, since the whole event with its consequences lies before us.
But how then could this old man, alone, contrary to the opinion of all, guess, so correctly guessed then the meaning of the popular meaning of the event, that he never betrayed him in all his activity?
The source of this extraordinary power of insight into the meaning of occurring phenomena lay in that popular feeling, which he carried within himself in all its purity and strength.
Only the recognition of this feeling in him made the people, in such strange ways, from an old man who was in disfavor, choose him against the will of the tsar to be representatives of the people's war. And only this feeling put him on that highest human height, from which he, the commander-in-chief, directed all his forces not to kill and exterminate people, but to save and pity them.
This simple, modest and therefore truly majestic figure could not fit into that deceitful form of a European hero, supposedly controlling people, which history invented.
For a lackey there can be no great person, because the lackey has his own idea of greatness.
November 5 was the first day of the so-called Krasnensky battle. Before evening, when, after many disputes and mistakes of the generals, who went to the wrong place; after sending out adjutants with counter-orders, when it had already become clear that the enemy was fleeing everywhere and that there could not be and would not be a battle, Kutuzov left Krasnoye and went to Dobroe, where the main apartment had been transferred that day.
The day was clear and frosty. Kutuzov, with a huge retinue of generals who were dissatisfied with him, whispering after him, rode on his fat white horse to Good. All along the road crowded, warming themselves by the fires, lots of French prisoners taken this day (there were seven thousand of them taken that day). Not far from Dobry, a huge crowd of ragged, bandaged and wrapped with whatever prisoners buzzed in conversation, standing on the road near a long line of unharnessed French guns. As the commander-in-chief approached, the conversation fell silent, and all eyes stared at Kutuzov, who, in his white hat with a red band and a wadded overcoat, sitting with a hump on his stooped shoulders, slowly moved along the road. One of the generals reported to Kutuzov where the guns and prisoners were taken.
Kutuzov seemed to be preoccupied with something and did not hear the words of the general. He screwed up his eyes in displeasure and peered attentively and intently into those figures of prisoners who presented a particularly pitiful appearance. Most of the faces of the French soldiers were disfigured by frostbitten noses and cheeks, and almost all had red, swollen and festering eyes.
One group of Frenchmen stood close by the road, and two soldiers - the face of one of them was covered with sores - were tearing a piece of raw meat with their hands. There was something terrible and animal in that cursory glance that they threw at the passers-by, and in that vicious expression with which the soldier with sores, glancing at Kutuzov, immediately turned away and continued his work.
Kutuzov looked at these two soldiers for a long time; Wrinkling even more, he narrowed his eyes and shook his head thoughtfully. In another place, he noticed a Russian soldier, who, laughing and patting the Frenchman on the shoulder, said something affectionately to him. Kutuzov again shook his head with the same expression.
- What are you saying? What? he asked the general, who continued to report and drew the attention of the commander-in-chief to the French taken banners that stood in front of the front of the Preobrazhensky regiment.
- Ah, banners! - said Kutuzov, apparently with difficulty breaking away from the subject that occupied his thoughts. He looked around absently. Thousands of eyes from all sides, waiting for his word, looked at him.
In front of the Preobrazhensky Regiment he stopped, sighed heavily and closed his eyes. Someone from the retinue waved for the soldiers holding the banners to come up and place them around the commander-in-chief with flagpoles. Kutuzov was silent for several seconds and, apparently reluctantly, obeying the necessity of his position, raised his head and began to speak. Crowds of officers surrounded him. He scanned the circle of officers with a keen eye, recognizing some of them.
– Thank you all! he said, addressing the soldiers and again to the officers. In the silence that reigned around him, his slowly spoken words were clearly audible. “Thank you all for your hard and faithful service. The victory is perfect, and Russia will not forget you. Glory to you forever! He paused, looking around.
“Bend down, bend down his head,” he said to the soldier who held the French eagle and accidentally lowered it in front of the banner of the Transfiguration. “Lower, lower, that’s it. Hooray! guys, - with a quick movement of your chin, turn to the soldiers, he said.
- Hooray ra ra! roared thousands of voices. While the soldiers were shouting, Kutuzov, bent over in his saddle, bowed his head, and his eye lit up with a meek, as if mocking, gleam.
“That’s what, brothers,” he said when the voices fell silent ...
And suddenly his voice and facial expression changed: the commander-in-chief stopped talking, and a simple, old man spoke up, obviously wanting to tell his comrades something very necessary now.
There was a movement in the crowd of officers and in the ranks of the soldiers in order to hear more clearly what he would say now.
