How were schools and the church connected in the Middle Ages? Types of schooling. medieval school

A small room with a low vaulted ceiling. Rare rays of sunlight make their way through the narrow windows. Boys of different ages sit at a long table. Good clothes betray the children of wealthy parents - there are clearly no poor people here. At the head of the table is a priest. In front of him is a large handwritten book, nearby lies a bunch of rods. The priest mutters prayers in Latin. Children mechanically repeat incomprehensible words after him. There is a lesson in a medieval church school ...

The early Middle Ages are sometimes referred to as the "Dark Ages". The transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages was accompanied in Western Europe by a deep decline in culture.

Not only the barbarian invasions that finished off the Western Roman Empire led to the destruction of the cultural values of antiquity. No less destructive than the blows of the Visigoths, Vandals and Lombards, was the hostile attitude of the church for the ancient cultural heritage. Pope Gregory I waged an open war against ancient culture. He forbade the reading of books by ancient authors and the study of mathematics, accusing the latter of having links with magic. The most important area of culture, education, was going through particularly difficult times. Gregory I once proclaimed: "Ignorance is the mother of true piety." Truly ignorance reigned in Western Europe in the 5th-10th centuries. It was almost impossible to find literate people not only among the peasants, but also among the nobility. Many knights put a cross instead of a signature. Until the end of his life, he could not learn to write the founder of the Frankish state, the famous Charlemagne. But the emperor was clearly not indifferent to knowledge. Already in adulthood, he resorted to the services of teachers. Having begun to study the art of writing shortly before his death, Karl carefully kept waxed boards and sheets of parchment under his pillow and learned to draw letters in his spare time. In addition, the sovereign patronized scientists. His court in Aachen became the center of education. In a specially created school, the famous scientist and writer, a native of Britain, Alcuin taught the basics of science to the sons of Charles himself and the children of his entourage. A few educated people came to Aachen from all over illiterate Europe. Following the example of antiquity, the society of scientists who gathered at the court of Charlemagne began to be called the Academy. In the last years of his life, Alcuin became the abbot of the richest monastery of St. Martin in the city of Tours, where he also founded a school, whose students later became famous teachers of the monastery and church schools in France.

The cultural upsurge that occurred during the reign of Charlemagne and his successors (the Carolingians) was called the "Carolingian Renaissance". But he was short-lived. Soon cultural life again concentrated in the monasteries.

The lower church schools prepared mainly parish priests. Paid education was conducted in Latin. The school was attended by children of feudal lords, wealthy citizens, wealthy peasants. The study began with the cramming of prayers and psalms (religious chants). Then the students were introduced to the Latin alphabet and taught to read the same prayers from the book. Often this book was the only one in the school (manuscript books were very expensive, and it was still far from the invention of printing). When reading, boys (girls were not taken to school) memorized the most common words and expressions, without delving into their meaning. No wonder that not everyone who learned to read Latin texts, far from colloquial speech, could understand what they read. But all this wisdom was hammered into the minds of the disciples with the help of a rod.

It took about three years to learn to write. The students first practiced on a waxed board, and then learned to write with a goose quill on parchment (specially treated leather). In addition to reading and writing, they learned to represent numbers with their fingers, memorized the multiplication table, trained in church singing and, of course, got acquainted with the basics of Catholic doctrine. Despite this, many pupils of the school were forever imbued with aversion to cramming, to Latin alien to them, and left the school walls semi-literate, able to somehow read the texts of liturgical books.

