Segmented neutrophils are low in the dog. Basic physiological indicators in dogs. Blood and urine tests

Maybe it was just curiosity that got the best of me, but most likely the concern about the condition of my four-legged friend made me then sort out this “Egyptian cuneiform”. So, what can the results of the tests of his pet tell the owner of a dog? I would like to emphasize that this entire note is purely educational in nature and cannot be used in any way to make a diagnosis. Only a veterinarian can diagnose your pet and cure it!

And it should also be remembered that the values ​​\u200b\u200bof the indicators that are considered to be the “norm” are averaged. Normal values ​​​​may differ significantly depending on the sex, age, size of the animal. In addition, the individual characteristics of the dog should be taken into account: the diseases she has suffered, the medications she takes, her diet, etc. - all this also has a significant impact on the results of the analyzes. In other words, only a qualified specialist can correctly interpret the results of the analyzes. And we will just try to figure out what indicators are measured during the analysis, what are the norms for these indicators, and what the deviation of the values ​​from the norm in one direction or another may indicate.

General urinalysis in dogs

When conducting a general analysis of urine, indicators such as color, transparency, urine reaction and its relative density (specific gravity) are evaluated.

Fine urine color yellow, it is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the urine. If the urine acquires a lighter color (polyuria), then this indicates a decrease in the concentration of dissolved substances, if the concentration increases, then the urine acquires a rich yellow hue (diuresis). The color of urine may change under the influence of certain drugs.

A significant change in the color of urine may indicate serious diseases, such as hematuria (urine color red-brown), bilirubinemia (urine the color of beer), myoglobinuria (urine black), leukocyturia (milky white urine).

Urine of an absolutely healthy dog ​​is completely normal transparent. If the conclusion says that the urine is cloudy, then this may indicate the presence of a large amount of salts, bacteria or epithelium in it.

Urine reactionis its acidity level. Fluctuations in this indicator are due to the animal's diet: a meat diet gives an acidic urine reaction, and a vegetable one gives an alkaline one. If the diet is mixed, then predominantly acidic metabolic products are formed, therefore, a slightly acidic reaction of urine is considered the norm. It should be borne in mind that the reaction of urine must be determined immediately upon delivery to the laboratory, since urine decomposes rather quickly and its pH shifts to the alkaline side due to the release of ammonia.

Specific gravityurine is determined by comparing the density of urine with the density of water. This indicator reflects the functional ability of the kidneys to concentrate urine, based on which the renal function of the animal is assessed. The normal value is the density of urine in the range of 1.02-1.035.

Chemical analysis of urine

When conducting a chemical analysis, the level of protein, glucose, ketone bodies, bilirubin and urobilinogen in the urine is assessed.

Protein

The norm is the content of protein in the urine in an amount of up to 0.3 g / l. An increased amount of protein in the urine is called proteinuria. The causes of proteinuria can be chronic infections or destructive processes in the kidneys, urinary tract infections or urolithiasis, and hemolytic anemia.

Glucose

In the urine of a healthy dog, glucose should not be normal. Glycosuria (the presence of glucose in the urine) may be due to either a high concentration of glucose in the blood or a violation of the processes of glucose filtration and reabsorption in the kidneys. This may indicate diseases such as diabetes and acute renal failure.

Ketone bodies

Ketone bodies are acetoacetic acid, acetone, beta-hydroxybutyric acid. On average, from 20 to 50 mg of ketone bodies are excreted in the urine of an adult dog per day, which are not detected in one-time analyzes, so the absence of ketone bodies in the urine is considered the norm. When detecting ketone bodies in the urine, it is necessary to determine the presence of sugar in the urine. If sugar is detected, the diagnosis of diabetic acidosis (or even coma, depending on the symptoms and condition of the animal) is usually made.

If ketone bodies are found in the urine, but there is no sugar, then the cause may be acidosis associated with starvation, or with gastrointestinal disorders, or with severe toxicosis.

Bilirubin and urobilinogen are bile pigments that can appear in the urine.

The urine of healthy dogs contains a minimal amount of bilirubin, it is not detected by the usual qualitative tests most often used in practice. Therefore, the absence of bile pigments in the urine is considered the norm. The presence of bilirubin in the urine indicates liver damage or impaired bile outflow, while direct (bound) bilirubin increases in the blood.

Urobilinogen is formed in the small intestine from bilirubin excreted in bile. A positive reaction to urobilinogen is not very informative for differential diagnosis, because observed not only with various liver lesions, but also with diseases of the gallbladder, as well as enteritis, constipation, etc.

Microscopy of urine sediment

In the urine sediment, both elements of organic origin (leukocytes, erythrocytes, epithelial cells and cylinders) can be present - this is the so-called organized sediment, and elements of inorganic origin (salts) - this is an unorganized urine sediment.

The presence of red blood cells in the urine is called hematuria. If at the same time there is a change in the color of urine, then we are talking about macrohematuria; if the color of urine remains normal, and erythrocytes are found only under a microscope - about microhematuria. The presence of unchanged erythrocytes in the urine is characteristic of lesions of the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

Hemoglobinuria called the presence of hemoglobin in the urine, which is due to intravascular hemolysis. Urine at the same time changes color to coffee. There are no erythrocytes in the urine sediment.

Leukocytes in the urine of a healthy animal are contained in a minimal amount - no more than 1-2 in the field of view of the microscope. Increased leukocyte count in urine pyuria) indicates inflammatory processes either in the kidneys (pyelonephritis) or in the urinary tract (cystitis, urethritis).

epithelial cellsalmost always present in the urine sediment. It is considered normal if their number in the field of view of the microscope does not exceed 5 pieces. The origin of epithelial cells is different. Squamous epithelial cells that enter the urine, for example, from the vagina, have no diagnostic value. But the appearance in the urine of a large number of transitional epithelial cells (they line the mucous membrane of the bladder, ureters, prostate ducts) may indicate inflammation of these organs, and even possible neoplasms of the urinary tract.

A cylinder is a protein that has coagulated in the renal tubules, as a result of which it takes the shape of the tubules themselves (a “cast” of a cylindrical shape is obtained). The absence of cylinders in the urine sediment is considered the norm, since single cylinders per day can be found in the urine of a healthy animal. Cylindruria(the presence of cylinders in the urine sediment) is a symptom of kidney damage.

Unorganized urine sediment consists of salts that precipitate either as crystals or as amorphous masses. The composition of salts largely depends on the pH of the urine. So, for example, with an acid reaction of urine, uric acid, urates, oxalates are found in it. If the urine reaction is alkaline, it may contain calcium, phosphates.

Normally, urine in the bladder is sterile. However, when urinating, microbes from the lower urethra enter the urine; in a healthy dog, their number does not exceed 10,000 per 1 ml. Under bacteriuria is understood as the detection of bacteria in an amount exceeding the norm, which indicates the presence of a urinary tract infection.

Complete blood count in dogs

Hemoglobin is a blood pigment in red blood cells that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide. An increase in hemoglobin levels can occur due to an increase in the number of red blood cells ( polycythemia), may be due to excessive physical activity. Also, an increase in hemoglobin levels is characteristic of dehydration and thickening of the blood. Decreased hemoglobin levels indicate anemia.

Erythrocytes are non-nuclear blood elements containing hemoglobin. They make up the bulk of the blood cells. An increased number of red blood cells ( erythrocytosis) may be due to bronchopulmonary pathology, heart defects, polycystic or neoplasms of the kidneys or liver, as well as dehydration. A decrease in the number of red blood cells can be caused by anemia, large blood loss, chronic inflammatory processes, and overhydration.

Sedimentation rate of erythrocytes (SOE) in the form of a column when settling blood depends on their quantity, "weight" and shape, as well as on the properties of plasma - the amount of proteins in it and viscosity. An increased ESR value is characteristic of various infectious diseases, inflammatory processes, and tumors. An increased ESR value is also observed during pregnancy.

platelets are platelets formed from bone marrow cells. They are responsible for blood clotting. An increased content of platelets in the blood can be caused by diseases such as polycythemia, myeloid leukemia, inflammatory processes. Also, the platelet count may increase after some surgical operations. A decrease in the number of platelets in the blood is characteristic of systemic autoimmune diseases (lupus erythematosus), aplastic and hemolytic anemia.

Leukocytesare white blood cells produced in the red bone marrow. They perform a very important immune function: they protect the body from foreign substances and microbes. There are different types of leukocytes. Each species has a specific function. Diagnostic value has a change in the number of individual types of leukocytes, and not all leukocytes in total.

An increase in the number of leukocytes ( leukocytosis) can be caused by leukemia, infectious and inflammatory processes, allergic reactions, long-term use of certain medications.

Decrease in the number of leukocytes ( leukopenia ) may be due to infectious pathologies of the bone marrow, hyperfunction of the spleen, genetic abnormalities, anaphylactic shock.

