Artistic speech, its specificity. poetic syntax and poetic figures of language. poetic syntax. Figures of poetic speech

poetic syntax. Figures.

No less significant than the poetic dictionary, the area of study of expressive means is poetic syntax. The study of poetic syntax consists in the analysis of the functions of each of the artistic methods of selection and subsequent grouping of lexical elements into single syntactic constructions. If in the immanent study of the vocabulary of a literary text, words act as the analyzed units, then in the study of syntax, sentences and phrases. If the study of vocabulary establishes the facts of deviation from the literary norm in the selection of words, as well as the facts of the transfer of the meanings of words (a word with a figurative meaning, i.e. a trope, manifests itself only in context, only during semantic interaction with another word), then the study of syntax obliges not only a typological consideration of the syntactic units and grammatical relationships of words in a sentence, but also to identify the facts of correction or even change in the meaning of the whole phrase with the semantic correlation of its parts (which usually occurs as a result of the use of so-called figures by the writer).

It is necessary to pay attention to the author's selection of types of syntactic constructions because this selection can be dictated by the subject and general semantics of the work. Let us turn to examples that will serve as fragments of two translations of the "Ballad of the Hanged" by F. Villon.

There are five of us hanged, maybe six.

And the flesh, which knew a lot of delights,

It has long been devoured and has become a stench.

We became bones - we will become dust and rottenness.

Whoever smiles will not be happy himself.

Pray to God to forgive us.

(A. Parin, "The Ballad of the Hanged")

There were five of us. We wanted to live.

And they hung us. We blackened.

We lived like you. We are no more.

Do not try to condemn - people are insane.

We will not object in response.

Look and pray, and God will judge.

(I. Ehrenburg, "Epitaph written by Villon for him

and his comrades in anticipation of the gallows")

The first translation more accurately reflects the composition and syntax of the source, but its author fully showed his poetic individuality in the selection of lexical means: verbal series are built on stylistic antitheses (for example, the high word "pleasure" collides within one phrase with the low word "gorged") . From the point of view of the stylistic diversity of vocabulary, the second translation seems to be depleted. In addition, we can see that Ehrenburg filled the text of the translation with short, "chopped" phrases. Indeed, the minimum length of the phrases of Parin's translator is equal to a line of verse, and the maximum length of Ehrenburg's phrases in the above passage is also equal to it. Is it by chance?

Apparently, the author of the second translation sought to achieve the utmost expressiveness through the use of exclusively syntactic means. Moreover, he coordinated the choice of syntactic forms with the point of view chosen by Villon. Villon endowed the right of the narrating voice not with living people, but with the soulless dead who speak to the living. This semantic antithesis should have been emphasized syntactically. Ehrenburg had to deprive the speech of the hanged of emotionality, and therefore there are so many uncommon, vaguely personal sentences in his text: bare phrases tell bare facts ("And we were hanged. We turned black ..."). In this translation, the absence of evaluative vocabulary, in general, of epithets is a kind of "minus-reception".

An example of Ehrenburg's poetic translation is a logically justified deviation from the rule. Many writers formulated this rule in their own way when they touched upon the issue of distinguishing between poetic and prose speech. A.S. Pushkin spoke about the syntactic properties of verse and prose as follows:

“But what can be said about our writers, who, considering it base to explain simply the most ordinary things, think to enliven children's prose with additions and languid metaphors? These people will never say friendship without adding: this sacred feeling, of which noble flame, etc. say: early in the morning - and they write: as soon as the first rays of the rising sun illuminated the eastern edges of the azure sky - oh, how new and fresh it all is, is it better only because it is longer. Accuracy and brevity are the first virtues of prose. It requires thought and thoughts - without them, brilliant expressions are of no use. Poems are another matter..." ("On Russian Prose")

Consequently, the "brilliant expressions" about which the poet wrote - namely, lexical "beauties" and the variety of rhetorical means, in general types of syntactic constructions - are not an obligatory phenomenon in prose, but possible. And in poetry it is common, because the actual aesthetic function of a poetic text always significantly overshadows the informative function. This is proved by examples from the work of Pushkin himself. Syntactically brief Pushkin the prose writer:

"Finally, something began to turn black in the direction. Vladimir turned in that direction. Approaching, he saw a grove. Thank God, he thought, now it's close." ("Blizzard")

On the contrary, Pushkin the poet is often verbose, building long phrases with rows of periphrastic phrases:

The philosopher is frisky and piit,

Parnassian happy sloth,

Harit pampered favorite,

Confidant of the lovely aonids,

Pochto on a golden-stringed harp

Silenced, joy singer?

Can it be you, young dreamer,

Finally broke up with Phoebus?

("To Batyushkov")

E. G. Etkind, analyzing this poetic message, comments on the periphrastic row: "Piit" - this old word means "poet". "Parnassian happy sloth" - it also means "poet". "Kharit pampered favorite" - "poet". "Confidant of the lovely aonids" - "poet". "Joy singer" - also a "poet". In essence, a "young dreamer" and a "frisky philosopher" are also a "poet." "Almost fell silent on the golden-stringed harp ..." This means: "Why did you stop writing poetry?" But then: “Have you really ... parted with Phoebus ...” - this is the same thing, ”and he concludes that Pushkin’s lines“ modify the same thought in every way: “Why don’t you, poet, do you write more poetry?

It should be clarified that lexical "beauty" and syntactic "longness" are necessary in poetry only when they are semantically or compositionally motivated. Verbosity in poetry may be unjustified. And in prose, lexico-syntactic minimalism is just as unjustified if it is raised to an absolute degree:

"The donkey put on a lion's skin, and everyone thought it was a lion. The people and cattle ran. The wind blew, the skin opened up, and the donkey became visible. The people came running: they beat the donkey."

("Donkey in a lion's skin")

The sparing phrases give this finished work the appearance of a preliminary plot plan. The choice of constructions of the elliptical type (“and everyone thought it was a lion”), the economy of significant words, leading to grammatical violations (“the people and the cattle ran”), and finally, the economy of official words (“the people ran away: they beat the donkey”) determined the excessive schematism of the plot of this parables, and therefore weakened its aesthetic impact.

The other extreme is the overcomplication of constructions, the use of polynomial sentences with different types of logical and grammatical connections, with many ways of distribution. For example:

"It was good for a year, two, three, but when is it: evenings, balls, concerts, dinners, ball gowns, hairstyles that show off the beauty of the body, young and middle-aged caretakers, all the same, all seem to know something, seem to have the right to use everything and to laugh at everything, when the summer months at the dacha with the same nature, also only giving the top of the pleasantness of life, when music and reading are also the same - only raising questions of life, but not resolving them - when all this lasted seven , eight years, not only without promising any change, but, on the contrary, losing her charms more and more, she fell into despair, and a state of despair, a desire for death began to come over her "(" What I saw in a dream ")

In the field of Russian language studies, there is no established idea of what maximum length a Russian phrase can reach. However, readers should feel the extreme protractedness of this sentence. For example, the part of the phrase "but when all this" is not perceived as an inaccurate syntactic repetition, as a paired element to the part "but when it is". Because we, reaching the first indicated part in the process of reading, cannot keep in memory the already read second part: these parts are too far apart from one another in the text, the writer complicated our reading with too many details mentioned within one phrase. The author's desire for maximum detail in describing actions and mental states leads to violations of the logical connection of the parts of the sentence ("she fell into despair, and a state of despair began to come over her").

The quoted parable and story belong to L.N. Tolstoy. It is especially easy to determine its authorship when referring to the second example, and attention to style-forming syntactic devices helps in this. G.O. Vinokur wrote about the above quote from the story: "... I recognize Leo Tolstoy here not only because this passage talks about what this writer often and usually talks about, and not only by that tone, with which he usually talks about such subjects, but also in terms of the language itself, in terms of its syntactic signs ... According to the scientist’s thought, which he expressed repeatedly, it is important to trace the development of linguistic signs, the author’s style as a whole throughout the writer’s work, because the facts Style evolutions are facts of the author's biography, and therefore, in particular, it is necessary to trace the evolution of style at the level of syntax as well.

The study of poetic syntax also involves an assessment of the facts of the correspondence of the methods of grammatical connection used in the author's phrases to the norms of the national literary style. Here we can draw a parallel with passive vocabulary of different styles as an important part of the poetic vocabulary. In the sphere of syntax, as well as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc., are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B.V. Tomashevsky, "each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns."

In Russian literature, syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernacular are the most common. Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is built according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often identified as speech errors: "Approaching this station and looking at nature through the window, my hat fell off" in A.P. Chekhov's story "The Book of Complaints" - this gallicism is so obvious that it makes the reader feel comic . In Russian poetry, syntactic barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in Pushkin's ballad "There was a poor knight in the world..." the line "He had one vision..." is an example of such barbarism: the link "he had a vision" appears instead of "he had a vision". Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of raising the stylistic height: "There is no prayer to the Father, nor to the Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / It has not happened to a paladin ..." (it would follow: "neither to the Father, nor to the Son"). Syntactic vernacular, as a rule, is present in epic and dramatic works in the speech of characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the autocharacterization of characters. To this end, Chekhov resorted to the use of vernacular: “Your dad told me that he was a court adviser, but now it turns out that he is only a titular one” (“Before the wedding”), “Are you talking about which Turkins? This is about those that my daughter plays pianos?" ("Ionych").