Larger schools, which provided a more serious education, usually arose at episcopal sees. In them, according to the preserved Roman tradition, they studied the so-called "seven liberal arts" (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music). The liberal arts system included two levels. The initial one consisted of grammar, rhetoric, dialectics. Higher formed all the remaining free arts. The hardest part was grammar. In those days, she was often depicted as a queen with a knife for erasing errors in her right hand and with a whip in her left. Children memorized definitions, practiced conjugation and declension. A curious interpretation was given to letters: vowels are souls, and consonants are like bodies; the body is motionless without the soul, and consonants without vowels have no meaning. In rhetoric (the art of eloquence), the rules of syntax, stylistics were passed, they practiced in compiling written and oral sermons, letters, letters, business papers. Dialectics (as the art of thinking was then called, later called logic) taught not only to reason and draw conclusions, but also to find in the opponent’s speech provisions that contradict the teachings of the church, and refute them. Arithmetic lessons introduced addition and subtraction, to a lesser extent - multiplication and division (writing numbers in Roman numerals made them very difficult). Schoolchildren solved arithmetic problems, calculating the time of religious holidays and the age of the saints. They saw a religious meaning in the numbers. It was believed that the number "3" symbolizes the Holy Trinity, and "7" - the creation of the world by God in seven days. Geometry followed arithmetic. She gave only answers to general questions (what is a square? Etc.) without any evidence. Geographic information was also communicated in the course of geometry, often fantastic and absurd (Earth is a pancake floating in water, Jerusalem is the navel of the earth ... etc.). Then they studied astronomy. They got acquainted with the constellations, observed the movement of the planets, the Sun, the Moon, the stars, but they explained it incorrectly. It was thought that the luminaries revolve around the Earth along various complex paths. Astronomy was supposed to help calculate the timing of the onset of church holidays. Studying music, the students sang in the church choir. Education often stretched for 12-13 years.

From the 11th century the number of church schools grew. A little later, the rapid development of cities leads to the emergence of secular urban private and municipal (i.e., run by the city council) schools. The influence of the church was not so strong in them. Practical needs came to the fore. In Germany, for example, the first burgher schools, preparing for crafts and trade, arose: in Lübeck in 1262, in Wismar in 1279, in Hamburg in 1281. From the XIV century. some schools teach in national languages.

Growing cities and growing states needed more and more educated people. Judges and officials, doctors and teachers were needed. The nobility was increasingly involved in education. According to the description of the English medieval poet Chaucer, a nobleman of the XIV century - "Fairly knew how to compose songs, He knew how to read, draw, write, Fight on spears, deftly dance."

The time has come for the formation of higher schools - universities. They arose either on the basis of former cathedral (episcopal) schools (this is how the University of Paris appeared in the 12th century, which grew out of the school that existed at the Notre Dame Cathedral), or in cities where illustrious teachers lived, always surrounded by capable students. Thus, from the circle of followers of the famous expert on Roman law, Irnerius, the University of Bologna, the center of legal science, developed.

Classes were conducted in Latin, so the Germans, French, Spaniards could listen to the Italian professor with no less success than his compatriots. Students also communicated in Latin with each other. However, in everyday life, "strangers" entered into communication with local bakers, brewers, tavern owners and landlords. The latter did not know Latin and were not averse to cheating and deceiving a foreign scholar. Since the students could not count on the help of the city court in numerous conflicts with local residents, they, together with the teachers, united in a union, which was called the "university" (in Latin - community, corporation). The University of Paris included about 7 thousand teachers and students, and in addition to them, booksellers, copyists of manuscripts, manufacturers of parchment, pens, ink powder, pharmacists, etc. were members of the union. teachers and schoolchildren left the hated city and moved to another place), universities achieved self-government: they had elected leaders and their own court. The University of Paris was granted independence from secular authorities in 1200 by a charter from King Philip II Augustus.

The life of schoolchildren from poor families was not easy. Here is how Chaucer describes it:

Having interrupted hard work on logic,
An Oxford student trudged along with us.
Hardly a poorer beggar could be found ...
I learned to endure Need and hunger steadfastly,
He put the log at the head of the bed.
He is sweeter to have twenty books,
Than an expensive dress, a lute, food ...

But the students were not discouraged. They knew how to enjoy life, their youth, to have fun from the heart. This is especially true for vagants - wandering schoolchildren moving from city to city in search of knowledgeable teachers or an opportunity to earn extra money. Often they did not want to bother with their studies, they sang with pleasure the vagants at their feasts:

Let's drop all wisdom, side teaching!
To enjoy in youth is Our purpose.

University teachers created associations in subjects - faculties. They were headed by deans. Teachers and students elected the rector - the head of the university. Medieval high school usually had three faculties: law, philosophy (theology) and medicine. But if the preparation of a future lawyer or physician took 5-6 years, then the future philosopher-theologian - as many as 15. But before entering one of the three main faculties, the student had to complete the preparatory - artistic faculty (the already mentioned " seven free arts"; "artis" in Latin - "art"). In the classroom, students listened to and recorded lectures (in Latin - "reading") of professors and masters. The teacher's erudition was manifested in his ability to explain what he read, to connect it with the content of other books, to reveal the meaning of terms and the essence of scientific concepts. In addition to lectures, debates were held - disputes on issues raised in advance. Hot in heat, sometimes they turned into hand-to-hand fights between the participants.