Leukocyte formula is the percentage of different types of leukocytes in the blood.

1. Neutrophils- these are leukocytes responsible for fighting inflammatory and infectious processes in the body, as well as for removing their own dead and dead cells. Young neutrophils have a rod-shaped nucleus, the nucleus of mature neutrophils is segmented. In the diagnosis of inflammation, it is the increase in the number of stab neutrophils (stab shift) that matters. Normally, they make up 60-75% of the total number of leukocytes, stab - up to 6%. An increase in the content of neutrophils in the blood (neutrophilia) indicates the presence of an infectious or inflammatory process in the body, intoxication of the body, or psycho-emotional arousal. A decrease in the number of neutrophils (neutropenia) can be caused by some infectious diseases (most often viral or chronic), bone marrow pathology, and genetic disorders.

3. Basophils- leukocytes involved in immediate type hypersensitivity reactions. Normally, their number is no more than 1% of the total number of leukocytes. An increase in the number of basophils (basophilia) may indicate an allergic reaction to the introduction of a foreign protein (including food allergy), chronic inflammatory processes in the gastrointestinal tract, and blood diseases.

4. Lymphocytesare the main cells of the immune system that fight viral infections. They destroy foreign cells and altered own cells of the body. Lymphocytes provide the so-called specific immunity: they recognize foreign proteins - antigens, and selectively destroy the cells containing them. Lymphocytes secrete antibodies (immunoglobulins) into the blood - these are substances that can block antigen molecules and remove them from the body. Lymphocytes make up 18-25% of the total number of leukocytes.

Lymphocytosis (an increase in the level of lymphocytes) may be due to viral infections or lymphocytic leukemia. A decrease in the level of lymphocytes (lymphopenia) can be caused by the use of corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, as well as malignant neoplasms, or kidney failure, or chronic liver disease, or immunodeficiency states.

5. Monocytes- These are the largest leukocytes, the so-called tissue macrophages. Their function is the final destruction of foreign cells and proteins, foci of inflammation, destroyed tissues. Monocytes are the most important cells of the immune system that are the first to encounter an antigen. Monocytes present antigen to lymphocytes for the development of a full-fledged immune response. Their number is 0-2% of the total number of leukocytes.

The average values ​​of the norm of indicators determined by the general blood test of dogs are shown in the table.

Biochemical blood test of dogs

In a biochemical analysis of the blood of dogs, the content of certain substances in the blood is determined. The table below provides a list of these substances, the average blood levels of these substances in dogs, and possible reasons for the increase and decrease in the amount of these substances in the blood.

In order to make a correct diagnosis for a four-legged patient, in most cases the veterinarian takes a blood test from the dogs. What can be learned from the diagnostic results?

Blood test in dogs: its types

There are two types of blood tests: general and biochemical.

If the doctor has prescribed a general analysis, then he will show the concentration of platelets, leukocytes, erythrocytes, hemoglobin and some other elements.

Evidence of serious disturbances in the functioning of the body are changes in the main biochemical parameters: glucose, total protein, bilirubin, urea nitrogen. To determine them, conduct a biochemical blood test in dogs.

Hemoglobin is a pigment found in red blood cells that transports oxygen and carbon dioxide. A healthy dog ​​contains 74-180 grams per liter of hemoglobin. A decrease in concentration indicates anemia. Hemoglobin increases with excessive physical exertion, prolonged exposure to high altitudes, polycythemia, and also due to dehydration.

Erythrocytes are the cellular elements of the blood, which include hemoglobin. In the normal state - 3.3-8.5 million per microliter. The number of red blood cells increases with dehydration, as well as in dogs suffering from heart disease, diseases of the bronchopulmonary system, polycystic disease, with neoplasms in the liver or kidneys. The content of red blood cells decreases with anemia, blood loss, hyperhydration, chronic inflammation.

If a blood test in dogs shows an elevated ESR, then the pet has an infection, inflammation, or a carcinogenic tumor in the body. Another reason is pregnancy. The normal settling rate is up to 13 millimeters per hour.

Platelets are the cellular elements of the blood that are responsible for the coagulation properties. In a healthy dog, there are about 500,000 per microliter. An increased concentration of platelets can signal inflammation, myeloid leukemia, polycythemia, or be a consequence of a surgery. The number of red blood cells decreases in hemolytic anemia and autoimmune diseases.

Leukocytes are the cellular elements of the blood that protect the body from foreign elements and pathogenic microorganisms. The norm is 6-18.6 thousand per microliter. The number of leukocytes increases (this condition is called leukocytosis) with infections, inflammations, allergies, long-term medication. The content of white blood cells decreases (in this case, they talk about leukopenia) with bone marrow infections, anaphylactic shock, hereditary pathologies, hyperfunction of the spleen.

Biochemical blood test in dogs

In the normal state, the concentration of glucose is 4-6 millimoles per liter. An increase in the indicator is evidence of diabetes mellitus, pancreatic necrosis, hyperthyroidism, a stressful state, and a decrease indicates insulinoma or that an overdose of insulin has occurred.

Total protein is normally 50-77 grams per liter. If a blood test in dogs revealed an elevated protein level, then the four-legged friend suffers from autoimmune diseases or chronic inflammatory diseases. It can also be indicative of dehydration. The protein level decreases with severe blood loss, prolonged fasting, vitamin deficiency, heart failure, enteritis, and also in the case of the development of malignant neoplasms.

Bilirubin (it is part of bile) should normally not exceed 7.5 micromoles per liter. Otherwise, it is possible to have hepatitis, cirrhosis or neoplasms in the liver.

Urea nitrogen in healthy animals is 4.3-8.9 millimoles per liter. The concentration decreases due to malfunctions in the functioning of the kidneys, acute hepatic dystrophy, and increases - with cirrhosis of the liver.

Having studied all the results, the veterinarian will be able to make the correct diagnosis of the four-legged patient and select effective methods of therapy.

A biochemical blood test is necessary to get an idea about the work of the internal organs of the animal's body, to determine the content of trace elements and vitamins in the blood. This is one of the methods of laboratory diagnostics, which is informative for a veterinarian and has a high degree of reliability.

Biochemical analysis involves a laboratory study of the following blood parameters:

Squirrels

• total protein
• Albumins
• Alpha globulins
• beta globulins
• Gamma globulins

Enzymes

• Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT)
• Aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
• Amylase
• Phosphatase alkaline

Lipids

• total cholesterol

Carbohydrates

• Glucose

Pigments

• Bilirubin total

low molecular weight nitrogenous substances

Creatinine

Urea nitrogen

Residual nitrogen

Urea

Inorganic substances and vitamins

Calcium

There are certain norms for a biochemical blood test. Deviation from these indicators is a sign of various disorders in the activity of the body.

The results of a biochemical blood test can indicate diseases that are completely independent of each other. Only a professional - an experienced and qualified doctor can correctly assess the state of health of an animal, give a correct, reliable decoding of a biochemical blood test.

total protein

Total protein is an organic polymer made up of amino acids.

The term "total protein" means the total concentration of albumin and globulins in the blood serum. In the body, a common protein performs the following functions: it participates in blood clotting, maintains a constant blood pH, performs a transport function, participates in immune reactions, and many other functions.

Norms of total protein in the blood of cats and dogs: 60.0-80.0 g / l

1.Protein boost may be seen with:

a) acute and chronic infectious diseases,

b) oncological diseases,

c) dehydration of the body.

2. Reduced protein may be with:

a) pancreatitis

b) liver diseases (cirrhosis, hepatitis, liver cancer, toxic liver damage)

c) intestinal disease (gastroenterocolitis) dysfunction of the gastrointestinal tract

d) acute and chronic bleeding

e) kidney disease, accompanied by a significant loss of protein in the urine (glomerulonephritis, etc.)

f) decrease in protein synthesis in the liver (hepatitis, cirrhosis)

g) increased protein loss during blood loss, extensive burns, trauma, tumors, ascites, chronic and acute inflammation

h) oncological disease.

i) during fasting, strong physical exertion.

Albumen

Albumin is the main blood protein produced in the liver of an animal. Albumins are isolated into a separate group of proteins - the so-called protein fractions. Changes in the ratio of individual protein fractions in the blood often give the doctor more significant information than just the total protein.

Albumins 45.0-67.0% in the blood of cats and dogs.

1. Increase albumin in the blood occurs with dehydration, loss of fluid by the body,

2.Downgrade content albumin in the blood:

a) chronic liver diseases (hepatitis, cirrhosis, liver tumors)

b) bowel disease

c) sepsis, infectious diseases, purulent processes

f) malignant tumors

g) heart failure

h) drug overdose

i) is a consequence of starvation, insufficient intake of proteins with food.

Globulin fractions:

Alpha globulins are normal 10.0-12.0%

Beta globulins 8.0-10.0%

Gamma globulins 15.0-17.0%

beta globulins: 1. Fraction increase - with hepatitis, cirrhosis and other liver damage.