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study of stylistic figures (they are also called rhetorical - in relation to the private scientific discipline in which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to that side of the poetic text, for which they are required to characterize description).

The doctrine of figures took shape already at the time when the doctrine of style was taking shape, in the era of Antiquity; developed and supplemented - in the Middle Ages; finally, it finally turned into a permanent section of normative "poetics" (textbooks on poetics) - in modern times. The first attempts to describe and systematize figures are presented in ancient Latin treatises on poetics and rhetoric (more fully in Quintilian's Education of an Orator). The ancient theory, according to M.L. Gasparov, "assumed that there is some simplest," natural "verbal expression of any thought (as if a distilled language without stylistic color and taste), and when real speech somehow deviates from this unimaginable standard , then each individual deviation can be separately and taken into account as a "figure".

Tropes and figures were the subject of a single doctrine: if "tropes" is a change in the "natural" meaning of a word, then "figure" is a change in the "natural" word order in a syntactic construction (rearrangement of words, omission of necessary or use of "extra" - from the point of view of " natural" speech - lexical elements). We also note that within the limits of ordinary speech, which does not have an orientation towards artistry, figurativeness, the “figures” found are often considered as speech errors, but within the limits of artistically oriented speech, the same figures are usually distinguished as effective means of poetic syntax.

1. Unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions.

2. An unusual mutual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (poems, columns), but with grammatical similarity.

3. Unusual ways of intonational markup of the text using syntactic means.

Taking into account the dominance of a single factor, we will single out the corresponding groups of figures. But we emphasize that in some cases in the same phrase one can find both a non-trivial grammatical connection, and an original arrangement of words, and devices that indicate a specific intonation "score" in the text: within the same segment of speech, not only different paths, but also different figures.

The group of methods of non-standard connection of words into syntactic units includes ellipse, anacoluf, sylleps, alogism, amphibole (figures that are distinguished by an unusual grammatical connection), as well as catachresis, oxymoron, gendiadis, enallaga (figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

One of the most common syntactic devices not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is the ellipse (Greek elleipsis - abandonment). This is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, consisting in the omission of a word or a number of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the omitted members is easily restored from the general speech context. This technique is most often used in epic and dramatic works when constructing character dialogues: with its help, the authors give life-likeness to the scenes of communication of their characters.

Meanwhile, the use of the ellipse as an expressive means in artistic speech can also be motivated by the author's attitude to the psychologism of the narrative. The writer, wishing to depict various emotions, psychological states of his hero, can change his individual speech style from scene to scene. So, in F.M. Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" Raskolnikov often expresses himself in elliptical phrases. In his conversation with the cook Nastasya (Part I, Ch. 3), ellipses serve as an additional means of expressing his alienated state:

- ... Before, you say, you went to teach children, but now why don’t you do anything?

I am doing [something] ... - Raskolnikov said reluctantly and sternly.

What are you doing?

- [I'm doing] Work...

What kind of work [are you doing]?

- [I] Think, - he answered seriously after a pause.

Here we see that the omission of some words emphasizes the special semantic load of the remaining others.

Often ellipses also denote a rapid change in states or actions. Such, for example, is their function in the fifth chapter of Eugene Onegin, in the story of Tatyana Larina's dream: “Tatyana ah! and he roar ... "," Tatiana into the forest, the bear behind her ... ".

Both in everyday life and in literature, the anacoluf (Greek anakoluthos - inconsistent) is recognized as a speech error - the incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and management: "The smell of shag and some sour soup made from there almost unbearable life in this place" (A. F. Pisemsky, "Sin of Senile"). However, its use can be justified in cases where the writer gives expression to the character's speech: "Stop, brothers, stop! You're not sitting like that!" (in Krylov's fable "Quartet").

On the contrary, a sylleps (Greek syllepsis - conjugation, capture), which consists in the syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a series of homogeneous members of a sentence, turns out to be more of a deliberately applied technique than an accidental mistake in the literature: cheeks" (Turgenev, "Strange story").

European writers of the 20th century, especially representatives of the "literature of the absurd", regularly turned to alogism (Greek a - a negative particle, logismos - reason). This figure is a syntactic correlation of semantically inconsistent parts of a phrase with the help of its service elements, expressing a certain type of logical connection (causal, genus-species relations, etc.): "The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better" (E. Ionesco, "Bald Singer"), "How wonderful the Dnieper is in calm weather, so why are you here, Nentsov?" (A. Vvedensky, "Minin and Pozharsky").

If anacoluf is more often seen as a mistake than an artistic technique, and sylleps and alogism are more often a technique than a mistake, then amphibolia (Greek amphibolia) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphibole is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in the same grammatical forms. "Hearing sensitive sail strains ..." in the poem of the same name by Mandelstam - a mistake or a trick? It can be understood as follows: "A sensitive ear, if its owner desires to catch the rustle of the wind in the sails, magically acts on the sail, forcing it to strain," or as follows: "A wind-blown (i.e. tense) sail attracts attention, and a person strains his hearing" . Amphibolia is justified only when it turns out to be compositionally significant. So, in the miniature by D. Kharms "The Chest" the hero checks the possibility of the existence of life after death by self-suffocation in a locked chest. The finale for the reader, as the author planned, is unclear: either the hero did not suffocate, or he suffocated and resurrected, as the hero ambiguously sums up: "It means that life defeated death in a way unknown to me."

An unusual semantic connection between the parts of a phrase or sentence is created by catachresis (see the section "Paths") and oxymoron (Greek oxymoron - witty-silly). In both cases, there is a logical contradiction between the members of a single structure. Catahresis arises as a result of the use of an erased metaphor or metonymy and is assessed as a mistake within the framework of "natural" speech: "sea voyage" is a contradiction between "sail on the sea" and "walk on land", "oral prescription" - between "oral" and " in writing", "Soviet Champagne" - between "Soviet Union" and "Champagne". Oxymoron, on the contrary, is a planned consequence of the use of a fresh metaphor and is perceived even in everyday speech as an exquisite figurative tool. "Mom! Your son is beautifully ill!" (V. Mayakovsky, "A cloud in pants") - here "sick" is a metaphorical replacement for "in love".

Among the rare and therefore especially noticeable figures in Russian literature is gendiadis (from the Greek hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which complex adjectives are divided into their original constituent parts: "longing for the road, iron" (A. Blok, "On the iron road"). Here the word "railroad" was split, as a result of which three words entered into interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning. E.G. Etkind, referring to the issue of the semantics of the epithets "iron", "iron" in Blok's poetic dictionary, noted: two definitions, striving towards each other, as if forming one word "railroad", and at the same time starting from this word - it has a completely different meaning. "Iron anguish" is a despair caused by the dead, mechanical world of modern - "iron" - civilization.

Words in a column or verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallag (Greek enallage - movement) - the transfer of a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined. So, in the line "Through meat fat trenches ..." from N. Zabolotsky's poem "Wedding" the definition of "fat" became a vivid epithet after transferring from "meat" to "trench". Enallaga is a sign of verbose poetic speech. The use of this figure in an elliptical construction leads to a deplorable result: the verse "A familiar corpse lay in that valley ..." in Lermontov's ballad "Dream" is an example of an unforeseen logical error. The combination "familiar corpse" was supposed to mean "the corpse of a familiar [person]", but for the reader it actually means: "This person has long been known to the heroine precisely as a corpse."

Figures with an unusual arrangement of parts of syntactic constructions include various types of parallelism and inversion.

Parallelism (from the Greek. parallelos - walking side by side) implies the compositional correlation of adjacent syntactic segments of the text (lines in a poetic work, sentences in a text, parts in a sentence). Types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some feature that the first of the correlated constructions possesses, which serves as a model for the author when creating the second one.

So, projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, they distinguish between direct parallelism ("The animal Dog is sleeping, / The bird Sparrow is Dozing" in Zabolotsky's verse "The signs of the Zodiac are fading ...") and reversed ("Waves are playing, the wind is whistling" in " Sail" Lermontov). We can write the columns of the Lermontov string vertically:

waves are playing

the wind is whistling

And we will see that in the second column the subject and predicate are given in reverse order with respect to the arrangement of words in the first. If we now graphically connect nouns and - separately - verbs, we can get the image of the Greek letter "". Therefore, reversed parallelism is also called chiasm (Greek chiasmos - -shape, cruciformity).

When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, complete and incomplete parallelism is also distinguished. Complete parallelism (its common name is isocolon; Greek isokolon - equinoxity) - in Tyutchev's two-word lines "Amphoras are empty, / Baskets are overturned" (verse "The feast is over, the choirs are silent ..."), incomplete - in his unequal lines " Slow down, slow down, evening day, / Last, last, charm "(verse. "Last Love"). There are other types of parallelism.

The same group of figures includes such a popular poetic means as inversion (Latin inversio - permutation). It manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order that is different from the natural one. In Russian, for example, the order "subject + predicate", "definition + defined word" or "preposition + noun in case form" is natural, and the reverse order is unnatural.