In the XIV-XV centuries. so-called colleges appear (hence - colleges). At first, this was the name of the student hostels. Over time, they also began to hold lectures and debates. The collegium founded by Robert de Sorbon, the confessor of the French king, the Sorbonne, gradually grew and gave its name to the entire University of Paris. The latter was the largest higher school of the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the XV century. in Europe, students attended 65 universities, and at the end of the century - already 79. The most famous were Paris, Bologna, Cambridge, Oxford, Prague, Krakow. Many of them exist to this day, deservedly proud of their rich history and carefully preserving ancient traditions.

Monastic and church schools were the very first educational institutions of the Middle Ages. And although the Christian Church retained only selective remnants of ancient education it needed (first of all, Latin), it was in them that the cultural tradition continued, linking different eras. The lower church schools prepared mainly parish priests. Paid education was conducted in Latin. The school was attended by children of feudal lords, wealthy citizens, wealthy peasants. The study began with the cramming of prayers and psalms (religious chants). Then the students were introduced to the Latin alphabet and taught to read the same prayers from the book. Often this book was the only one in the school (manuscript books were very expensive, and it was still far from the invention of printing). When reading, boys (girls were not taken to school) memorized the most common words and expressions, without delving into their meaning. No wonder that not everyone who learned to read Latin texts, far from colloquial speech, could understand what they read. But all this wisdom was hammered into the minds of the disciples with the help of a rod. It took about three years to learn to write. The students first practiced on a waxed board, and then learned to write with a goose quill on parchment (specially treated leather). In addition to reading and writing, they learned to represent numbers with their fingers, memorized the multiplication table, trained in church singing and, of course, got acquainted with the basics of Catholic doctrine. Despite this, many pupils of the school were forever imbued with aversion to cramming, to Latin alien to them, and left the school walls semi-literate, able to somehow read the texts of liturgical books. Larger schools, which provided a more serious education, usually arose at episcopal sees. In them, according to the preserved Roman tradition, they studied the so-called "seven liberal arts" (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music). The liberal arts system included two levels. The initial one consisted of grammar, rhetoric, dialectics. Higher formed all the remaining free arts. From the 11th century the number of church schools grew. A little later, the rapid development of cities leads to the emergence of secular urban private and municipal (i.e., run by the city council) schools. The influence of the church was not so strong in them. Practical needs came to the fore. In Germany, for example, the first burgher schools, preparing for crafts and trade, arose: in Lübeck in 1262. , in Wismar in 1279, in Hamburg in 1281. From the XIV century. some schools teach in national languages. Growing cities and growing states needed more and more educated people. Judges and officials, doctors and teachers were needed. The nobility was increasingly involved in education.

The time has come for the formation of higher schools - universities (associations of teachers or teachers together with students). They arose either on the basis of former cathedral (episcopal) schools (this is how the University of Paris appeared in the 12th century, which grew out of the school that existed at the Notre Dame Cathedral), or in cities where illustrious teachers lived, always surrounded by capable students. Thus, from the circle of followers of the famous expert on Roman law, Irnerius, the University of Bologna, the center of legal science, developed. Classes were conducted in Latin, so the Germans, French, Spaniards could listen to the Italian professor with no less success than his compatriots. Since the students could not count on the help of the city court in numerous conflicts with local residents, they, together with the teachers, united in a union, which was called the "university" (in Latin - community, corporation). The University of Paris included about 7 thousand teachers and students, and in addition to them, booksellers, copyists of manuscripts, manufacturers of parchment, pens, ink powder, pharmacists, etc. were members of the union. achieved self-government: they had elected leaders and their own court. University teachers created associations in subjects - faculties. They were headed by deans. Teachers and students elected the rector - the head of the university. Medieval high school usually had three faculties: law, philosophy (theology) and medicine. But if the preparation of a future lawyer or physician took 5-6 years, then the future philosopher-theologian - as much as 15. But before entering one of the three main faculties, the student had to complete the preparatory - artistic faculty (the already mentioned "seven free arts). In the classroom, students listened to and recorded lectures (in Latin - "reading") of professors and masters. The teacher's erudition was manifested in his ability to explain what he read, to connect it with the content of other books, to reveal the meaning of terms and the essence of scientific concepts. In addition to lectures, debates were held - disputes on issues raised in advance. In the XIV-XV centuries. so-called colleges appear (hence - colleges). At first, this was the name of the student hostels. Over time, they also began to hold lectures and debates. The collegium founded by Robert de Sorbon, the confessor of the French king, the Sorbonne, gradually grew and gave its name to the entire University of Paris. The latter was the largest higher school of the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the XV century. in Europe, students attended 65 universities, and at the end of the century - already 79. The most famous were Paris, Bologna, Cambridge, Oxford, Prague, Krakow. Many of them exist to this day, deservedly proud of their rich history and carefully preserving ancient traditions.