Gamma globulins: 1. Fraction increase with cirrhosis, hepatitis, infectious diseases.

2.Faction reduction - 14 days after vaccination, with kidney disease, with immunodeficiency states.

Types of proteinograms:

1. Type of acute inflammatory processes

A pronounced decrease in the content of albumins and an increased content of alpha globulins, an increase in gamma globulins.

It is observed at the initial stage of pneumonia, pleurisy, acute polyarthritis, acute infectious diseases and sepsis.

2. Type of subacute and chronic inflammation

Decreased albumin content, increased alpha and gamma globulins

Observed in the late stage of pneumonia, chronic endocarditis, cholecystitis, urocystitis, pyelonephritis

3. Type of nephrotic symptom complex

Decrease in albumins, increase in alpha and beta globulins, moderate decrease in gamma globulins.

Lipoid and amyloid nephrosis, nephritis, nephrosclerosis, cachexia.

4. Type of malignant neoplasms

A sharp decrease in albumin with a significant increase in all globulin fractions, especially beta globulins.

Primary neoplasms of various localization, metastases of neoplasms.

5. Type of hepatitis

A moderate decrease in albumin, an increase in gamma globulins, a sharp increase in beta globulins.

With hepatitis, the consequences of toxic damage to the liver (improper feeding, improper use of drugs), some forms of polyarthritis, dermatosis, malignant neoplasms of the hematopoietic and lymphoid apparatus.

6. Type of cirrhosis

A significant decrease in albumin with a strong increase in gamma globulins

7. Type of mechanical (subhepatic) jaundice

Decrease in albumins and moderate increase in alpha, beta and gamma albumins.

Abturative jaundice, cancer of the biliary tract and head of the pancreas.

ALT

AlAT (ALT) or alanine aminotransferase is a liver enzyme that is involved in amino acid metabolism. Contains ALT in the liver, kidneys, heart muscle, skeletal muscles.

With the destruction of the cells of these organs, caused by various pathological processes, ALT is released into the blood of the animal's body. Norm of ALT in the blood of cats and dogs: 1.6-7.6 IU

1. Increase ALT - a sign of serious illness:

a) liver toxicity

b) cirrhosis of the liver

c) neoplasm of the liver

d) toxic effect on the liver of drugs (antibiotics, etc.)

e) heart failure

f) pancreatitis

i) skeletal muscle injury and necrosis

2.Decrease in the level of ALT seen with:

a) severe liver diseases - necrosis, cirrhosis (with a decrease in the number of cells synthesizing ALT)

b) vitamin B6 deficiency.

AST

AST (AST) or aspartate aminotransferase is a cellular enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism. AST is found in the tissues of the heart, liver, kidneys, nervous tissue, skeletal muscles and other organs.

The norm of AST in the blood is 1.6-6.7 IU

1. Increase in AST in the blood observed if there is a disease in the body:

a) viral, toxic hepatitis

b) acute pancreatitis

c) liver neoplasms

e) heart failure.

f) skeletal muscle injuries, burns, heat stroke.

2. Lowering the level of AST in the blood due to severe diseases, liver rupture and vitamin B6 deficiency.

Alkaline phosphatase

Alkaline phosphatase is involved in the exchange of phosphoric acid, splitting it from organic compounds and promotes the transport of phosphorus in the body. The highest level of alkaline phosphatase is in bone tissue, intestinal mucosa, in the placenta and mammary gland during lactation.

The rate of alkaline phosphatase in the blood of dogs and cats is 8.0-28.0 IU / l. Alkaline phosphatase affects bone growth, therefore, in growing organisms, its content is higher than in adults.

1. Increased alkaline phosphatase in the blood may be

a) bone disease, including bone tumors (sarcoma), cancer metastases in the bone

b) hyperparathyroidism

c) lymphogranulomatosis with bone lesions

d) osteodystrophy

e) liver diseases (cirrhosis, cancer, infectious hepatitis)

f) tumors of the biliary tract

g) lung infarction, kidney infarction.

h) lack of calcium and phosphates in food, from an overdose of vitamin C and as a result of taking certain medications.

2. Decreased level of alkaline phosphatase

a) with hypothyroidism,

b) bone growth disorders,

c) lack of zinc, magnesium, vitamin B12 or C in food,

d) anemia (anemia).

e) taking medications can also cause a decrease in alkaline phosphatase in the blood.

Pancreatic amylase

Pancreatic amylase is an enzyme involved in the breakdown of starch and other carbohydrates in the duodenal lumen.

Norms of pancreatic amylase - 35.0-70.0 G \ hour * l

1. Increased amylase - a symptom of the following diseases:

a) acute, chronic pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)

b) pancreatic cyst,

c) tumor in the pancreatic duct

d) acute peritonitis

e) diseases of the biliary tract (cholecystitis)

f) renal insufficiency.

2. Reducing the content of amylase may be with pancreatic insufficiency, acute and chronic hepatitis.

Bilirubin

Bilirubin is a yellow-red pigment, a breakdown product of hemoglobin and some other blood components. Bilirubin is found in bile. Bilirubin analysis shows how the animal's liver works. In the blood serum, bilirubin occurs in the following forms: direct bilirubin, indirect bilirubin. Together, these forms form the total blood bilirubin.

Norms of total bilirubin: 0.02-0.4 mg%

1. Increased bilirubin - a symptom of the following disorders in the activity of the body:

a) lack of vitamin B 12

b) liver neoplasms

c) hepatitis

d) primary cirrhosis of the liver

e) toxic, drug poisoning of the liver

Calcium

Calcium (Ca, Calcium) is an inorganic element in the animal body.

The biological role of calcium in the body is great:

Calcium maintains a normal heart rhythm, just like magnesium, calcium contributes to the health of the cardiovascular system in general,

Participates in the metabolism of iron in the body, regulates enzyme activity,

Contributes to the normal functioning of the nervous system, the transmission of nerve impulses,

Phosphorus and calcium in balance make bones strong,

Participates in blood coagulation, regulates the permeability of cell membranes,

Normalizes the work of some endocrine glands,

Participates in muscle contraction.

The rate of calcium in the blood of dogs and cats: 9.5-12.0 mg%

Calcium enters the body of the animal with food, the absorption of calcium occurs in the intestines, the exchange in the bones. Calcium is excreted from the body by the kidneys. The balance of these processes ensures the constancy of the calcium content in the blood.

The excretion and absorption of calcium is under the control of hormones (parathyroid hormone, etc.) and calcitriol - vitamin D3. In order for calcium to be absorbed, there must be enough vitamin D in the body.

1. Too much calcium or hypercalcemia can be caused by the following disorders in the body:

a) increased function of the parathyroid glands (primary hyperparathyroidism)

b) malignant tumors with bone lesions (metastases, myeloma, leukemia)

c) excess vitamin D

d) dehydration

e) acute renal failure.

2. Lack of calcium or hypocalcemia - a symptom of the following diseases:

a) rickets (vitamin D deficiency)

b) osteodystrophy

c) decreased thyroid function

d) chronic renal failure

e) magnesium deficiency

f) pancreatitis

g) obstructive jaundice, liver failure

cachexia.

The lack of calcium can also be associated with the use of medications - anticancer and anticonvulsants.

Calcium deficiency in the body is manifested by muscle cramps, nervousness.

Phosphorus

Phosphorus (P) - necessary for the normal functioning of the central nervous system.

Phosphorus compounds are present in every cell of the body and are involved in almost all physiological chemical reactions. The norm in the body of dogs and cats is 6.0-7.0 mg%.

Phosphorus is a part of nucleic acids that take part in the processes of growth, cell division, storage and use of genetic information,

phosphorus is contained in the bones of the skeleton (about 85% of the total phosphorus in the body), it is necessary for the formation of a normal structure of teeth and gums, ensures the proper functioning of the heart and kidneys,

participates in the processes of accumulation and release of energy in cells,

participates in the transmission of nerve impulses, helps the metabolism of fats and starches.

1. Excess phosphorus in the blood, or hyperphosphatemia, can cause the following processes:

a) destruction of bone tissue (tumors, leukemia)

b) excess vitamin D

c) healing of bone fractures

d) decreased function of the parathyroid glands (hypoparathyroidism)

e) acute and chronic renal failure

f) osteodystrophy

h) cirrhosis.

Usually, phosphorus is higher than normal due to the intake of anticancer drugs, while phosphate is released into the blood.

2.Lack of phosphorus should be replenished regularly by eating foods containing phosphorus.

A significant decrease in the level of phosphorus in the blood - hypophosphatemia - a symptom of the following diseases:

a) lack of growth hormone

b) vitamin D deficiency (rickets)

c) periodontal disease

d) malabsorption of phosphorus, severe diarrhea, vomiting

e) hypercalcemia

f) increased function of the parathyroid glands (hyperparathyroidism)

g) hyperinsulinemia (in the treatment of diabetes mellitus).