"Eros of lofty and dumb wings on ...", - this is how the parody of the famous satirist of the early twentieth century begins. A. Izmailov to the verses by Vyacheslav Ivanov. The parodist suspected the symbolist poet of abusing inversions, so he oversaturated the lines of his text with them. "Erota wings on" - the order is wrong. But if a separate inversion of "Erota's wings" is quite acceptable, moreover, it is felt as traditional for Russian poetry, then "wings on" is recognized as a sign not of artistry of speech, but of tongue-tied tongue.

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. With contact inversion, the adjacency of words is preserved (“Like a tragedian in the province of Shakespeare’s drama ...” by Pasternak), with distant inversion, other words are wedged between them (“An old man obedient to Perun alone ...” by Pushkin). In both cases, the unusual position of a single word affects its intonation. As Tomashevsky noted, "in inverted constructions, words sound more expressive, more weighty."

The group of figures that mark the unusual intonational composition of the text or its individual parts includes various types of syntactic repetition, as well as tautology, annomination and gradation, polysyndeton and asyndeton.

There are two subgroups of repetition techniques. The first includes techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, authors usually emphasize a semantically tense place in a phrase, since any repetition is intonational emphasis. Like inversion, repetition can be contact ("It's time, it's time, the horns are blowing ..." in Pushkin's poem "Count Nulin") or distant ("It's time, my friend, it's time! The heart asks for peace ..." in Pushkin's verse of the same name. ).

A simple repetition is applied to different units of the text - both to the word (as in the above examples) and to the phrase ("Evening ringing, evening ringing!" translated by I. Kozlov from T. Moore) - without changing the grammatical forms and lexical meaning. The repetition of one word in different case forms, while maintaining its meaning from ancient times, is recognized as a special figure - polyptoton (Greek polyptoton - polycase): "But a man / He sent a man to the anchar with an authoritative look ..." (Pushkin, "Anchar"). According to R. Yakobson's observation, "The Tale of the Little Red Riding Hood" by Mayakovsky is built on the polyptotone, in which a complete paradigm of case forms of the word "cadet" is presented. An equally ancient figure is antanaklasis (Greek antanaklasis - reflection) - the repetition of a word in its original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. "The last owl is broken and sawn. / And, with a clerical button, pinned / Head down to the autumn branch, // Hanging and thinking with his head ..." (A. Eremenko, "In dense metallurgical forests ...") - here the word "head " is used in a direct, and then in a metonymic sense.

The second subgroup includes figures of repetition, which do not apply to a sentence, but to a larger part of the text (stanza, syntactic period), sometimes to the entire work. Such figures mark the intonation equalization of those parts of the text to which they were extended. These types of repetition are distinguished by their position in the text. So, anaphora (Greek anaphora - pronouncement; patristic term - mononaming) is the fastening of speech segments (columns, verses) by repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: "This is a steeply poured whistle, / This is the clicking of squeezed ice floes, / This is the night chilling the leaf, / This is the duel of two nightingales" (Pasternak, "Definition of Poetry"). Epiphora (Greek epiphora - additive; paternal term - one-sidedness), on the contrary, connects the ends of speech series with lexical repetition: "Scallops, all scallops: || cape from scallops, | scallops on the sleeves, | epaulets from scallops, | scallops below, | festoons everywhere" (Gogol, "Dead Souls"). Having projected the principle of epiphora onto a whole poetic text, we will see its development in the phenomenon of a refrain (for example, in a classical ballad).

Anadiplosis (Greek anadiplosis - doubling; native term - joint) is a contact repetition that connects the end of a speech series with the beginning of the next. This is how the columns in the lines of S. Nadson "Only the morning of love is good: | only the first, timid speeches are good", this is how Blok's poems "Oh, spring without end and without edge - / Endless and without edge dream" are connected. Anaphora and epiphora often act in small lyrical genres as a structure-forming device. But anadiplosis can also acquire the function of a compositional core around which speech is built. From long chains of anadiplosis, for example, the best examples of early Irish lyrics are composed. Among them, perhaps the oldest is the anonymous "Spell of Amergin", presumably dated to the 5th-6th centuries. AD (below is its fragment in a syntactically accurate translation by V. Tikhomirov):

Erin I call loudly

The deep sea is fat

Fat on the hillside grass

Herbs in oak forests are juicy

Moisture in the lakes is juicy

Moisture rich source

The source of the tribes is one

The only lord of Temra...

Anadiplosis is opposed to prosapodosis (Greek prosapodosis - addition; Russian term - ring, coverage), a distant repetition, in which the initial element of the syntactic construction is reproduced at the end of the following: "The sky is cloudy, the night is cloudy ..." in Pushkin's "Demons". Also, prosapodosis can cover a stanza (Esenin's verse "Shagane you are mine, Shagane ..." is built on ring repetitions) and even the entire text of the work ("Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy ..." A. Blok)

This subgroup also includes a complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and epiphora within the same segment of the text - symplok (Greek symploce - plexus): "I don't want Falaleus, | I hate Falaleus, | I spit on Falaleus, | | I will crush Falaleus, | I will love Asmodeus rather, | than Falaleus!" (Dostoevsky, "The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants") - this example from the monologue of Foma Opiskin serves as a clear evidence that not only repeating elements are accentuated intonation: with a simplock, words framed by anaphora and epiphora stand out in each column.

It is possible to reproduce during repetition not only the word as a single sign, but also the meaning torn off from the sign. Tautology (Greek tauto - the same, logos - word), or pleonasm (Greek pleonasmos - excess), is a figure, when using which the word is not necessarily repeated, but the meaning of some lexical element is necessarily duplicated. To do this, the authors select either synonymous words or periphrastic phrases. The deliberate use of tautology by the writer creates in the reader a feeling of verbal excess, irrational verbosity, makes him pay attention to the corresponding segment of speech, and the reciter - to isolate this entire segment intonation. Yes, in verse. A. Eremenko "Pokryshkin" double tautology intonationally highlights the "evil bullet of gangster evil" against the background of the general flow of speech.

For the purpose of intonational highlighting of a semantically significant speech segment, annomination is also used (lat. annominatio - subscript) - a contact repetition of the same-root words: "I think my thought ..." in N. Nekrasov's "Railway". This figure is common in song folklore and in the works of poets, whose work was affected by their passion for stylization of speech.

Gradation (lat. gradatio - change of degree) is close to repetition figures, in which words grouped into a series of homogeneous members have a common semantic meaning (of a feature or action), but their location expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying feature can gradually increase or decrease: "I swear by heaven, there is no doubt that you are beautiful, it is undeniable that you are beautiful, it is true that you are attractive" ("The Fruitless Labours of Love" by Shakespeare in the translation of Yu. Korneev). In this phrase, next to "undoubtedly-undoubtedly-true" is the strengthening of one sign, and next to "beautiful-beautiful-attractive" - the weakening of another. Regardless of whether the sign is strengthening or weakening, the graduated phrase is pronounced with increasing emphasis (intonational expressiveness): "It sounded over a clear river, / It rang in a faded meadow, / It swept over a mute grove ..." (Fet, "Evening").

In addition, the group of means of intonational marking includes polysyndeton (Greek polysyndeton - polyunion) and asyndeton (Greek asyndeton - non-union). Like the gradation that both figures often accompany, they suggest emphatic emphasis on the part of the text corresponding to them in sounding speech. Polysyndeton in essence is not only a polyunion ("and life, and tears, and love" in Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence ("about valor, about deeds, about glory" from Blok). Its function is either to mark the logical sequence of actions (“Autumn” by Pushkin: “And the thoughts in the head agitate in courage, And the light rhymes run towards them, / And the fingers ask for a pen ...”) or to encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive the series details as an integral image ("I erected a monument to myself not made by hands..." Pushkin: specific "And the proud grandson of the Slavs, and the Finn, and now wild / Tungus, and the Kalmyk friend of the steppes" is formed when perceived in the generic "peoples of the Russian Empire"). And with the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized ("Swede, Russian stabs, cuts, cuts ..." in Pushkin's "Poltava"), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world ("Whisper. Timid breathing. / Trills of the nightingale. / Silver and swaying / Sleepy Creek" by Fet).

The use of syntactic figures by the writer leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. By the middle of the 20th century, by the time when the concept of "creative individuality" had significantly depreciated, the study of figures had ceased to be relevant, which was recorded by A. Kvyatkovsky in his "Dictionary of Poetic Terms" of 1940 edition: "At present, the names of rhetorical figures have been preserved behind the three most stable phenomena of style, such as: 1) a rhetorical question, 2) a rhetorical exclamation, 3) a rhetorical appeal ... ". Today, interest in the study of syntactic techniques as a means of artistic stylistics is being revived. The study of poetic syntax has received a new direction: modern science is increasingly analyzing phenomena that are at the junction of different aspects of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.

Bibliography

Ancient rhetoric / Under the general. ed. A.A.Takho-Godi. M., 1978.

Antique theories of language and style / Ed. ed. O.M.Freidenberg. M.; L., 1936.

Gornfeld A.G. Figure in poetics and rhetoric // Questions of theory and psychology of creativity. 2nd ed. Kharkov, 1911. Vol.1.