During the Middle Ages, there were three types of schools. The lower schools, formed at churches and monasteries, aimed to prepare elementary literate clerics - clergy. The main attention was paid to the study of the Latin language (in which Catholic worship was conducted), prayers and the very order of worship. In the secondary school, which arose most often at the episcopal departments, the study of the seven "liberal arts" was practiced (grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, or logic, arithmetic, geometry, which included geography, astronomy and music). The first three sciences constituted the so-called trivium, the last four - the quadrivium. Later, the study of "liberal arts" began to be carried out in higher education, where these disciplines formed the content of teaching at the junior ("artistic") faculty. The higher school was first called Studia Generalia (literally - general sciences), then this name was replaced by another - universities.

The first universities arose in the 12th century - partly from episcopal schools that had the most prominent professors in the field of theology and philosophy, partly from associations of private teachers - specialists in philosophy, law (Roman law) and medicine. The most ancient university in Europe is the University of Paris, which existed as a “free school” in the first half of the 12th and at the beginning of the 13th century (the founding charter of Philip II August 1200 on the rights of the Sorbonne). However, as early as the 11th century, the Italian higher schools began to play the role of university centers - the Bologna Law School, which specialized in Roman law, and the Salerno Medical School. The most typical University of Paris, whose charter formed the basis of other universities in Europe, consisted of four faculties: artistic, medical, legal and theological (which included the teaching of philosophy in church illumination).

Other oldest universities in Europe were Oxford and Cambridge in England, Salamanca in Spain and Neapolitan in Italy, founded in the 13th century. In the XIV century, universities were founded in the cities of Prague, Krakow, Heidelberg. In the 15th century, their numbers increased rapidly. In 1500 there were already 65 universities throughout Europe.

Teaching in medieval universities was conducted in Latin. The main method of university teaching was the lectures of professors. A common form of scientific communication was also disputes, or public disputes, arranged periodically on topics of a theological and philosophical nature. The discussions were attended mainly by university professors. But disputes were also arranged for scholars (scholars - students, from the word Schola - school).

In the Middle Ages (V - XVII), the appearance of Western European society, its culture, pedagogy and education has changed significantly compared to the ancient era. This was due to the establishment of a new type of socio-economic relations, and new forms of statehood, and the transformation of culture based on the penetration of the religious ideology of Christianity.

The philosophical and pedagogical thought of the early Middle Ages set the salvation of the soul as its main goal. The main source of education was considered, first of all, the Divine principle. The bearers of Christian pedagogy and morality were the ministers of the Catholic Church.

In the pedagogy of the early Middle Ages, an element of authoritarianism and averageness of the believing personality dominated. Many Christian ideologists openly demonstrated hostility to the ideals of ancient education, demanding the removal of Greco-Roman literature from the education program. They believed that only monasticism, which became noticeably widespread in the early medieval era, could be a model of education.

Asceticism, diligent reading of religious literature, the elimination of addiction to earthly goods, self-control of desires, thoughts and actions - these are the main human virtues inherent in the medieval ideal of education.

By the 7th century, schools of the ancient type had completely disappeared in medieval Europe. School business in the young barbarian states of the 5th - 7th centuries. turned out to be in a deplorable state. Illiteracy and ignorance reigned everywhere. Illiterate were many kings and the top of society - to know and officials. Meanwhile, the need for literate subjects and clergy was constantly increasing. The Catholic Church tried to correct the existing situation.

Church schools turned out to be the successor of the ancient tradition. During the V - XV centuries. church schools were at first the only, and then the predominant educational institutions in Europe. They were an important tool of religious education. The main subjects of study were: the Bible, theological literature and the writings of the "fathers of the church". All educational material was sieved through the sieve of Christianity.