Glucose

Glucose is the main indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. More than half of the energy our body uses comes from the oxidation of glucose.

The concentration of glucose in the blood is regulated by the hormone insulin, which is the main hormone of the pancreas. With its deficiency, the level of glucose in the blood rises.

The norm of glucose in animals is 4.2-9.0 mmol / l

1. Increased glucose (hyperglycemia) with:

a) diabetes mellitus

b) endocrine disorders

c) acute and chronic pancreatitis

d) pancreatic tumors

e) chronic diseases of the liver and kidneys

f) cerebral hemorrhage

2. Reduced glucose (hypoglycemia) - a characteristic symptom for:

a) diseases of the pancreas (hyperplasia, adenoma or cancer)

hypothyroidism,

b) liver diseases (cirrhosis, hepatitis, cancer),

c) adrenal cancer, stomach cancer,

d) arsenic poisoning or overdose of certain medications.

Glucose analysis will show a decrease or increase in glucose levels after exercise.

Potassium

Potassium is contained in the cells, regulates the water balance in the body and normalizes the rhythm of the heart. Potassium affects the functioning of many cells in the body, especially nerve and muscle cells.

1. Excess potassium in the blood - hyperkalemia is a sign of the following disorders in the body of the animal:

a) cell damage (hemolysis - destruction of blood cells, severe starvation, convulsions, severe injuries, deep burns),

b) dehydration,

d) acidosis,

e) acute renal failure,

f) adrenal insufficiency,

g) increase in the intake of potassium salts.

Usually, potassium is elevated due to the intake of anticancer, anti-inflammatory drugs and some other drugs.

2. Potassium deficiency (hypokalemia) - a symptom of disorders such as:

a) hypoglycemia

b) dropsy

c) chronic fasting

d) prolonged vomiting and diarrhea

e) impaired renal function, acidosis, renal failure

f) an excess of hormones of the adrenal cortex

g) magnesium deficiency.

Urea

Urea is an active substance, the main product of protein breakdown. Urea is produced by the liver from ammonia and is involved in the process of concentrating urine.

In the process of synthesis of urea, ammonia is neutralized - a very toxic substance for the body. Urea is excreted from the body by the kidneys. The rate of urea in the blood of cats and dogs is 30.0-45.0 mg%

1. Increased urea in the blood - a symptom of serious disorders in the body:

a) kidney disease (glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, polycystic kidney disease),

b) heart failure,

c) violation of the outflow of urine (bladder tumor, prostate adenoma, bladder stones),

d) leukemia, malignant tumors,

e) severe bleeding,

f) intestinal obstruction,

g) shock, fever,

An increase in urea occurs after exercise, due to the intake of androgens, glucocorticoids.

2. Urea analysis in the blood will show a decrease in the level of urea with such disorders of the liver as hepatitis, cirrhosis, hepatic coma. A decrease in urea in the blood occurs during pregnancy, phosphorus or arsenic poisoning.

Creatinine

Creatinine is the end product of protein metabolism. Creatinine is formed in the liver and then released into the blood, is involved in the energy metabolism of muscle and other tissues. Creatinine is excreted from the body by the kidneys with urine, so creatinine is an important indicator of kidney activity.

1. Increasing creatinine - a symptom of acute and chronic renal failure, hyperthyroidism. The level of creatinine increases after taking certain medications, with dehydration, after mechanical, surgical muscle lesions.

2.Decrease in creatinine in the blood, which occurs during fasting, a decrease in muscle mass, during pregnancy, after taking corticosteroids.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol or cholesterol is an organic compound, the most important component of fat metabolism.

The role of cholesterol in the body:

cholesterol is used to build cell membranes,

in the liver, cholesterol is a precursor of bile,

cholesterol is involved in the synthesis of sex hormones, in the synthesis of vitamin D.

Norms of cholesterol in dogs and cats: 3.5-6.0 mol / l

1. High cholesterol or hypercholesterolemia leads to the formation of atherosclerotic plaques: cholesterol attaches to the walls of blood vessels, narrowing the lumen inside them. Formed on cholesterol plaques blood clots that can break off and enter the bloodstream, causing blockage of blood vessels in various organs and tissues, which can lead to atherosclerosis and other diseases.

Hypercholesterolemia is a symptom of the following diseases:

a) ischemic heart disease,

b) atherosclerosis

c) liver disease (primary cirrhosis)

d) kidney diseases (glomerulonephritis, chronic renal failure, nephrotic syndrome)

e) chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer

f) diabetes mellitus

g) hypothyroidism

h) obesity

i) somatotropic hormone (GH) deficiency

2.Cholesterol lowering occurs when there is a violation of the absorption of fats, starvation, extensive burns.

Lowering cholesterol can be a symptom of the following diseases:

a) hyperthyroidism,

b) chronic heart failure,

c) megaloblastic anemia,

d) sepsis,

e) acute infectious diseases,

f) end-stage liver cirrhosis, liver cancer,

g) chronic lung diseases.

Biochemical and clinical blood tests will be taken by our specialists from the patient to make and clarify the diagnosis at your home. Analyzes are done on the basis of the Veterinary Academy, the deadline is the next day after 19-00 hours.

HEMOGLOBIN

Reasons for an increase in hemoglobin concentration:
1. Myeloproliferative diseases (erythremia);
2. Primary and secondary erythrocytosis;
3. Dehydration;

Causes of a decrease in hemoglobin concentration:
1. Iron deficiency anemia (relatively moderate decrease - up to 85 g / l, less often - more pronounced - up to 60-80 g / l);
2. Anemia due to acute blood loss (significant reduction - up to 50-80 g/l);
3. Hypoplastic anemia (significant decrease - up to 50-80 g/l);
4. Hemolytic anemia after hemolytic crisis (significant decrease - up to 50-80 g/l);
5. B12 - deficiency anemia (significant decrease - up to 50-80 g / l);
6. Anemia associated with neoplasia and/or leukemia;
7. Hyperhydration (hydremic plethora).

Reasons for a false increase in hemoglobin concentration:
1. Hypertriglyceridemia;
2. High leukocytosis;
3. Progressive liver diseases;
4. Sickle cell anemia (appearance of hemoglobin S);
5. Multiple myeloma (with multiple myeloma (plasmocytoma) with the appearance of a large number of easily precipitating globulins).

HEMATOCRIT

Reasons for a decrease in hematocrit:
1. Anemia of various origins (may decrease to 25-15%);
2. An increase in the volume of circulating blood (pregnancy, especially the 2nd half, hyperproteinemia);
3. Hyperhydration.

Causes of an increase in hematocrit:
1. Primary erythrocytosis (erythremia) (increases to 55-65%);
2. Erythrocytosis caused by hypoxia of various origins (secondary, rises to 50-55%);
3. Erythrocytosis in neoplasms of the kidneys, accompanied by increased formation of erythropoietin (secondary, increases to 50-55%);
4. Erythrocytosis associated with polycystic and hydronephrosis of the kidneys (secondary, increases to 50-55%);
5. Reducing the volume of circulating plasma (burn disease, peritonitis, repeated vomiting, diarrhea, malabsorption, etc.);
6. Dehydration.
Hematocrit fluctuations are normal.
The ability of the spleen to contract and expand can cause significant changes in hematocrit, especially in dogs.

Causes of a 30% increase in hematocrit in cats and 40% in dogs due to contraction of the spleen:
1. Physical activity immediately before taking blood;
2. Excitement before taking blood.
Reasons for a drop in hematocrit below the standard range due to spleen enlargement:
1. Anesthesia, especially when using barbiturates.
The most complete information is provided by the simultaneous assessment of hematocrit and total protein concentration in plasma.
Interpretation of the data for determining the hematocrit value and the concentration of total protein in plasma:

Normal hematocrit
1. Loss of protein through the gastrointestinal tract;
2. Priteinuria;
3. Severe liver disease;
4. Vasculitis.
b) The normal concentration of total protein in plasma is the normal state.
1. Increasing protein synthesis;
2. Anemia masked by dehydration.

High hematocrit
a) Low concentration of total protein in plasma - a combination of "shrinkage" of the spleen with loss of protein.
1. "Reduction" of the spleen;
2. Primary or secondary erythrocytosis;
3. Hypoproteinemia masked by dehydration.
c) High concentration of total protein in plasma - dehydration.

Low hematocrit
a) Low concentration of total protein in plasma:
1. Significant current or recent blood loss;
2. Over-hydration.
b) Normal concentration of total protein in plasma:
1. Increased destruction of red blood cells;
2. Decreased production of red blood cells;
3. Chronic blood loss.
c) High concentration of total protein in plasma:
1. Anemia in inflammatory diseases;
2. Multiple myeloma;
3. Lymphoproliferative diseases.