Dubois J., Adeline F., Klinkenberg J.M. etc. General rhetoric. M., 1986.

Korolkov V.I. To the theory of figures // Sat. scientific Proceedings of Moscow. state ped. Institute of foreign languages. Issue 78. M., 1974.

Essays on the history of the language of Russian poetry of the twentieth century: Grammatical categories. Text syntax. M., 1993.

Pospelov G.N. The syntactic structure of Pushkin's poetic works. M., 1960.

Tomashevsky B.V. Stylistics and versification: A course of lectures. L., 1959.

Yakobson R. Grammatical parallelism and its Russian aspects // Yakobson R. Works on poetics. M., 1987.

Lausberg H. Handbuch der literaturischen Rhetorik: eine Grundlegung der Literaturwissenschaft. Bd.1-2. Munchen, 1960.

Todorov T. Tropes and figures // To honor R.Jakobson. Essays on the occasion of his seventieth birthday. The Hague; P., 1967. Vol.3.

Etkind E.G. Prose about poetry. SPb., 2001. P.105.

Vinokur G.O. On the study of the language of literary works // Russian literature: from the theory of literature to the structure of the text. Anthology. Ed. V.P. Neroznak. M., 1997. P. 185.

Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. M., 1996. P.73.

Gasparov M.L. Medieval Latin Poetics in the System of Medieval Grammar and Rhetoric. // Gasparov M.L. Selected works, in 3 vols. Volume 1, About poets. M., 1997. P. 629. Compare: Gasparov M.L. Ancient rhetoric as a system. // There. P.570.

Etkind E.G. Prose about poetry. SPb., 2001. P.61.

Tomashevsky B.V. Theory of Literature. Poetics. P.75.

Yakobson R. The basis of comparative Slavic literary criticism // Yakobson R. Works on poetics. M., 1987. P.32.

Kvyatkovsky A.P. Dictionary of poetic terms. M., 1940. P. 176.

See, for example, the articles by M. Tarlinskaya, T.V. Skulacheva, M. L. Gasparov, N. A. Kozhevnikova in the ed.: Slavic verse: Linguistic and applied poetics / Ed. M.L. Gasparova, A.V. Prokhorova, T.V. Skulacheva. M., 2001.

Poetry is an incredible genre of literature that relies on rhyme, that is, all lines in a poetic work rhyme with each other. However, the poems and various similar works belonging to this genre would not be so impressive if it were not for the poetic syntax. What it is? This is a system of special means of constructing speech, which are responsible for improving its expressiveness. Simply put, poetic syntax is the collection of these poetic devices, which are most commonly referred to as figures. It is these figures that will be discussed in this article - you will learn about the different means of expression that can often be found in poetic works.

Repeat

Poetic syntax is very diverse, it includes dozens of expressive means that can be used in certain situations. However, this article will only talk about the most important and common figures of poetic speech. And the first thing without which it is impossible to imagine poetic syntax is repetition. There are a large number of different repetitions, each of which has its own characteristics. You can find epanalipsis, anadiplosis and much more in poetry, but this article will talk about the two most common forms - anaphora and epiphora

Anaphora

Features of poetic syntax suggest the use of various in combination with the rest, but most often poets use repetition. And the most popular among them is anaphora. What it is? Anaphora is the repetition of consonances or identical words at the beginning of each of the lines of a poem or part of it.

No matter how the hand of fate oppresses,

No matter how deception torments people ... "

This is one of the ways of semantic and aesthetic organization of speech, which can be used to give one or another emphasis to what was said. However, the figures of poetic speech can be varied, and even repetitions, as you have already learned, can differ from each other.

Epiphora

What is an epiphora? This is also a repetition, but it differs from the anaphora. The difference lies in the fact that in this case the words are repeated at the end of the lines of the poem, and not at the beginning.

"Steppes and roads

The account is not over;

Stones and thresholds

Account not found.

As in the case of the previous figure, the epiphora is an expressive tool and can give the poem a special expression. Now you know what an epiphora is, but it doesn't end there. As mentioned earlier, the syntax of poems is very extensive and provides endless possibilities.

polysyndeton

Poetic language is very harmonious precisely because poets use various means of poetic syntax. Among them, polysyndeton is often found, which is also called polyunion. This is an expressive means that, due to redundancy, gives the poem a special tone. Often, polysyndeton is used together with anaphora, that is, repeated conjunctions begin at the beginning of the line.

Asyndeton

The poetic syntax of a poem is a collection of various poetic figures, you have already learned about this earlier. However, you still do not know even a small fraction of the means that are used for poetic expression. You have already read about multi-union - it's time to learn about non-union, that is, asyndeton. In this case, the lines of the poem turn out to be without unions at all, even in those cases where, logically, they should be present. Most often, this tool is used in long ones, which are eventually listed separated by commas to create a certain atmosphere.

Parallelism

This expressive means is very interesting, because it allows the author to beautifully and effectively compare any two concepts. Strictly speaking, the essence of this technique lies in the open and detailed comparison of two different concepts, but not just like that, but in the same or similar syntactic constructions. For example:

“Day - I spread like grass.

Night - I wash myself with tears.

Angenbeman

Enjambement is a rather complex expressive tool that is not so easy to use correctly and beautifully. In simple words, this is a transfer, but far from the most ordinary. In this case, part of the sentence is transferred from one line to another, however, in such a way that the semantic and syntactic part of the previous one is on the other line. To better understand what is meant, it's easier to look at an example:

"To the ground, laughing that first

I got up, in the dawn of the crown.

As you can see, the sentence “Into the ground, laughing that I got up first” is one separate part, and “in the dawn of the crown” is another. However, the word “stood” is transferred to the second line, and it turns out that the rhythm is observed.

Inversion

Inversion in poems is very common - it gives them a poetic flavor, and also ensures the creation of rhyme and rhythm. The essence of this technique is to change the order of words to atypical. For example, you can take the sentence "A lonely sail turns white in the blue mist of the sea." No. Is it a well-formed sentence with the correct word order? Absolutely. But what happens if you use inversion?

"The lonely sail turns white

In the mist of the blue sea.

As you can see, the sentence was not quite correct - its meaning is clear, but the word order does not correspond to the norm. But at the same time, the sentence became much more expressive, and also now fits into the general rhythm and rhyme of the poem.

Antithesis

Another technique that is used very often is the antithesis. Its essence lies in the opposition of images and concepts used in the poem. This technique adds drama to the poem.

gradation

This technique is a syntactic construction in which there is a certain set of words built in a specific order. This can be either a descending order or an ascending order of the significance and importance of these words. Thus, each subsequent word either strengthens the importance of the previous one, or weakens it.

Rhetorical question and rhetorical appeal

Rhetoric in poetry is used very often, and in many cases it is addressed to the reader, but often it is also used to address specific characters. What is the essence of this phenomenon? A rhetorical question is a question that does not require an answer. It is used to get attention, not for someone to come up with an answer and report it. Approximately the same situation with rhetorical appeal. It would seem that the appeal is used in order for the one to whom they are addressing to respond. However, rhetorical appeal, again, is used only as a means of attracting attention.

The writer achieves expressiveness and emotionality of speech not only by choosing suitable words, but also by the structure of sentences, their intonation. Features of syntax due to the content of the work. In the descriptions, stories about events that unfold slowly, the intonation is calm, full sentences dominate: "Carts creak, oxen chew, days and nights pass, and Chumat songs sound between high graves. They are voluminous, like the steppe, and slow, like the step of oxen , sad and cheerful, but still more sad, because on every road a tragic adventure could befall the Chumaks "(M. Slaboshpitsky).

Where dynamic events are described, sharp disputes, conflicts, deep experiences of characters, short, sometimes incomplete, fragmentary sentences prevail:

Mom, where are you? It's me, Vasily, alive! Ivana is killed, mother, but I am alive! .. I killed them, mom, about two hundred... Where are you?

Vasily ran up to the yard. There was a yard under the mountain itself. - Mommy, my mommy, where are you? My dear, why don't you meet me? (A. Dovzhenko)

Features of the syntax depend on the writer's creative intent, the author's attitude to the depicted, gender, type, genre, as well as how the work is written (in verse or prose), to whom it is addressed (children or adult readers).

The originality of poetic syntax is due to the peculiarities of the writer's talent. V. Stefanik strove for brevity and dynamism of the narrative. His speech is simple, precise, economical: “I will speak to you about myself with white lips in a low voice. You don’t hear any complaints, sadness, or joy in the words. I went in a white shirt, I myself was white, they laughed from a white shirt. And I walked quietly, like a little white cat ... A leaf of white birch on the garbage "(" My word "). The writer repeats the word "white" several times, it sounds in a different tone.

The syntactic unit of the language is the sentence. A sentence is grammatically correct in which the main members are placed in direct order: the subject group is in the first place, the predicate group is in the second place. In our language, this rule is not mandatory, it is not always respected, especially by writers.

Figures provide the intonation-syntactic originality in a work of art. Stylistic figures are of different types.

Inversion (lat. Inversio - permutation). With inversion, the direct word order in the sentence is violated. The subject group can stand after the predicate group: "/ the noise of the spring noise is a wide path, majestically and easily rising above the boundless freedom that has subsided before awakening" (M. Stelmakh).