Three main types of church schools developed in medieval Europe: monastic schools, episcopal (cathedral) and parochial schools. The main purpose of all types of schools was to train the clergy. They were available, first of all, to the upper classes of medieval society.

Monastic schools were organized at monasteries, boys of 7-10 years old studied in them, whom their parents doomed to future monasticism. Then the monastic schools were divided into internal (for future monks) and external (for coming laity). Educated monks acted as teachers. The monastic schools were well stocked with handwritten books. They taught grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, later arithmetic, geometry, geometry, astronomy and music theory.

Episcopal (cathedral) schools were opened in church centers, the seat of the head of the diocese. The content of education in them was quite high at that time. In addition to reading, writing, counting and the law of God, grammar, rhetoric and dialectics (three ways) were studied, and in some cases, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music theory (four ways) were studied. The most famous were schools in Saint-Germain, Tours (France), Luttich (Belgium), Halle, Reichen, Fulda (Germany) and a number of other cities.

Parish schools were the most common. Schools were located in the priest's house or in the church gatehouse. They were visited by small groups of boys, where, for a small fee, a priest or clerk taught the children the law of God in Latin, writing and church singing. This type of school was unsystematic and the least organized.

Education in advanced church schools was taught in the seven liberal arts curriculum. One of the first to formulate such a program for medieval Europe was Severinus Boethius (480-524). He combined arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music (sciences based on mathematical laws) into a quadrium (fourth way) curriculum. This cycle, together with the "trivium" (third way) - grammar, rhetoric, dialectics - made up the seven liberal arts, which subsequently formed the basis of all medieval education.

The seven liberal arts, taken together with theology as the "crown" of all learning, constituted the content of medieval education.

Teaching methods were based on memorization and the development of mechanical memory. The most common teaching method was catechetical (question and answer), with the help of which the teacher introduced abstract knowledge that was subject to mandatory memorization without explaining the object or phenomenon. For example: “What is the moon? - The eye of the night, the distributor of dew, the prophet of storms, ... What is autumn? - Yearly granary, etc.

Grammar was the main subject of study. It was reduced to learning the grammatical forms of the Latin language and to memorizing individual grammatical forms and phrases of religious and mystical significance.

The study of Latin began with elementary rules and mastering the simplest phrases. It took two or three years to master the technique of reading. The writing technique was also very difficult.

After mastering the grammar, they moved on to the study of literature. The choice of literature was extremely conservative. First they read short literary poems, and then proceeded to the rules of versification. Classical Greek literature was studied in Latin translations as the Greek language disappeared from the school curriculum.

Dialectics and rhetoric were studied simultaneously. The first taught to think correctly, build arguments and evidence. The second is to correctly build phrases, the art of eloquence, which was valued by the clergy and the aristocracy. When studying philosophy and dialectics, they relied on the works of Aristotle and St. Augustine.

Astronomy was an applied science associated with the calculations of numerous church holidays. Music was taught with the help of notes, indicated by the letters of the alphabet. Linear musical notation appeared in 1030.

The arithmetic program meant mastering the four arithmetic operations. Teaching arithmetic was too complicated, the calculations took up entire pages. Therefore, there was an honorary title of "doctor of the abacus" (i.e., "doctor of multiplication and division"). All academic subjects were given a religious and mystical character.

Severe blind discipline reigned in the school. The teacher did not spare his students for mistakes; cruel corporal punishment was very common and was approved by the church, which taught that "the nature of man is sinful, and corporal punishment contributes to the purification and salvation of the soul."

The bulk of the population did not receive even a minimum education in schools. Children were brought up by their parents in the family and in everyday work.

By the beginning of the 11th century, a three-member system of division of labor (clergy, secular feudal lords, peasants and townspeople) began to play a special role. In the 13th century, the Soviet structure turned out to be even more differentiated. Each class was endowed with certain virtues. The virtues of the peasantry were considered diligence, the aristocracy - valor, the clergy - piety, etc. Thus, society compiled a list of socio-cultural types that a certain education system was supposed to reproduce.

However, the scientific world of the early Middle Ages did not completely cross out ancient traditions. They were used by religious and pedagogical figures of the XII-XIII centuries. when substantiating a different system of education and upbringing.

In the XII - XIII centuries. noticeable shifts are taking place in Western European pedagogical thought, reflecting the general dynamics of Western civilization. Against the background of religious and pedagogical fanaticism of the early Middle Ages, thinkers stand out who can be considered the forerunners of the Renaissance. Such figures include Thomas Aquinas, Hugh of Saint-Victor, Pierre Abelard, Vincent de Beauvais and others.