AVERAGE RED CELL VOLUME

Macrocytosis (high MCV values) - causes:
1. Hypotonic nature of water and electrolyte balance disorders;
2. Regenerative anemia;
3. Non-regenerative anemia due to impaired immune system and/or myelofibrosis (in some dogs);
4. Myeloproliferative disorders;
5. Regenerative anemia in cats - carriers of the feline leukemia virus;
6. Idiopathic macrocytosis (without anemia or reticulocytosis) in poodles;
7. Hereditary stomatocytosis (dogs, with a normal or slightly increased number of reticulocytes);
8. Hyperthyroidism in cats (slightly elevated with normal or elevated hematocrit);
9. Newborn animals.

False macrocytosis - causes:
1. Artifact due to erythrocyte agglutination (in immune-mediated disorders);
2. Persistent hypernatremia (when blood is diluted with a liquid before counting the number of red blood cells in an electric meter);
3. Long-term storage of blood samples.
Microcytosis (low MCV values) - causes:
1. Hypertonic nature of the violation of water and electrolyte balance;
2. Iron deficiency anemia due to chronic bleeding in adult animals (about a month after their onset due to the depletion of iron in the body);
3. Iron deficiency alimentary anemia in suckling animals;
4. Primary erythrocytosis (dogs);
5. Long-term therapy with recombinant erythropoietin (dogs);
6. Violations of heme synthesis - prolonged deficiency of copper, pyridoxine, lead poisoning, medicinal substances (chloramphenicol);
7. Anemia in inflammatory diseases (MCV is slightly reduced or in the lower normal range);
8. Portosystemic anastomosis (dogs with normal or slightly reduced hematocrit)
9. Portosystemic anastomosis and hepatic lipidosis in cats (mild decrease in MVC);
10. May be with myeloproliferative disorders;
11. Violation of erythropoiesis in English Springer Spaniels (in combination with polymyopathy and heart disease);
12. Persistent elliptocytosis (in crossbred dogs as a result of the absence of one of the proteins in the erythrocyte membrane);
13. Idiopathic microcytosis in some breeds of Japanese Great Danes (Akita and Shiba) - not accompanied by anemia.

False microcytosis - causes (only when determined in an electronic counter):
1. Severe anemia or severe thrombocytosis (if platelets are taken into account with MCV when counting with an electronic counter);
2. Persistent hyponatremia in dogs (due to erythrocyte shrinkage when diluting blood in vitro to count erythrocytes in an electronic counter).

AVERAGE CONCENTRATION OF HEMOGLOBIN IN ERYTHROCYTES
Mean erythrocyte hemoglobin concentration (MCHC)- an indicator of saturation of erythrocytes with hemoglobin.
In hematology analyzers, the value is calculated automatically or calculated by the formula: MCHC = (Hb (g \ dl) \ Ht (%)) x100
Normally, the average concentration of hemoglobin in erythrocytes in dogs is 32.0-36.0 g/dl, in cats 30.0-36.0 g/dl.

An increase in MCHC (it happens extremely rarely) - causes:
1. Hyperchromic anemia (spherocytosis, ovalocytosis);
2. Hyperosmolar disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism.

False increase in MCHC (artifact) - causes:
1. Hemolysis of erythrocytes in vivo and in vitro;
2. Lipemia;
3. The presence of Heinz bodies in erythrocytes;
4. Agglutination of erythrocytes in the presence of cold agglutinins (when counting in an electric meter).

Decrease in MCHC - reasons:
1. Regenerative anemia (if there are many stress reticulocytes in the blood);
2. Chronic iron deficiency anemia;
3. Hereditary stomatocytosis (dogs);
4. Hypoosmolar disorders of water and electrolyte metabolism.
False MCHC Downgrade- in dogs and cats with hypernatremia (because the cells swell when blood is diluted before counting in an electronic counter).

AVERAGE HEMOGLOBIN CONTENT IN ERYTHROCYTE
Calculation of the average content of hemoglobin in an erythrocyte (MCH):
MCH = Hb (g / l) / number of red blood cells (x1012 / l)
Normal in dogs is 19-24.5 pg, in cats 13-17 pg.
The indicator does not have independent significance, since it directly depends on the average volume of an erythrocyte and the average concentration of hemoglobin in an erythrocyte. It usually correlates directly with the value of the mean volume of erythrocytes, except in cases where macrocytic hypochromic erythrocytes are present in the blood of animals.

Anemia has been classified according to erythrocyte parameters, taking into account the average erythrocyte volume (MCV) and the average concentration of hemoglobin in the cell (MCHC) - see below.

NUMBER OF ERYTHROCYTES
Normally, the content of erythrocytes in the blood in dogs is 5.2 - 8.4 x 1012 / l, in cats 6.6 - 9.4 x 1012 / l.
Erythrocytosis - an increase in the content of red blood cells in the blood.

Relative erythrocytosis- due to a decrease in the volume of circulating blood or the release of red blood cells from the blood depots ("reduction" of the spleen).

Absolute erythrocytosis- an increase in the mass of circulating red blood cells due to increased hematopoiesis.

Erythrocytopenia is a decrease in the number of red blood cells in the blood.

Classification of anemia by erythrocyte parameters, taking into account the average erythrocyte volume (MCV) and the average concentration of hemoglobin in the cell (MCHC)

b) Macrocytic normochromic anemia:
1. Regenerative anemia (the average concentration of hemoglobin in the erythrocyte is not always reduced);
2. In infections caused by feline leukemia virus without reticulocytosis (usually);
3. Erythroleukemia (acute myeloid leukemia) and myelodysplastic syndromes;
4. Non-regenerative immune-mediated anemia and/or myelofibrosis in dogs;
5. Macrocytosis in poodles (healthy mini-poodles without anemia);
6. Cats with hyperthyroidism (weak macrocytosis without anemia);
7. Insufficiency of folates (folic acid) - rarely.

c) Macrocytic hypochromic anemia:
1. Regenerative anemia with marked reticulocytosis;
2. Hereditary stomatocytosis in dogs (often mild reticulocytosis);
3. Increased osmotic instability of erythrocytes of Abyssinian and Somali cats (reticulocytosis is usually present);

d) Anemia microcytic or normocytic hypochromic:
1. Chronic iron deficiency (months in adult animals, weeks in sucklings);
2. Portosystemic shunts (often without anemia);
3. Anemia in inflammatory diseases (usually normocytic);
4. Hepatic lipidosis in cats (usually normocytic);
5. Normal condition for Japanese Akita and Shiba dogs (no anemia);
6. Long-term treatment with recombinant human erythropoietin (moderate anemia);
7. Copper deficiency (rare);
8. Drugs or agents that inhibit gemma synthesis;
9. Myeloproliferative disorders with impaired iron metabolism (rarely);
10. Pyridoxine deficiency;
11. Familial disorder of erythropoiesis in English Springer Spaniels (rare);
12. Hereditary elliptocytosis in dogs (rare).

NUMBER OF PLATELETS

Thrombocytosis is an increase in the number of platelets in the blood.