A common type of inversion is the postpositive setting of adjectives: adjectives come after nouns. For example:

I'm on a steep creamy mountain

I will lift a heavy stone.

(Lesya Ukrainka)

Ellipsis, ellipse (Greek Elleirsis - omission, lack) is an omission in a sentence of a word or phrase that is clear from a particular situation or context. Ellipsis provides the language with conciseness and emotional richness:

There will blow violently,

How does the brother speak?

(T. Shevchenko)

Unfinished, broken sentences are called a break. Cliffs convey the speaker's excitement:

Go... measure... Andrey stared at her.

She could not speak, pressed her hand to her heart and breathed heavily ...

Go ahead, measure...

Who is measuring? What?

Lord, oh! They came, they will divide the land.

(M. Kotsiubinsky)

Sometimes sentences are cut short because the one who speaks does not dare to say everything. The heroine of the poem "The Servant" cannot tell her son Mark that she is his mother:

"I'm not Anna, not a maid,

And numb.

Incompleteness, evasion of a sentence in order to convey the excitement of the language, is called aposiopesis (Greek Aposiopesis - defaults). Aposiopesis performs the following functions:

1. conveys the excitement of the character.

I was already thinking of getting married

And have fun and live

Praise the people and the Lord,

And I had to...

(T. Shevchenko)

2. aposiopesis reveals the mental failure of the character. The heroine of Mikhail Kotsyubinsky's short story "Horses are not to blame" begins her lines and does not express any thought: "I think that...", "I probably forgot that...", "As for me, I...".

3. aposiopesis testifies to the confusion of the protagonist, tries to hide the reasons for the corresponding behavior. Gsrr comedy Ivan Karpen-ka-Kary "Martin Borulya" Stepan says: "You know: not because the one that ..., but from the fact that ... that one, then there was no time, a short vacation."

4. Sometimes the heroes do not finish saying that it is well known to everyone: "The people are hungry, but no one will take care of ..., one enjoys, and the second ..." ("Fata morgana" by M. Kotsiubinsky).

5. Often, aposiopesis is designed for the reader to continue the thought: "For several hours I have already been driving, it is not known what ..." ("Unknown" by M. Kotsiubinsky).

Anakoluf (Greek Anakoluthos - inconsistent) is a violation of grammatical consistency between words, members of a sentence. A textbook example of an anacoluf is the chskhiv phrase: "Approaching the station and looking at the nature through the window, my ishyapa flew off." Anacoluf creates a comic effect. The hero from the comedy of the same name by M. Kulish “Mina Mazaylo” reads: “Not a single schoolgirl wanted to walk - Mazaylo! They refused love - Mazailo! They didn’t take a tutor - Mazailo! They didn’t take on the service - Mazailo! They refused love - Mazailo!

With the help of the anacoluf, one can convey the excitement of the character; it is used to enhance the expression of the poetic language.

Close to anacoluf - eyleps (Greek Syllepsis) - a figure of avoidance. Sileps - an association of heterogeneous members in a common syntactic or semantic subordination: "We love fame and drown riotous minds in a glass. (A. Pushkin)." In Kumushka, eyes and teeth flared up "(I. Krylov).

Unionlessness (Greek Asyndeton - bezspoluchnikovity) - a stylistic figure consisting in the omission of unions linking individual words and phrases. Unionlessness makes the narrative brevity and dynamism: "The regiment was then advancing in the mountains on the northern bank of the Danube. An uninhabited gloomy land. Bare helmets of hills, dark forests. Precipice. Abyss. Roads washed out by heavy rains" (O. Gonchar).

Polyunion (Greek Polysyndeton from polys - numerous and syndeton - connection) is a stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of identical unions. Polyunion is used to highlight individual words, it provides the language of celebration:

And take him by the hand

And take him to the house

And welcomes Yarinochka,

Like a sibling.

(T. Shevchenko)

To enhance the expressiveness of speech, syntactic parallelism is used.

Parallelism (Greek Parallelos - walking side by side) is a detailed comparison of two or more pictures, phenomena from different spheres of life by similarity or analogy. Parallelism is used in folk songs, it is associated with folk poetic symbolism.

Chervona viburnum leaned over.

Why is our glorious Ukraine depressed.

And we will raise that red viburnum.

And we are our glorious Ukraine Gay, gay, and cheer.

(Folk song)

Besides direct parallelism, there is a parallelism objection. It is built on negative comparison. For example: "It was not a gray-haired cuckoo forging, // But it was not a small bird chirping, // A pine tree was noisy near the forest, // So a poor widow in her house // spoke to her 3 children ..." (People's Duma).

Antithesis (Greek Antithesis - opposite) is a turn of speech in which opposite phenomena, concepts, human characters are contrasted. For example:

It's hard to even tell

What a misfortune has become in the region, -

People suffered like hell

The master was comforted as in paradise.

(Lesya Ukrainka)

The antithesis, reinforced by verbal or root repetition, is called antimetabola (Greek: Antimetabole - the use of words in the opposite direction).

As there is no leader in a nation,

Then the leaders of her poets.

(E. Rice a shock)

The antimetabola acts as a chiasmus (permutation of the main members of the sentence). This is reverse syntactic parallelism.

There has not yet been an epoch for poets, but there have been poets for epochs.

(Lina Kostenko)

In order to highlight the desired word or expression, repetitions are accepted. The repetition of one and that or a word close in meaning or sound is called a tautology (Greek Tdutos is just logos - a word). Synonyms characteristic of folk art are tautological. For example: early early, down the valley.

Kill enemies, thief thieves,

kill without remorse

(P. Tychina)

Development, development, nightingale,

My tight.

(Grabovsky)

Anaphora (Greek Anaphora - I take it out on a mountain, I highlight it) - the repetition of the same sounds, words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence or poetic line, stanza. There are lexical, strophic, syntactic, sound anaphora.

Lexical:

Without wind, rye will not give birth,

Without wind, the water does not make noise,

You can't live without a dream

It is impossible to love without a dream.

Strophic: in B. Oliynyk's poem "Mother sowed sleep", the stanzas begin with the phrase "Mother sowed sleep, flax, snow, hops."

Sound: "I compose songs for our love: // Dear, love, love, lyublyanochka" (Lyubov Golota).

Syntactic: "And you are somewhere beyond the evening, // And you are somewhere beyond the sea of silence" (Lina Kostenko).

Epiphora (Greek Epiphora - transfer, assignment, etc.) is a stylistic figure based on a combination of identical words at the end of sentences, poetic lines or stanzas. For example:

Your smile is the only one

Your flour is the only one

Your eyes are alone.

(V. Simonenko)

Symploka (Greek Symphloke - plexus) is a syntactic construction in which anaphora is combined with Epiphora. Symploka is often used in folklore.

Didn't the same Turkish sabers cut me down as you?

Not the same Janissary strilchaks shot me as you?

Tomorrow on earth Other people walk, Other people love Good, affectionate and evil.

(V. Simonenko)

In addition to the term "simploka", there is also the term "composition" (lat. Сomplehio - combination, totality, complektor - I cover).

Joint, (collision), anadiplosis (Greek Anadiplosis - doubling), epanastrdfa (Greek Epanastrephe - going back) - repetition of a word or phrase at the end of one sentence and at the beginning of the next.

Why the stylus was my stylus. And the stylet was a stylus.

(S. Malanyuk)

The joint is also called a pickup, because each new line would pick up, reinforce, expand the content of the previous one.

Poetic ring (Greek Epistrophe - torsion) - the repetition of the same words at the beginning and at the end of a sentence, paragraph or stanza.

We think of you on fine summer nights,

In frosty mornings, and in the evening,

And on noisy holidays, and on working days

We think, great-grandchildren, of you.

(V. Simonenko)

Anastrophe (Greek Anastrophe - permutation) - repetition of a phrase.

I embrace you. I hug you.

(M. Vingranovsky)

Refrain (Greek Refrain - chorus) - repetition of one line at the end of a stanza, sentence. The refrain expresses an important idea. In P. Tychyna's poem "The ocean is full" after each stanza the line "the ocean is full" is repeated.

Pleonasm (Greek Pleonasmos - redundancy, exaggeration) is a stylistic turn that contains words with the same or similar meanings: on the sly, do not forget us Yatai, storm-bad weather.

Paronomasia (Greek Para - about, circle, near and onomazo - I call)

A stylistic figure built on the comic convergence of consonant words, different in meaning: vote - make noise, experienced

Educated.

Love the blade of grass and the animal and the sun of tomorrow.

(Lina Kostenko)

Paronomasia is used to create puns: "How is your draft power, does it carry something? - It drags! For two days I took chickens to the steppe" (A. Klyuka, "Telephone Conversation").

Vocal type of paronomasia: words differ only in sounds: howl - branches, trap - emptiness.

The metathetic type of paronyms is formed by permutations of consonants or syllables: voice - logos.

A palindrome is associated with paronomasia (Greek Palindromeo - running back, werewolf or cancer). These are words, phrases, verses that, when read from left to right and vice versa, have the same meaning: the flood. Here is Velichkovsky's cancer poem:

Anna asks we, I'm a mother girl,

Anna is a gift to the world given.