In the XII - XIII centuries in Western Europe there is a need to back up religion with philosophy, not to believe blindly, "but to understand what they believe." This task is performed by scholasticism, which tries to reconcile faith and reason, religion and science.

Scholasticism (translated from Greek - scholasticos - school) is a medieval school philosophy, whose representatives - scholastics - sought to rationally substantiate and systematize Christian doctrine. To do this, they used the ideas of the ancient philosophers Plato and especially Aristotle, whose views scholasticism adapted to its goals.

The upbringing of secular feudal lords - "lords of the land and peasants" - was organized differently. The main thing for the medieval knight was the development of military-physical skills, serf morality and piety.

Reading and writing were optional for a knight, many of them were illiterate during the early Middle Ages.

Until the age of seven, the eldest son of the feudal lord was brought up in the family. From 7 to 14 years old, he went to the castle to a higher feudal lord (suzerain) and served as a page in the female half with the overlord's wife.

From the age of 14 to 21, the young man became the overlord's squire and moved to the male half of the castle. He accompanied the overlord on the hunt, participated in jousting tournaments and other important events. Pages and squires had to master the basic military professional skills, knowledge of etiquette and religious dogma.

At the age of 21, as a rule, knighting took place. The young man was blessed with a consecrated sword.

The younger sons of the feudal lord stayed at home, practiced the "knightly virtues" and studied religion with the chaplain of the castle, less often - reading and writing. Some of them went to monasteries or to the bishop's court.

The education of girls of noble birth was somewhat higher than that of boys. Many of them were sent to women's monasteries, where they underwent a special course of study. Some knew the prose and poetry of Latin authors.

During the Middle Ages, the knightly class gradually fell into decline. The tradition of knightly upbringing also fell apart, but did not disappear without a trace. Thus, the "code of honor", the ideas of the aesthetic and physical development of young knights nourished the ideals of the humanistic pedagogy of the Renaissance.

In the XII - XV centuries. the school system of medieval Europe is somewhat modified. This was connected, first of all, with the creation of secular educational institutions: urban schools and universities. The growth of cities, urbanization, and the strengthening of the social positions of citizens made it possible to open educational institutions that met the vital needs of the population.

The first urban schools appear in almost all European cities: in London, Paris, Milan, Florence, Lübeck, Hamburg, etc. and appear in several ways.

Many city schools were organized at the initiative of city magistrates and converted from former parish schools. These schools catered to the children of the upper classes. They were taught by secular teachers. Graduates of these schools acquired the skills of reading, writing, counting, and some grammar. This knowledge was enough to get the title of a cleric, which allowed in the future to be a teacher or a clergyman.

Also, city schools were born out of the apprenticeship system, guild and guild schools, schools of counting for the children of merchants and artisans.

Guild schools arose for the children of artisans and at the expense of the guilds and provided general education (reading, writing, counting, elements of geometry and natural science). Education in these schools was conducted in the native and Latin languages.

Guild schools implemented a similar educational curriculum and were created for the children of wealthy merchants. Later, these schools turned into elementary city schools and were maintained at the expense of the city magistrates.

Gradually, educational institutions for girls also appear, but they do not receive widespread distribution, and monasteries remain the main source of female education.

The first city schools were under the strict control of the church. In them, the Catholic Church rightly saw dangerous competitors. Church officials cut and modified school programs, appointed and controlled teachers. Gradually, city schools were freed from such guardianship and won the right to independently appoint teachers in city schools.

As a rule, a city school was opened by a teacher hired by the community, who was called the rector. The rector chose his own assistants. At first, priests became teachers, and later - former university students. They were paid irregularly and often in kind. At the end of the contract, teachers could be fired, and they had to look for another job. As a result, over time, in medieval cities, a certain social group arose - itinerant teachers.

Thus, urban schools differed from church schools in their practical and scientific orientation and were more progressive.

In the XIV - XV centuries. there are secular educational institutions - colleges, which acted as a link between primary and higher education.

Until the middle of the XV century. colleges were shelters for the children of the poor. In the future, they become a place of study, existing at universities. Schoolchildren lived on alms. Placed in obscene places in the city with a high crime rate. Later, the colleges turned into university communities and colleges - educational institutions of general education.