The reasons:
I. Thrombocytopenia associated with a decrease in the formation of platelets (insufficiency of hematopoiesis).
a) acquired
1. Cytotoxic damage to the red bone marrow:
- cytotoxic anticancer chemotherapeutic drugs;
 introduction of estrogens (dogs);
- cytotoxic drugs: chloramphenicol (cats), phenylbutazone (dogs), trimetoptim-sulfadiazine (dogs), albendazole (dogs), griseofulvin (cats), probably thiacetarsemide, meclofenamic acid and quinine (dogs);
- cytotoxic estrogens produced by tumors from Sertoli cells, interstitial cells and granulosa cell tumors (dogs);
 increase in the concentration of cytotoxic estrogens with functioning cystic ovaries (dogs).
2. Infectious agents:
- Ehrlichia canis (dogs);
- parvovirus (dogs);
 infection with feline leukemia virus (FLK-infection);
- panleukopenia (cats - rarely);
- Infection with the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV infection).
3. Immune-mediated thrombocytopenia with death of megakaryocytes.
4. Irradiation.
5. Myelophthisis:
- myelogenous leukemia;
- lymphoid leukemia;
- multiple myeloma;
- myelodysplastic syndromes;
- myelofibrosis;
- osteosclerosis;
- metastatic lymphomas;
- Metastasizing mast cell tumors.
6. Amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia (rarely);
7. Long-term use of recombinant thrombopoietin;
8. Absence of endogenous thrombopoietin.
b) hereditary
1. Moderate cyclic thrombocytopenia with an undulating decrease and increase in platelet production in gray collies with hereditary cyclic hematopoiesis;
2. Thrombocytopenia with the appearance of macroplatelets in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels (asymptomatic).
II. Thrombocytopenia due to increased destruction of platelets:
1. Immune-mediated:
 primary autoimmune (idiopathic) - idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (may be combined with autoimmune hemolytic anemia - Evans syndrome) - common in dogs, more often in females, breeds: cocker spaniels, dwarf and toy poodles, Old English and German shepherds;
 secondary in systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis;
 secondary in allergic and drug-allergic;
 secondary in infectious diseases accompanied by deposition of antigen-antibody-complement complexes on the surface of platelets (with ehrlichiosis, rickettsiosis);
 secondary in chronic lymphocytic leukemia.
2. Haptenic - associated with hypersensitivity to certain drugs (drug-toxic) and uremia;
3. Isoimmune (posttransfusion thrombocytopenia);
4. Infectious processes (viremia and septicemia, some inflammations).
III. Thrombocytopenia due to increased platelet utilization:
1. DIC;
2. Hemangiosarcoma (dogs);
3. Vasculitis (for example, with viral peritonitis in cats);
4. Other disorders causing damage to the endothelium;
5. Inflammatory processes (due to damage to the endothelium or an increase in the concentration of inflammatory cytokines, especially the adhesion factor and platelet aggregation);
6. Bites of snakes.
IV. Thrombocytopenia associated with increased platelet sequestration (deposition):
1. Sequestration in the hemangioma;
2. Sequestration and destruction in the spleen with hypersplenism;
3. Sequestration and destruction in the spleen with splenomegaly (with hereditary hemolytic anemia, autoimmune diseases, infectious diseases, spleen lymphoma, congestion in the spleen, myeloproliferative diseases with splenomegaly, etc.);
4. Hypothermia.
V. Thrombocytopenia associated with external bleeding:
1. Acute bleeding (minor thrombocytopenia);
2. Massive blood loss associated with poisoning with anticoagulant rodenticides (pronounced thrombocytopenia in dogs);
3. When transfusion of platelet-depleted donor blood or erythrocyte mass to animals that have suffered a large blood loss.
Pseudothrombocytopenia - can be when using automatic counters for counting platelets.

The reasons:
1. Formation of platelet aggregates;
2. In cats, since their platelets are very large in size, and the device cannot reliably distinguish them from erythrocytes;
3. In Cavalier King Charles Spaniels, macroplatelets are normally present in their blood, which the device does not distinguish from small erythrocytes.

LEUKOCYTE COUNT

A decrease or increase in leukocytes in the blood can be both due to certain types of leukocytes (more often), and general, while maintaining the percentage of certain types of leukocytes (less often).
An increase or decrease in the number of certain types of leukocytes in the blood can be absolute (with a decrease or increase in the total content of leukocytes) or relative (with a normal total content of leukocytes).
The absolute content of certain types of leukocytes in a unit of blood volume can be determined by multiplying the total content of leukocytes in the blood (x109) by the content of a certain type of leukocytes (%) and dividing the resulting number by 100.

LEUKOCYTE BLOOD FORMULA

Cells Percentage of all white blood cells
Dogs Cats
Myelocytes 0 0
Metamyelocytes (young) 0 0 - 1
Stab neutrophils 2 - 7 1 - 6
Segmented neutrophils 43 - 73 40 - 47
Eosinophils 2 - 6 2 - 6
Basophils 0 - 1 0 - 1
Monocytes 1 - 5 1 - 5
Lymphocytes 21 - 45 36 - 53
When evaluating the leukocyte formula, it is necessary to take into account the absolute content of certain types of leukocytes (see above).
Shift to the left - a change in the leukogram with an increase in the percentage of young forms of neutrophils (stab neutrophils, metamyelocytes, myelocytes).

The reasons:
1. Acute inflammatory processes;
2. Purulent infections;
3. Intoxication;
4. Acute hemorrhages;
5. Acidosis and coma;
6. Physical overstrain.

Regenerative left shift- the number of stab neutrophils is less than the number of segmented neutrophils, the total number of neutrophils is increased.
Degenerate shift to the left- the number of stab neutrophils exceeds the number of segmented neutrophils, the total number of neutrophils is normal or there is leukopenia. The result of increased demand for neutrophils and/or increased destruction of neutrophils, leading to destruction of the bone marrow. A sign that the bone marrow cannot meet the increased need for neutrophils in the short term (several hours) or long term (several days).
Hyposegmentation- shift to the left, due to the presence of neutrophils, which have condensed nuclear chromatin of mature neutrophils, but a different nuclear structure compared to mature cells.

The reasons:
 Pelger-Huin anomaly (hereditary trait);
 transient pseudoanomaly in chronic infections and after the administration of certain drugs (rarely).

Shift to the left with rejuvenation- in the blood there are metamyelocytes, myelocytes, promyelocytes, myeloblasts and erythroblasts.

The reasons:
1. Chronic leukemia;
2. Erythroleukemia;
3. Myelofibrosis;
4. Metastases of neoplasms;
5. Acute leukemia;
6. Coma states.

Shift to the right (hypersegmentation)- change in the leukogram with an increase in the percentage of segmented and polysegmented forms.

The reasons:
1. Megaloblastic anemia;
2. Diseases of the kidneys and heart;
3. Conditions after blood transfusion;
4. Recovery from chronic inflammation (reflects increased residence time of cells in the blood);
5. Exogenous (iatrogenic) rise in the level of glucocorticoids (accompanied by neutrophilia; the reason is the delay in the migration of leukocytes into the tissue due to the vasoconstrictive effect of glycocorticoids);
6. Endogenous (stressful situations, Cushing's syndrome) rise in the level of glucocorticoids;
7. Old animals;
8. Dogs with a hereditary defect in cobalamin absorption;
9. Folate-deficient cats.

NEUTROPHILS

Neutrophilia (neutrophilia)- an increase in the content of neutrophilic leukocytes in the blood above the upper limits of the norm.
May develop as a result of increased production of neutrophils and / or their release from the bone marrow; reducing the migration of neutrophils from the bloodstream into tissues; decrease in the transition of neutrophils from the regional to the circulating pool.

a) Physiological neutrophilia- develops with the release of adrenaline (the transition of neutrophils from the regional to the circulating pool decreases). Most often causes physiological leukocytosis. More pronounced in young animals. The number of lymphocytes is normal (may increase in cats), there is no shift to the left, the number of neutrophils increases by no more than 2 times.

The reasons:
1. Physical activity;
2. Seizures;
3. Fright;
4. Excitation.
b) Stress neutrophilia - with increased endogenous secretion of glucocorticoids or with their exogenous administration. Causes stress leukocytosis. Glucocorticoids increase the release of mature leukocytes from the bone marrow and delay their transition from blood to tissue. The absolute number of neutrophils rarely increases by more than two, compared with the norm, the shift to the left is absent or weak, often there is lymphopenia, eosinopenia and monocytosis (more often in dogs). Over time, the number of neutrophils falls, but lymphopenia and eosinopenia persist as long as the concentration of glucocorticoids in the blood remains elevated.

The reasons:
1. Increased endogenous secretion of glucocorticoids:
- pain;
- prolonged emotional stress;
- abnormal body temperature;
hyperfunction of the adrenal cortex (Cushing's syndrome).
2. Exogenous administration of glucocorticoids.
in) Inflammatory neutrophilia- often the main component of inflammatory leukocytosis. Often there is a shift to the left - strong or slight, the number of lymphocytes is often reduced.

Causes of extremely high neutrophilia (over 25x109/l) with high leukocytosis (up to 50x109/l):
1. Local severe infections:
 pyometra, pyotherax, pyelonephritis, septic peritonitis, abscesses, pneumonia, hepatitis.
2. Immune-mediated disorders:
- immune-mediated hemolytic anemia, polyarthritis, vasculitis.
3. Tumor diseases
- lymphoma, acute and chronic leukemia, mast cell tumor.
4. Diseases accompanied by extensive necrosis
 within 1-2 days after surgery, trauma, pancreatitis, thrombosis and biliary peritonitis.
5. First 3 weeks after administration of a toxic dose of estrogen (dogs, subsequently developing generalized hypoplasia or aplasia of the bone marrow and panleukopenia).

Leukemoid reaction of the neutrophilic type- a sharp increase in the number of neutrophilic leukocytes in the blood (above 50x109 / l) with the appearance of a large number of hematopoietic elements, up to myeloblasts. It resembles leukemia in terms of the degree of increase in the number of leukocytes or in cell morphology.

The reasons:
1. Acute bacterial pneumonia;
2. Malignant tumors with multiple bone marrow metastases (with and without leukocytosis):
- cancer of the parenchyma of the kidney;
- prostate cancer;
- breast cancer.