Anna we have and and we are manna.

There is an anagram close to werewolf and metathetic paronomasia (Greek Ana - erases and gramma - letter). This is a rearrangement of letters in a word, which gives a word with a new content: ash is a vine, summer is a body. The Ukrainian folklorist Simonov chose the pseudonym Nomis, formed from the abbreviated surname Simon. With an anagram, a related metagram is a change in the first letter in the word, due to which the content changes. In Anna's poem Pod "let's organize" there are the following lines:

The writers created the MUR, The journalists will have the JUR The theater is united in the TOUR - The echo went all around: gur-gur! Already the rats are squeaking from the kennels: we are also connected, like a wall, and we will call that union - the Rat.

Gradation (lat. Gradatio - increase, strengthening, gradus - step, step) is a stylistic figure in which each subsequent homogeneous word means strengthening or weakening of a certain quality. There are two types of gradation: rising and falling. Increasing indicates a gradual increase, an increase in the quality of the depicted phenomenon. Ascending gradation: "And withers, dries, dies, dies, your only child" (T. Shevchenko). The type of grace is built on the amplification of meanings called straight, ascending or climax (Greek Klimax - stairs):

Anyway,

one goes out

the executioner should be memorized for a long time:

you can shoot the brain,

that gives birth to a soul

thoughts after all not to drive!

(V. Simonenko)

Gradation descending, descending, which reproduces a gradual decrease in the quality selected by the author in the objects of the image, is called reverse, descending or Anti-climax. In Anticlimax, there is a softening of the semantic tension:

I look: the king is coming

To the eldest ... and in the face

How to flood him! ..

The poor fellow licked his lips;

And less in the belly

It's gone!., And then to yourself

Even less ace

In the back; then the smaller

And less than small.

And the small ones.

(T. Shevchenko)

The gradation in which the increase is changed by a narrowing, a recession is called a broken climax. An example of a broken menopause is given in A. Tkachenko's textbook "The Art of the Word. Introduction to Literary Studies":

Already the clouds wash over my shoulders,

I'm already in the sky

Already chest-deep in the sky, already waist-deep,

Already I can see all of Ukraine,

And the world, and the universe, full of mystery,

And everything is blessed in life

Waiting with open arms

So that I jumped up to him below!

And I jumped up... And the woman laughed

A transparent insult to me

That I also didn’t jump up for her

From the stack of gold to the stubble.

(M. Vingranovsky)

Amplification (lat. Atrifsio - increase, spread). This is a stylistic device, which consists in the accumulation of synonyms, homogeneous expressions, antitheses, homogeneous members of a sentence to enhance the emotional impact of poetic language.

I will tear those wreaths that were woven in a heavy day, trample, sweep them into ashes, into dust, into garbage.

(V. Chumak)

Sometimes the prepositions are repeated:

By the clear laughter of a child,

By youthful singing happy

Glorious work is hot.

Forward, the shelves are strict,

Under the flag of freedom

For our clear stars

For our still waters.

(M. Rylsky)

Amplification may consist of individual sentences that are repeated:

I'm still so small, I can only see

I want to see my mother as a cheerful mother,

I want to see the sun in a golden hat,

I want to see the sky in a blue scarf,

I still don't know what Virtue smells like

I still don't know what Meanness tastes like

What color is Envy, whose dimensions are Troubles,

Which is salted Longing, which is indestructible Love,

Which blue-eyed Sincerity, which shimmering Insidiousness,

I still have all the schedules on the shelves ...

Amphibolia (Greek Amphibolia - duality, ambiguity) is an expression that can be interpreted ambiguously. The perception of amphibole depends on the pause:

And I'm on my way - to meet a new spring,

And I'm setting off on a new journey - to meet spring.

(M. Rylsky)

Depending on the pause (comma), the expression "execution cannot be pardoned" can be interpreted differently.

Allusion (lat. Allusio - joke, hint) - a hint at a well-known literary or historical fact. V. Lesin, A. Pulinets, I. Kachurovsky consider allusion to be a rhetorical, stylistic figure. According to A. Tkachenko, this is "the principle of a meaningful interpretation of the text, comparable to its allegorical one. Sometimes it is used as a kind of allegory:" Pyrrhic victory "(accompanied by great sacrifices and was tantamount to defeat), Homeric And such (homeland). Sources of allusion are myths ("Augean stables"), literary works ("The Human Comedy" by O. Balzac).

Aphorism (Greek Aphorismos - a short sentence) is a generalized opinion expressed in a concise form, which is marked by expressiveness and unexpectedness of the judgment. Proverbs and sayings belong to aphorisms.

A proverb is a figurative expression that formulates a certain life pattern or rule and is a generalization of social experience. For example: without asking for a ford, do not go into the water. Not all that glitters is gold. A rolling stone gathers no moss.

A proverb is a stable figurative expression that characterizes a certain life phenomenon. Unlike a proverb, a saying does NOT formulate life patterns or rules. The proverb states events, phenomena, facts or indicates a constant feature of an object. For example: there was no sadness, so I bought a piglet. Every dog has his day. The fifth wheel in the cart. Seven Fridays in a week.

Literary aphorisms distinguish:

2) according to the method of expression (definitive - close to definitions, and slogan - invocative)

Anonymous literary aphorisms M. Gasparov calls the Greek term "gnome" (Greek Gnomos - thought, conclusion) and the Latin "maxim", author's - the Greek term "apophegma". In the ancient tragedy of the gnomes, tragedy ended. Today, the dwarves call a compressed poem with an aphoristic thought: rubai, quatrains.

Sententia (lat. Sententia - thought, judgment) - an expression of aphoristic content. It is common in works of instructive content (tales) and meditative lyrics. In L. Glebov's fable "Titmouse" there is such a maxim:

Never brag until you've done a good job.

Apophegma (Greek Apoph and thegma - a summary, the exact word) - a story or remark of a sage, artist, witty person, gained popularity in polemical and instructive oratorical literature. An example of the apothegm A. Tkachenko finds in Lina Kostenko: "we eat the fruits from the tree of ignorance."

The moral aphorism is also called a maxim.

Maxima (lat. Maxima regula - the highest principle) is a kind of aphorism, a maxim moralistic in content, expressed as a statement of fact or in the form of teaching: "Defeat evil with evil."

A. Tkachenko proposes to divide aphorisms into three groups:

2) anonymous (gnome)

3) transferable (hriya).

Chreia (Greek Chreia from chrad - I inform). According to M. Gasparov's definition, this is a short anecdote about a witty or instructive aphorism, an act of a great man: "Diogenes, seeing a boy who behaved badly, beat his teacher with a stick."

A kind of aphorism paradox. Paradox (Greek Paradoxos - unexpected, strange) - a poetic expression in which an unexpected judgment is expressed, at first glance contradictory, illogical: fair punishment is mercy. Elderberry in the garden, and uncle in Kyiv. If you want your enemy not to know, don't tell your friend. "Don't trust me, I don't know how to lie, // Don't wait for me, I'll come anyway" (V. Simonenko).

Traditional poetics does not consider the forms of attracting previous texts to one's own, in particular paraphrase (a), reminiscence, figurative analogy, stylization, travesty, parody, borrowing, processing, imitation, citation, application, transplantation, collage. A. Tkachenko believes that they should be attributed to interliterary and intertextual interactions.

Paraphrase (a) (Greek Paraphasis - description, translation) - retelling in your own words other people's thoughts or texts. Parodies and imitations are built on paraphrase. This stylistic figure is essentially a transfusion of the previous formismist into a new one. L. Timofeev and S. Turaev identify paraphrase with periphrase. Often prose is translated into verse, and verse into prose is shortened or expanded. For example, there is a translation for children of "1001 Nights", in an abbreviated form of the novel by F. Rabelais "Gargantua and Pantagruel".

Reminiscence (lat. Reminiscencia - mention) - an echo in a work of art of images, expressions, details, motives from a well-known work of another author, a roll call with him. Borrowed words and expressions are rethought, acquiring a new meaning. Based on reminiscences from the "Forest Song" by Lesya Ukrainsky, Platon Voronko's poem "I am the one who tore the dams" is built:

I'm the one that tore the dams

I didn't live in a rock.

The one that tears the dams, and

The one that sits in the rock is the characters of the "Forest Song".

Application (lat. Applicatio - attachment) - the inclusion in the literary text of quotations, proverbs, sayings, aphorisms, fragments of a work of art in an altered form. Mounted from other people's poetic texts, the work is called centbn (lat. Cento - patchwork clothes). I. Kachurovsky uses the term "Kenton". In the "Literary Dictionary-Reference" centone is understood as a stylistic means "which consists in introducing fragments from the works of other authors to the main text of a certain author without reference to them." Yuri Klen in the poem "Ashes of Empires" introduces the lines of M. Zerov's sonnet "Pro domo", Dry-Khmara - from the sonnet "Swans", Oleg Olzhych - "There was a golden age." In addition to the term "centon", the French term "collage" is used (French Collage - gluing).