“Here’s the thing, brethren. I know it's hard for you, but what can you do! Be patient; not long left. We'll send the guests out, then we'll have a rest. For your service, the king will not forget you. It is difficult for you, but you are still at home; and they - see what they have come to, ”he said, pointing to the prisoners. - Worse than the last beggars. While they were strong, we did not feel sorry for ourselves, but now you can feel sorry for them. They are also people. So guys?
He looked around him, and in the stubborn, respectfully perplexed glances fixed on him, he read sympathy for his words: his face became brighter and brighter from an senile meek smile, wrinkling in stars at the corners of his lips and eyes. He paused and lowered his head as if in bewilderment.
- And then say, who called them to us? Serves them right, m ... and ... in g .... he suddenly said, raising his head. And, waving his whip, he galloped, for the first time in the whole campaign, away from the joyfully laughing and roaring cheers, upsetting the ranks of the soldiers.
The words spoken by Kutuzov were hardly understood by the troops. No one would have been able to convey the contents of the first solemn and at the end of the ingenuously old man's speech of the field marshal; but the heartfelt meaning of this speech was not only understood, but that same, that same feeling of majestic triumph, combined with pity for the enemies and the consciousness of one’s rightness, expressed by this, precisely this old man’s, good-natured curse, is the very (feeling lay in the soul of every soldier and was expressed in a joyful, long-lasting cry.When after that one of the generals turned to him with the question of whether the commander-in-chief would order the carriage to arrive, Kutuzov, answering, suddenly sobbed, apparently being in great agitation.
Lewisite
Lewisite is a chemical warfare agent (BOV) made from acetylene and arsenic trichloride. Lewisite got its name after the American chemist W. Lewis, who received and offered this substance at the end of the First World War as a BOV. During the period of hostilities, lewisite was not used, but for many years it was developed as a potential chemical weapon in a number of countries, including the USSR.
Technical lewisite is a complex mixture of three organoarsenic substances and arsenic trichloride. It is a heavy, almost twice as heavy as water, oily, dark brown liquid with a characteristic pungent odor (some resemblance to the smell of geranium). Lewisite is poorly soluble in water, highly soluble in fats, oils, petroleum products, easily penetrates into various natural and synthetic materials (wood, rubber, polyvinyl chloride). Lewisite boils at temperatures above 190C, freezes at -10 - - 18C. Lewisite vapor is 7.2 times heavier than air: the maximum vapor concentration at room temperature is 4.5 g/m3.
Depending on the time of year, weather conditions, topography, and the nature of the terrain, lewisite retains its tactical resistance as a chemical warfare agent from several hours to 2-3 days. Lewisite is reactive. It easily interacts with oxygen, atmospheric and soil moisture, burns and decomposes at high temperatures. The resulting arsenic-containing substances retain their "hereditary" trait - high toxicity.
Lewisite is classified as a persistent toxic substance, it has a general poisonous and blistering effect in any form of its impact on the human body. Lewisite also has an irritating effect on the mucous membranes and respiratory organs. The general toxic effect of lewisite on the body is multifaceted: it affects the cardiovascular, peripheral and central nervous systems, respiratory organs, and the gastrointestinal tract. The general poisoning effect of lewisite is due to its ability to disrupt the processes of intracellular carbohydrate metabolism. Acting as an enzyme poison, lewisite blocks the processes of both intracellular and tissue respiration, thereby preventing the ability to convert glucose into products of its oxidation, which comes with the release of energy necessary for the normal functioning of all body systems. The mechanism of the blistering action of lewisite is associated with the destruction of cellular structures.
Lewisite has almost no dormant period; signs of damage appear within 3-5 minutes after it enters the skin or body. The severity of the injury depends on the dose or time spent in an atmosphere contaminated with lewisite. Inhalation of lewisite vapor or aerosol primarily affects the upper respiratory tract, which manifests itself after a short period of latent action in the form of coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge. With mild poisoning, these phenomena disappear after a few days.
Severe poisoning is accompanied by nausea, headaches, loss of voice, vomiting, general malaise. Shortness of breath, chest cramps are signs of very severe poisoning. The organs of vision are very sensitive to the action of Lewisite. Drops of this OM getting into the eyes leads to loss of vision after 7-10 days. Staying for 15 minutes in an atmosphere containing lewisite at a concentration of 0.01 mg per liter of air leads to reddening of the mucous eyes and swelling of the eyelids. At higher concentrations, there is a burning sensation in the eyes, lacrimation, eyelid spasms.
Vapors of lewisite act on the skin. At a concentration of 1.2 mg / l, after one minute, redness of the skin, swelling is observed; at higher concentrations, blisters appear on the skin. The effect of liquid lewisite on the skin is even faster. With a density of infection of the skin in 0.05-0.1 mg / cm2, their reddening occurs; at a concentration of 0.2 mg/cm2, bubbles form. The lethal dose for humans is 20 mg per 1 kg of body weight.