Neutropenia- decrease in the absolute content of neutrophils in the blood below the lower limit of the norm. Often it is absolute neutropenia that is the cause of leukopenia.
a) Physiological neutropenia- in dogs of the Belgian Tervuren breed (together with a decrease in the total number of leukocytes and the absolute number of lymphocytes).
b) Neutropenia associated with a decrease in the release of neutrophils from the red bone marrow (due to dysgranulopoiesis - a decrease in the number of progenitor cells or a violation of their maturation):

1. Myelotoxic effects and suppression of granulocytopoiesis (without a shift in the leukocyte formula):
 some forms of myeloid leukemia, some myelodysplastic syndromes;
- myelophthisis (with lymphocytic leukemia, some myelodysplastic syndromes, myelofibrosis (often associated with anemia, less often with leukopenia and thrombocytopenia), osteosclerosis, in the case of lymphomas, carcinomas and mast cell tumors);
- in cats, infections caused by feline leukemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus (together with leukopenia);
- toxic effect on endogenous (hormone-producing tumors) and endogenous estrogen in dogs;
- ionizing radiation;
- anticancer drugs (cytostatics and immunosuppressants);
- some medicinal substances (chloramphenicol)
 infectious agents - an early stage of a viral infection (infectious hepatitis and parvovirus of dogs, panleukopenia of cats, Ehrlichia canis infection in dogs);
- lithium carbonate (delayed maturation of neutrophils in the bone marrow in cats).
2. Immune neutropenia:

- isoimmune (post-transfusion).

c) Neutropenia associated with redistribution and sequestration in organs:

1. Splenomegaly of various origins;
2. Endotoxic or septic shock;
3. Anaphylactic shock.

d) Neutropenia associated with increased utilization of neutrophils (often with a degenerative shift of the leukocyte formula to the left):

1. Bacterial infections (brucellosis, salmonellosis, tuberculosis);
2. Severe purulent infections (peritonitis after intestinal perforation, abscesses that opened inside);
3. Septicemia caused by gram-negative bacteria;
4. Aspiration pneumonia;
5. Endotoxic shock;
6. Toxoplasmosis (cats)

e) Neutropenia associated with increased destruction of neutrophils:

1. Hypersplenism;
2. Severe septic conditions and endotoxemia (with a degenerative shift to the left);
3. DIC.

f) Hereditary forms:

1. Hereditary deficiency of absorption of cobolamine (dogs - together with anemia);
2. Cyclic hematopoiesis (in blue marble collies);
3. Chediak-Higashi syndrome (in Persian cats with partial albinism - light yellow eyes and smoky blue coat).

In addition to the above cases, neutropenia can develop immediately after acute blood loss. Neutropenia accompanying non-regenerative anemia indicates a chronic disease (eg, rickettsiosis) or a process associated with chronic blood loss.

Agranulocytosis- a sharp decrease in the number of granulocytes in the peripheral blood up to their complete disappearance, leading to a decrease in the body's resistance to infection and the development of bacterial complications.

1. Myelotoxic - develops as a result of the action of cytostatic factors, is combined with leukopenia, thrombocytopenia and, often, with anemia (i.e., with pancytopenia).
2. Immune
- haptenic (idiosyncrasies to medicinal substances) - phenylbutazone, trimethoprim / sulfadiazine and other sulfonamides, griseofulvin, cephalosporins;
 autoimmune (with systemic lupus erythematosus, chronic lymphocytic leukemia);
- isoimmune (post-transfusion).

EOSINOPHILES

Eosinophilia - an increase in the level of eosinophils in the blood.

The reasons:

Eosinopenia - a decrease in the content of eosinophils in the blood below the lower limit of normal. The concept is relative, since they may be absent normally in healthy animals.

The reasons:

1. Exogenous administration of glucocorticoids (sequestration of eosinophils in the bone marrow);
2. Increased adrenocorticoid activity (Cushing's syndrome primary and secondary);
3. The initial phase of the infectious-toxic process;
4. Severe condition of the patient in the postoperative period.

BASOPHILES

LYMPHOCYTES

Absolute lymphocytosis - an increase in the absolute number of lymphocytes in the blood above the normal range.

The reasons:

1. Physiological lymphocytosis - an increased content of lymphocytes in the blood of newborns and young animals;
2. Adrenaline rush (especially cats);
3. Chronic viral infections (relatively rare, more often relative) or viremia;
4. Reaction to vaccination in young dogs;
5. Chronic antigenic stimulation due to bacterial inflammation (with brucellosis, tuberculosis);
6. Chronic allergic reactions (type IV);
7. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia;
8. Lymphoma (rare);
9. Acute lymphoblastic leukemia.

Absolute lymphopenia is a decrease in the absolute number of lymphocytes in the blood below the normal range.

The reasons:

1. An increase in the concentration of endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids (with simultaneous monocytosis, neutrophilia and eosinopenia):
- treatment with glucocorticoids;
- Primary and secondary Cushing's syndrome.
2. Viral diseases (parvovirus enteritis of dogs, panleukopenia of cats, distemper of carnivores; infection with feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus, etc.);
3. The initial stages of the infectious-toxic process (due to the migration of lymphocytes from the blood into the tissues to the foci of inflammation);
4. Secondary immune deficiencies;
5. All factors that can cause a decrease in the hematopoietic function of the bone marrow (see leukopenia);
6. Immunosuppressants;
7. Irradiation of the bone marrow and immune organs;
8. Chronic uremia;
9. Heart failure (circulatory failure);
10. Loss of lymphocyte-rich lymph:
- lymphangiectasia (loss of afferent lymph);
- rupture of the thoracic duct (loss of efferent lymph);
- lymphatic edema;
 chylothorax and chylascite.
11. Violation of the structure of the lymph nodes:
- multicentric lymphoma;
- generalized granulomatous inflammation
12. After stress for a long time, together with eosinopenia - a sign of insufficient rest and poor prognosis;
13. Myelophthisis (together with a decrease in the content of other leukocytes and anemia).

MONOCYTES

Monocytosis - an increase in the number of monocytes in the blood.

The reasons:

1. Infectious diseases:
 recovery period after acute infections;
- fungal, rickettsion infections;
2. Granulomatous diseases:
- tuberculosis;
- brucellosis.
3. Blood diseases:
- acute monoblastic and myelomonoblastic leukemia;
- chronic monocytic and myelomonocytic leukemia.
4. Collagenoses:
- systemic lupus erythematosus.
5. Acute inflammatory processes (with neutrophilia and shift to the left);
6. Chronic inflammatory processes (with a normal level of neutrophils and / or without a shift to the left);
7. Necrosis in tissues (inflammatory or in tumors);
8. Increase in endogenous or exogenous glucocorticoids (in dogs, together with neutrophilia and lymphopenia);
9. Toxic, superosseous inflammatory or severe viral infections (canine parvovirus enteritis) - together with leukopenia.
Monocytopenia - a decrease in the number of monocytes in the blood. Monocytopenia is difficult to assess due to the low content of monocytes in the blood is normal.
A decrease in the number of monocytes is observed with hypoplasia and aplasia of the bone marrow (see leukopenia).

PLASMACYTES

Causes of the appearance of plasma cells in peripheral blood:

1. Plasmacytoma;
2. Viral infections;
3. Long-term persistence of the antigen (sepsis, tuberculosis, actinomycosis, autoimmune diseases, collagenoses);
4. Neoplasms.

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)

Accelerate ESR:

1. The formation of coin columns and agglutination of erythrocytes (the mass of settling particles increases) due to the loss of a negative charge on the surface of erythrocytes:
- increase in the concentration of certain blood proteins (especially fibrinogen, immunoglobulins, haptoglobin);
- blood alkalosis;
the presence of anti-erythrocyte antibodies.
2. Erythropenia.
3. Reduced plasma viscosity.
Diseases and conditions accompanied by accelerated ESR:
1. Pregnancy, postpartum period;
2. Inflammatory diseases of various etiologies;
3. Paraproteinemia (multiple myeloma - especially pronounced ESR up to 60-80 mm/hour);
4. Tumor diseases (carcinoma, sarcoma, acute leukemia, lymphoma);
5. Diseases of the connective tissue (collagenoses);
6. Glomerulonephritis, amyloidosis of the kidneys, occurring with nephrotic syndrome, uremia);
7. Severe infectious diseases;
8. Hypoproteinemia;
9. Anemia;
10. Hyper- and hypothyroidism;
11. Internal bleeding;
12. Hyperfibrinogenemia;
13. Hypercholesterolemia;
14. Side effects of drugs: vitamin A, methyldopa, dextran.

Leukocytosis, increased ESR and corresponding changes in the leukocyte formula are a reliable sign of the presence of infectious and inflammatory processes in the body.

Slow down ESR:

1. Blood acidosis;
2. Increasing plasma viscosity
3. Erythrocytosis;
4. A pronounced change in the shape and size of erythrocytes (crescent, spherocytosis, anisocytosis - since the shape of the cells prevents the formation of coin columns).
Diseases and conditions accompanied by a slowdown in ESR:
1. Erythremia and reactive erythrocytosis;
2. Pronounced phenomena of circulatory failure;
3. Epilepsy;
4. Sickle cell anemia;
5. Hyperproteinemia;
6. Hypofibrinogenemia;
7. Obstructive jaundice and parenchymal jaundice (presumably due to the accumulation of bile acids in the blood);
8. Taking calcium chloride, salicylates and mercury preparations.