An important milestone in the development of pedagogical science and education was the creation of the first medieval universities. They were created on the initiative of scientists and everyone interested in the development of science in the urban strata, in the depths of church schools of the late 11th - early 12th centuries.

The most prestigious was the University of Paris (1200), which grew out of a theological orphanage school where sixteen students lived (four Frenchmen, Germans, Englishmen and Italians). The shelter was founded by the king's confessor Robert Sorbon.

Since then, the University of Paris has been called the Sorbonne. The course of study there lasted ten years. Upon graduation, the student had from six in the morning until six in the evening without interruption to debate with twenty professors, who were replaced every half hour. A student who passed such a test received a doctorate degree and a special black cap.

Other first European universities arose in a similar way: in Naples (1224), Oxford (1206), Cambridge (1231), Lisbon (1290). The network of universities grew quite rapidly. If in the XIII century there were 19 universities in Europe, then in the next century 25 more were added to them (in Angers, Orleans, Pisa, Cologne, Prague, Vienna, Krakow and other cities).

The growth of university education responded to the trends of the times. The emergence of universities meant the revival of social life and trade.

The Church sought to maintain and strengthen its influence in the development of university education. The Vatican was the official patron of many universities. The opening and rights of the university were confirmed by privileges - special documents signed by the popes or kings. One of the most prestigious was the Faculty of Theology. The teachers were mostly clergy. The church kept its representatives in the universities - the chancellors, who were directly subordinate to the archbishops.

Nevertheless, the universities of the early Middle Ages, in their program, organization and teaching methods, looked like a secular alternative to church education.

Privileges secured university autonomy for its own court, administration, the right to grant academic degrees, and exempted students from military service.

An important feature of medieval universities was its supranational and democratic nature, which was expressed in the fact that people of all ages and social status could be on the same student bench.

The creation of the university did not require large financial costs. The first universities were highly mobile. They were located in simple and modest rooms. Instead of benches, listeners could even sit on straw. The procedure for enrolling in the university was quite free and conditional. Education was paid, but not very expensive. Often students chose professors and the rector from among themselves. The rector had temporary powers (usually for a year). In fact, the power at the university belonged to the nations (national associations of “community communities” of students and teachers) and faculties (educational corporations of students and professors).

By the end of the XV century. the situation changes significantly. The chief officials of the university began to be appointed by the authorities, and the nations gradually began to lose their influence.

As a rule, most medieval universities had 4 faculties: artistic (faculty of arts), theological, medical and legal.

The content of the arts faculty education was determined by the seven liberal arts program and lasted for 5-7 years. It was a preparatory general education university. After graduation, students received the degree of "Master of Arts" and could continue their studies at one of the faculties. At the end of another 5-7 years of study and successful defense, students received the degree of "Doctor of Science". The main teaching methods were lectures and disputes. The student was required to attend lectures: obligatory daytime and repeated evening lectures. Along with the lectures, debates took place weekly. The participants in the disputes often behaved very freely, interrupting the speaker with whistles and shouts. However, the first medieval universities were a natural and objective alternative to scholasticism, which turned into a "science of empty words." Universities opposed scholasticism with an active intellectual life and gave a powerful impetus to the development of world culture, science and education (R. Bacon, A. Dante, J. Hus, N. Copernicus, F. Bacon, F. Petrarch, and others).

In the Middle Ages, childhood ended at the age of seven. At this age, children began to take part in handicraft production and became apprentices, workers and maids. Seven-year-old orphans had to provide for themselves from this age. Only girls, if their parents were not too poor, could stay at home and prepare for the role of a future wife and mistress.

The basics of reading, writing and counting, if it came to that at all, the children were taught by their parents. Only the offspring of patricians and aristocrats - most often sons, but sometimes daughters - were taught by private teachers or teachers at school.

In the villages, the schools were public, with an elementary curriculum based on the Bible. In cities in the 15th century, there were three types of schools. First of all, theological schools at cathedrals and monasteries, where the future clergy were trained. In addition, secular education was also provided in monastic schools. The main subjects were grammar, rhetoric, music, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and religion.

The alternative to these schools were the so-called Latin schools, where only boys were admitted. Here all subjects were taught only in Latin. Even personal conversations, students, under the threat of a fine, had to conduct only in Latin. Such schools were under the jurisdiction of the city council, which took care of the school and the teachers. The teachers were clerics or ordinary people whose knowledge was not tested.
The third option was writing and counting schools. Merchants' children usually studied in such institutions, and three or four years of education for girls were also supposed to be there.