In addition to the creative use of other people's texts, there is an uncreative, devoid of originality - compilation (lat. Compilatio - rob) or plagiarism (lat. Plagio - steal).

Among the figures forgotten by literary critics, A. Tkachenko recalls imprecation (curse). it was successfully used by A. Dovzhenko in "The Enchanted Desna": "As he povismics that carrot from the damp earth, he will pull out, the queen of heaven, and twist his arms and lowers, break him, holidays to the Lady, fingers and knuckles."

The figures of poetic syntax are called various methods of combining words into sentences, the task of which is to enhance the effect of what was said.

Consider the most common figures of poetic syntax with examples:

Inversion (or permutation) is a change in the usual order of words in an expression. In Russian, word order is considered arbitrary, but there are still generally accepted constructions, deviation from which entails a partial change in meaning. No one will argue that the expressions "I said this", "I said this" and "I said this" have different shades of meaning.

Repeat. In general, repetition is a fundamental feature of poetic speech. Repetitions at the level of phonetics and orthoepy form the rhythmic structure of poems. Repetitions at the level of morphemics (the endings of the final lines of words) form a rhyme. Repetition at the syntax level can also play a big role. Syntactic repetitions include anadiplosis (or junction), anaphora and epiphora. Anadiplosis is a text construction in which the end of one phrase is repeated at the beginning of the next phrase. The technique helps to achieve greater coherence and smoothness of the text. An example is the poem by K. Balmont “I was catching a dream”, where “leaving shadows”, “steps trembled”, etc. are repeated. Anaphora is the repetition of the initial word or group of words in each new line of the poem. An example is the poem by M. Tsvetaeva “The rich fell in love with the poor”, where the words “love” and “do not love” are repeated. Epiphora is the opposite of anaphora. In this case, the words that end lines or phrases are repeated. An example is the song from the movie "The Hussar Ballad", each verse of which ends with the words "a long time ago."

Gradation is a consistent strengthening or weakening of the semantic coloring of words included in a group of homogeneous members. This technique helps to present the phenomenon in its development. For example, N. Zabolotsky in the poem “Road Makers” depicts an explosion with the following sequence of words: “howled, sang, took off ...”

Rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal - these expressions, unlike ordinary questions, exclamations and appeals, do not refer to anyone specific, they do not require an answer or response. The author uses them to give his text greater emotionality and dynamism. For example, the poem "Sail" by M. Lermontov begins with rhetorical questions, and ends with a rhetorical exclamation.

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» » Figures of poetic syntax

Literary study of the syntactic features of a work of art, like the analysis of vocabulary (“poetic dictionary”), is designed to identify aesthetic the function of syntactic devices, their role in the formation of style in its various volumes (author's, genre, national, etc.).

As in the study of vocabulary, the facts of deviations from the literary norm, the knowledge of which provides linguistics, are significant here. In the sphere of syntax, as well as in the sphere of vocabulary, barbarisms, archaisms, dialectisms, etc., are possible, because these two spheres are interconnected: according to B. V. Tomashevsky, “each lexical environment has its own specific syntactic turns” (Theory of literature. Poetics , p.73). In Russian literature, syntactic barbarisms, archaisms, and vernacular are the most common.

Barbarism in syntax occurs if the phrase is built according to the rules of a foreign language. In prose, syntactic barbarisms are more often identified as speech errors: "Drive up to this station and looking to nature through the window, I have hat fell off" in A.P. Chekhov's story "The Book of Complaints" - this gallicism is so obvious that a comic effect arises. In Russian poetry, syntactic barbarisms were sometimes used as signs of high style. For example, in A. S. Pushkin’s ballad “There was a poor knight in the world ...” the line “0n had one vision ...” is an example of such barbarism: the link “he had a vision" appears instead of the combination "to him there was a vision. Here we also encounter syntactic archaism with the traditional function of raising the stylistic height: “There is no prayer Father, nor Son, / Nor to the Holy Spirit forever / It has not happened to a paladin ... ”(it would follow:“ neither the Father nor the Son ”). Syntactic vernacular, as a rule, is present in epic and dramatic works in the language of characters for a realistic reflection of the individual speech style, for the autocharacterization of characters. To this end, Chekhov resorted to vernacular: “Your daddy talked Me, what one court adviser, and now it turns out onet only titular"(“Before the wedding”), “What kind of Turkins are you talking about? It's about those what daughter plays the piano? ("Ionych").

When analyzing a literary text, it is necessary to pay attention to the author's selection of types of syntactic constructions, because this selection can be dictated by the content of the work (motivated by the theme, due to the task of speech expression of the "points of view" of the characters, etc.).

There are peculiarities in the perception of the syntax of a poetic work. In particular, in such works, the length of the phrase is felt differently than in prose. Often in a poem of considerable volume there are only a few sentences. However, the verse division of the text greatly facilitates its reading.

Of particular importance for identifying the specifics of artistic speech is the study stylistic figures(also called rhetorical- in relation to rhetoric, within which the theory of tropes and figures was first developed; syntactic - in relation to syntax as one of the speech aspects of any artistic text).

The doctrine of figures took shape already at the time when the doctrine of style was taking shape, in the era of antiquity; developed and supplemented - in the Middle Ages; finally, it finally turned into a permanent section of normative "poetics" (textbooks on poetics) - in modern times. Tropes and figures were the subject of a single doctrine: if “tropes” is a change in the “natural” meaning of a word, then “figure” is a change in the “natural” word order in a syntactic construction (rearrangement of words, omission of necessary or use of “extra” - from the point of view of “ natural" speech - lexical elements). In ordinary speech, the "figures" that are found are often regarded as speech errors, but within the limits of artistic speech, the same figures are usually singled out as effective means of poetic syntax.

Currently, there are many classifications of stylistic figures, which are based on one or another - quantitative or qualitative - differentiating feature: the verbal composition of the phrase, the logical or psychological correlation of its parts, etc. In this case, when listing especially significant figures, three factors are taken into account : 1) unusual logical or grammatical connection of elements of syntactic constructions; 2) an unusual mutual arrangement of words in a phrase or phrases in a text, as well as elements that are part of different (adjacent) syntactic and rhythmic-syntactic structures (poems, columns), but possessing grammatical similarity; 3) unusual ways of intonational marking of the text with the help of syntactic means. It should be borne in mind that within the same segment of speech, not only different paths, but also different figures can be combined.

To the reception group non-standard connection of wordsinto syntactic unities relate ellipse, anacoluf, sylleps, alogism, amphiboly(figures distinguished by an unusual grammatical connection), as well as gendiadis and enallaga(figures with an unusual semantic connection of elements).

One of the most common syntactic devices not only in fiction, but also in everyday speech is ellipse (gr. ellepsis - abandonment). This is an imitation of a break in a grammatical connection, consisting in the omission of a word or a number of words in a sentence, in which the meaning of the omitted members is easily restored from the general speech context. This technique is most often used in epic and dramatic works when constructing character dialogues: with its help, the authors give life-likeness to the scenes of communication of their characters.

Elliptical speech in a literary text gives the impression of being reliable, because in a life situation of a conversation, an ellipse is one of the main means of composing phrases: when exchanging remarks, it allows you to skip previously spoken words. In colloquial speech, an exclusively practical function is assigned to ellipses: the speaker conveys information to the interlocutor in the required volume, while using a minimum vocabulary. Meanwhile, the use of the ellipse as an expressive means in artistic speech can also be motivated by the author's attitude to the psychologism of the narrative. Often ellipses also denote a building change of states or actions. Such, for example, is their function in the fifth chapter of Eugene Onegin, in the narrative of Tatyana Larina's dream: "Tatyana Oh! and he roar ... "," Tatiana into the forest, the bear behind her ... "

Both in everyday life and in literature, a speech error is recognized anacoluthon (gr. anakoluthos - inconsistent) - incorrect use of grammatical forms in coordination and management. The use of the anacoluf can be justified in cases where the writer emphasizes the expression of the character's speech: "Stop, brothers, stop! You don't sit like that!" (in Krylov's fable "Quartet").

On the contrary, it turns out to be more of a consciously applied technique than a random error in the literature. sylleps (gr. syllpsis - conjugation, capture), which consists in the syntactic design of semantically heterogeneous elements in the form of a series of homogeneous members of the sentence: “This sexual one wore a napkin under his arm and a lot of blackheads on his cheeks” (I.S. Turgenev, “A strange story »).

Alogism (gr. a- a negative particle, logismos - mind) is a syntactic correlation of semantically incompatible parts of a phrase with the help of its service elements, expressing a certain type of logical connection (causal, genus-species relations, etc.): “The car drives fast, but the cook cooks better” (E. Ionesco, “The Bald Singer”).

If the anacoluf is more often seen as a mistake than an artistic device, and the sylleps and alogism are more often a device than a mistake, then amphibolia (gr. amphibolia - ambiguity, ambiguity) is always perceived in two ways. Duality is in its very nature, since amphibole is the syntactic indistinguishability of the subject and direct object, expressed by nouns in similar grammatical forms. (" Hearing sensitive sail annoying ... "in the poem of the same name by O.E. Mandelstam).