"Devil's well" on the church of St. Lawrence, Nuremberg. The devil takes away a schoolboy, below there is a book and a table for writing.

Children started going to school at the age of six. Parents tried to sweeten the first time at the desk with the help of bagels, raisins, figs, almonds, which they gave with them.

Classes lasted, depending on the length of daylight hours, up to 12 hours. In the summer, lessons began at five in the morning and ended at five in the evening.

In addition to teachers, numerous assistants worked in schools. The children were divided into groups, the transfer from one group to another took place four times a year. Schoolchildren, like teachers, were obliged not only to be present at school, but also at church services.

Corporal punishment was part of the training. Children were not only lavishly whipped, but also forced to kneel for hours on peas, at the pillory, carry heavy logs, drink dirty water, or eat from a dog bowl.

Martin Luther recalls his school days thus:

The schoolmaster takes out a rod from a bucket of water, beats and whips the poor varmint on the behind; he yells so that he can be heard through three houses, until blisters appear and blood flows. Many stewards are such evil devils that they wrap wire around rods, turn the rod over and beat with a thick end. They also wind their hair around a cane, and they beat and drag children so that even stones beg for mercy.

Speculum humane vite. Augsburg, 1488

Sometimes schoolchildren were even maimed by beatings. But, as Abelard wrote in the 12th century: "He who pities the rod, hates his son."
The rods should always be kept in sight: they usually hung on the wall.

At this age, children are more inclined towards evil than good, so they should be kept in check. Use the opportunity to punish small children, but do not be too zealous. Frequent but not strong punishments are good for young children. Double the punishment if they deny their guilt, make excuses, or avoid punishment. And this should be done not only until three, four or five years old, but, if necessary, until twenty-five.

The monk Giovanni Dominici wrote in the 15th century.
However, there were also humanists. Another Italian, the 15th century poet Guarino da Verona stated:

“A teacher should not beat a student to force him to study. This only repels free youth and disgusts learning. Students are thus insulted mentally and intellectually, teachers are deceived, and punishment does not achieve its goal at all. The teacher’s best assistant is friendliness. Punishment should be resorted to only in extreme cases.

Unfortunately, his words were not successful until the middle of the 20th century.

Unlike boys, girls, unless they came from noble families, received no intellectual education. The merchant Paolo da Certaldo in the 14th century well formulated the opinion of his contemporaries

See to it that the boy learns to read at the age of six or seven. When it comes to a girl, send her to the kitchen, and do not sit her down with books. Girls don't need to be able to read if you don't want her to become a nun."

Mary Magdalene with a book, 1435

Parents unanimously sought to instill in girls the most important virtue: obedience to men - fathers and future husbands. Literacy and counting only harmed the girls, and the ability to weave and sew was also encouraged among girls from wealthy families. The main concern of parents was to keep their daughters chaste.

However, by the 15th century the situation had changed. Girls were also expected to be able to read and write by a certain age. The famous Nuremberg lawyer and diplomat Christoph Scheurl adopted the seven-year-old girl Anna. When by the age of thirteen she still could not "pray, read and weave," Scheurl gave her to another family, because there was nothing more he could do to help her.

Especially women from merchant families had to be able to read and write, since they often conducted business correspondence and controlled the money circulation. For everyday affairs, literacy was also necessary: to record purchases and expenses.

Possession of arithmetic in the 16th century helped Sabina Welserin in her high-profile divorce proceedings with the Nuremberg merchant Linhard Hirsvogel: she independently calculated and provided the court with the amount that her ex-husband had to pay her.

Women often owned personal libraries: first handwritten, then printed.

In the late Middle Ages, girls in Nuremberg went to accounting schools, although the number of schoolgirls was less than schoolchildren. The aristocrat Behaim paid in advance for schooling at the hospital of the Holy Spirit for his daughters Sabina and Magdalena: the eldest was then five years old, the youngest four years old. At first, children were taught to write on tablets, and only when they knew how to use ink confidently were they allowed to write on paper. The Behaims paid for their daughters' education until the age of ten, at which time girls usually stopped studying.

Women were allowed to teach in schools, but only to younger children or exclusively to girls. Entry to the university or to the Latin school was closed to girls.

The knight hands the book to his daughters. Engraving by Albrecht Dürer, 1493