Among the rare in Russian literature and therefore especially notable figures is gendiadis (from Gr. hen dia dyoin - one through two), in which complex adjectives are divided into their original constituent parts: “longing road, rail(A. A. Blok, “On the Railway”). Here the word "railroad" was split, as a result of which three words entered into interaction - and the verse acquired an additional meaning.

Words in a verse receive a special semantic connection when the writer uses enallagu (gr. enallage - displacement) - the transfer of a definition to a word adjacent to the one being defined. So, in the line "Through the meat, fat trenches ..." from N. A. Zabolotsky's poem "Wedding", the definition of "fat" became a vivid epithet after being transferred from "meat" to "trench".

Among the figures with unusual arrangement of parts syntactic constructions include various types concurrency and inversions.

Parallelism(from Gr. parallelos - walking side by side) suggests compositional correlation related syntactic segments of the text (lines in a poetic work, sentences in a text, parts in a sentence). Types of parallelism are usually distinguished on the basis of some feature that the first of the correlated constructions possesses, which serves as a model for the author when creating the second one.

Thus, projecting the word order of one syntactic segment onto another, one distinguishes between parallelism straight(“The animal Dog is sleeping, / The bird Sparrow is slumbering” (N.A. Zabolotsky “The signs of the Zodiac are fading ...”) and converted(“Waves are playing, the wind is whistling” (“Sail” by M.Yu. Lermontov). Inverted parallelism is also called chiasmus(gr. chiasmos - x-shape, cruciformity).

When comparing the number of words in paired syntactic segments, parallelism is also distinguished full and incomplete. Full parallelism (its common name is isocolon; gr. isokolon- equivalence) - in the two-word lines of F. I. Tyutchev “The amphorae are empty, / The baskets are overturned” (the poem “The feast is over, the choirs are silent ...”), incomplete - in his unequal lines “Slow down, slow down, evening day, / Continue, last, charm "(poem" Last love ").

The same group of figures includes such a common technique as inversion (lat. inversio - permutation). It manifests itself in the arrangement of words in a phrase or sentence in an order that is different from the natural one. In Russian, for example, the order “subject + predicate”, “definition + defined word” or “preposition + noun in case form, and unnatural - the reverse order.

Inverted words can be placed in a phrase in different ways. At contact inversion, the adjacency of words is preserved (“Like a tragedian in the province Shakespeare's drama... in "Marburg" B.L. Pasternak), with distant - between them wedged other words "Submissive Perun old man alone..." in "Songs about the prophetic Oleg" A.S. Pushkin). In both cases, the unusual position of a single word affects its intonation. In inverted constructions, words sound more expressive and weighty.

To the group of figures marking unusual intonation composition text or parts of it include different types syntactic repetition, as well as tautology, annomination and gradation, polysyndetone and asyndeton.

There are two subgroups of methods repeat. The first includes techniques for repeating individual parts within a sentence. With their help, authors usually emphasize a semantically tense place in a phrase, since any repetition is intonational emphasis. Similar to inversion, repetition can be contact ("It's time, it's time, the horns are blowing..." in the poem by A.S. Pushkin "Count Nulin") or distant ("It's time, my friend, it's time! the heart asks for rest...” in Pushkin’s poem of the same name).

A simple repetition is applied to different units of the text - both to the word (as in the examples given) and to the phrase (“Evening ringing, evening ringing!” translated by I. Kozlov from T. Moore). The repetition of one word in different cases, while maintaining its meaning from ancient times, is recognized as a special figure - polyptotone (gr. polyptoton - polycase): “But human person/ He sent to the Anchar with an imperious look ... ”(Pushkin, Anchar). An equally ancient figure is antanaclasis(gr. aptanaklasis - reflection) - repetition of a word in its original grammatical form, but with a change in meaning. “The last owl is broken and sawn. / And, pinned with a clerical button / Down to the autumn branch head / hanging and meditates head..."(A. V. Eremenko, “In the dense metallurgical forests...”) – here the word “head” is used in the direct, and then in the metonymic sense.

The second subgroup includes repetition figures that do not apply to a sentence, but to a larger part of the text (stanza, syntactic period), sometimes to the entire work. These types of repetition are distinguished by their position in the text. So, anaphora(gr. apaphora – removal; Russian term - unity) - this is the fastening of speech segments (colons, poetic lines) by repeating a word or phrase in the initial position: "It - cool pouring whistle, / it- the clicking of crushed ice floes, / This is the night chilling the leaf, / This is the duel of two nightingales ”(B.L. Pasternak,“ Definition of Poetry ”). Epiphora(gr. eriphora - additive ; Russian term - unity) on the contrary, it connects the ends of speech series with lexical repetition: “Because they turned into a horse virtuous person(...); because they were exhausted virtuous person(...); because they hypocritically call virtuous person; because they don't respect virtuous person(Gogol, Dead Souls, ch. 11). By projecting the principle of epiphora onto a whole poetic text, one can see its development in the phenomenon refrain(for example, in a classic French ballad).

Anadiplosis (gr. anadiplosis - doubling; Russian term - joint) – this is a contact repetition, connecting the end of a speech series with the beginning of the next one. This is how Blok's poems "Oh, spring without end and without edge - / Without end and without edge dream". Anaphora and epiphora often act in small lyrical genres as a structure-forming device. But anadiplosis can also acquire the function of a compositional core around which speech is built.

Opposite to Anadiplosis prosapodosis (gr. prosapodosis - addition; Russian term - ring, coverage), distant repetition, in which the initial element of a syntactic construction is reproduced at the end of the following: "Muddy sky, night cloudy..."("Demons" by A.S. Pushkin). Also, prosapodosis can cover a stanza (S.A. Yesenin’s poem “Shagane you are mine, Shagane ...” is built on ring repetitions) and even the entire text of the work (“Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy ...” A. Blok).

This subgroup also includes a complex figure formed by a combination of anaphora and epiphora within the same segment of the text - simplock (gr. simploce - plexus): "I I don't want Falaley,/ I hate Falalea, / I spit on Falalea, / I crush Falaley (...) I will love Asmodeus sooner / than Falaley!"(F.M. Dostoevsky, "The Village of Stepanchikovo and Its Inhabitants", part 2, ch. 5).

It is possible to reproduce during repetition not only the word as a single sign, but also the meaning torn off from the sign. Tautology (gr. tauto - the same, logos - word), or pleonasm (gr. pleonasmos - surplus), is a figure, when using which the word is not necessarily repeated, but the meaning of some lexical element is necessarily duplicated. To do this, the authors select either synonymous words or periphrastic phrases. So, in A. Eremenko’s poem “Pokryshkin”, a double tautology intonation distinguishes columns against the background of the general flow of speech. "evil bullet bandit evil.

In order to highlight the intonation of a semantically significant speech segment, they also use annomination (lat. anominatio - subscript) - contact repetition of cognate words: "I think I think his own ... "in the "Railway" by N. A. Nekrasov.

Close to repetition figures gradation (lat. gradatio - degree change), in which words, grouped into a series of homogeneous members, have a common semantic meaning (of a feature or action), but their location expresses a consistent change in this meaning. The manifestation of a unifying sign can gradually increase or decrease: “I swear by heaven, no doubt What are you beautiful, undeniable What are you beautiful, truly(...) What are you attractive"("The Fruitless Labors of Love" by Shakespeare, translated by Yu. Korneev). In this phrase, next to "undoubtedly-undoubtedly-true" is the strengthening of one attribute, and next to "beautiful-beautiful-attractive" - the weakening of another.

In addition, to the group of funds intonation markup relate polysyndeton (gr. polysyndeton - polyunion) and asyndeton (gr. asyndeton - incompatibility). Like the gradation that both figures often accompany, they suggest emphatic emphasis on the part of the text corresponding to them in sounding speech. Polysyndeton is essentially not only a polyunion ("And life, and tears, and love" by Pushkin), but also a multi-sentence ("On valor, about deeds, about glory" by Blok). Its function is either to mark the logical sequence of actions (“Autumn” by Pushkin: "AND thoughts in my head are excited in courage, / And light rhymes run towards them, / And fingers ask for a pen..."), or encourage the reader to generalize, to perceive a number of details as an integral image ("I erected a monument to myself not made by hands..." A.S. Pushkin: specific "AND proud grandson of the Slavs, and Finn, and now wild / Tungus, and Kalmyk friend of the steppes" is formed when perceived as generic "peoples of the Russian Empire"). With the help of asyndeton, either the simultaneity of actions is emphasized (“Swede, Russian stabs, hacks, cuts ...” in Pushkin’s “Poltava”), or the fragmentation of the phenomena of the depicted world (“Whisper, timid breathing, / Trills of the nightingale, / Silver and swaying / Sleepy stream" at Fet).

It should be noted that this classification does not include all traditionally distinguished figures of poetic speech. In addition to them, the most common figures are also called a rhetorical question, an appeal and an exclamation.

The use of syntactic figures by the writer leaves an imprint of individuality on his author's style. At present, interest in the study of syntactic techniques as a means of artistic stylistics has increased significantly. The study of poetic syntax has received a new direction: modern science is increasingly analyzing phenomena that are at the junction of different aspects of a literary text, for example, rhythm and syntax, meter and syntax, vocabulary and syntax, etc.