Among the laboratory methods used in veterinary medicine, a worthy place is occupied by the biochemical analysis of biological fluids. Taking into account the postulate of R. Virchow that “the disease is nothing new for the body”, it can be argued that biochemical analysis is one of the key links in the chain of logical thinking of a doctor when making a diagnosis. At the same time, monitoring of biochemical parameters of blood makes it possible to determine the effectiveness of the treatment.

In the study of the biochemical components of blood, the entire range of indicators is divided into organic and inorganic. Each of the indicators characterizes some part of the metabolism, however, a complete picture of the pathology can only be obtained with a synthetic interpretation of the data.

The study of clinical biochemistry is based on integration with other clinical disciplines, without knowledge of which it is impossible to analyze changes in biochemical parameters during pathological processes. At the same time, biochemistry is the basis for a deep understanding of the dynamics of the disease.

One of the most interesting and least studied sections of clinical biochemistry is fermentology - the science of metabolism, functions and properties of enzymes. Enzymes, high-molecular protein compounds, play the role of catalysts in the body. Without their participation in the body, not a single, even the most insignificant reaction takes place. Depending on the localization in organs and tissues, cellular enzymes are divided into organ-specific and non-specific. The first (indicative) are characteristic of one, strictly defined organ, the second - for several. Changes in the activity of enzymes in biological substrates that go beyond the boundaries of physiological fluctuations are indicative of diseases of various organs and systems of the body. In pathology, three types of changes in the activity of enzymes in the blood can be observed: hyperfermentemia, hypoenzymemia and dysfermentemia.
The increase in enzyme activity is explained by the release of the enzyme from damaged cells, an increase in the permeability of cell membranes, and an increase in the catalytic activity of enzymes.
Dysfermentemia is characterized by the appearance of enzymes in the blood serum, the activity of which is not manifested in a healthy organism.
Hypoenzymemia is characteristic of secretory enzymes when their synthesis in cells is impaired.

Another, no less interesting section of clinical biochemistry is the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, which are closely interrelated and can characterize the main metabolism. The following are metabolites whose blood levels may indicate certain diseases.

Protein (total). Changes in the content of total protein (relative) as a result of changes in blood volume, water loads, infusion of a large volume of blood-substituting saline solutions (hypoproteinemia) or dehydration of the body (hyperproteinemia).
Absolute hypoproteinemia(alimentary) with starvation, dysfunction of the gastrointestinal tract, injuries, tumors, inflammatory processes, bleeding, excretion of protein in the urine, the formation of significant transudates and exudates, with increased protein breakdown, febrile conditions, intoxication, parenchymal hepatitis, cirrhosis of the liver. A decrease in protein content below 40 g/l is accompanied by tissue edema.
Hyperproteinemia. With infectious or toxic irritations of the reticuloendothelial system, in the cells of which globulins are synthesized (chronic inflammation, chronic polyarthritis), with multiple myeloma. There is no protein in the urine, or there are traces (during cooling, stress, absolute protein food, prolonged physical exertion, with the introduction of adrenaline and norepinephrine, fever). Daily excretion of protein above 80-100 mg pathological indicates kidney damage (acute and chronic glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, amyloid degeneration of the kidneys, renal failure, polycystic kidney disease, poisoning, hypoxia).

Creatinine. Formed in the muscles and excreted by the renal glomeruli.
Creatinemia is observed in patients with acute and chronic renal dysfunction.
The level of creatinine in the blood increases with blockage of the urinary tract, severe diabetes, hyperthyroidism, liver damage, hypofunction of the adrenal glands.
A decrease in the blood is observed with a decrease in muscle mass, pregnancy.

Glucose. The main component of energy metabolism. Under physiological conditions, the level in the blood can increase after a rich carbohydrate meal, physical exertion. Decrease - during pregnancy, due to malnutrition, unbalanced diet, after taking ganglioblockers.
Hyperglycemia. With diabetes mellitus, acute pancreatitis, trauma and concussion of the brain, epilepsy, encephalitis, toxicosis, thyrotoxicosis, poisoning with CO, mercury, ether, shock, stress, increased hormonal activity of the adrenal cortex, anterior pituitary gland.
Hypoglycemia. With an overdose of insulin, diseases of the pancreas (insulinoma, glycogen deficiency), malignant diseases (cancer of the stomach, adrenal glands, fibrosarcoma), some infectious and toxic liver lesions, hypothyroidism, hereditary diseases associated with enzyme deficiency (galactosemia, impaired fructose tolerance), congenital adrenal hypoplasia, after gastrectomy, gastroenterostomy.
Glucosuria (glucose in the urine). With diabetes mellitus, thyrotoxicosis, hyperplasia of the adrenal cortex, impaired renal function, sepsis, trauma and brain tumors, poisoning with morphine, chloroform, strychnine, pancreatitis.

Urea. The end product of protein metabolism is synthesized in the liver. Under physiological conditions, the level of urea in the blood depends on the nature of nutrition: with a diet low in nitrogenous products, its concentration decreases, with excess it increases, and during pregnancy it decreases.
An increase in serum urea is observed with anuria caused by urinary excretion disorders (stones, tumors of the urinary tract), renal failure, acute hemolytic anemia, severe heart failure, diabetic coma, hypoparathyroidism, stress, shock, increased protein breakdown, gastrointestinal bleeding, poisoning with chloroform, phenol, mercury compounds.
The decrease occurs in severe liver diseases, during fasting, after hemodialysis.

Calcium. The main component of bone tissue, is involved in the process of blood clotting, muscle contraction, and the activity of the endocrine glands.
An increase is observed in hyperparathyroidism, hypervitaminosis D, acute bone tissue atrophy, acromegaly, myeloma, gangrenous peritonitis, sarcoidosis, heart failure, thyrotoxicosis.
Decrease - with hypoparathyroidism, avitaminosis D, chronic kidney disease, hyponatremia, acute pancreatitis, liver cirrhosis, senile osteoporosis, massive blood transfusion. A slight decrease in rickets, under the action of diuretics, phenobarbital. May present as tetany.

Magnesium. Activator of a number of enzymatic processes (in nervous and muscular tissues).
Increased serum levels in chronic renal failure, neoplasms, hepatitis.
Decrease with prolonged diarrhea, impaired absorption in the intestine, when taking diuretics, hypercalcemia, diabetes mellitus.

Alkaline phosphatase (AP) catalyzes the separation of phosphoric acid from organic compounds. Widely distributed in the intestinal mucosa, osteoblasts, placenta, lactating mammary gland.
Increased activity of alkaline phosphatase in the blood serum is noted in diseases of the bones: deforming osteitis, osteogenic sarcoma, with bone metastases, lymphogranulomatosis with bone lesions, with increased metabolism in bone tissue (fracture healing). With obstructive (subhepatic) jaundice, primary biliary cirrhosis, sometimes with hepatitis, cholangitis, the level of alkaline phosphatase increases up to 10 times. Also with chronic uremia, ulcerative colitis, intestinal bacterial infections, thyrotoxicosis.
Reduction in chronic glomerulonephritis, hypothyroidism, scurvy, severe anemia, accumulation of radioactive substances in the bones.

ALT (alanine aminotransferase). The enzyme is widely distributed in tissues, especially the liver.
Increased ALT activity in serum - with acute hepatitis, obstructive jaundice, cirrhosis of the liver, the introduction of hepatotoxic drugs, myocardial infarction. An increase in ALT is a specific sign of liver disease (especially acute), occurs 1-4 weeks before the onset of clinical signs.
Decrease (sharp) with liver rupture in the late stages of total necrosis.

ACT (Aspartate aminotransferase). An enzyme found in small amounts in the tissues of the heart, liver, skeletal muscles, and kidneys.
Increase in ACT activity occurs with myocardial infarction and persists for 4-5 days. With necrosis or damage to liver cells of any etiology, acute and chronic hepatitis (ALT is greater than ACT). Moderate increase in patients with liver metastases, with progressive muscular dystrophy.

GGT (Gammaglutamyltranspeptidase). Found in the liver, pancreas, kidneys. The absence of increased activity of this enzyme in bone diseases allows us to differentiate the source of the increase in alkaline phosphatase.
Increase in GGT activity is a sign of hepatotoxicity and liver disease. Increase its activity: cytolysis, cholestasis, alcohol intoxication, tumor growth in the liver, drug intoxication. An increase is noted in diseases of the pancreas, in diabetes mellitus and infectious mononucleosis.

Amylase. An enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of starch, glycogen, and glucose.
Increased activity in acute and chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic cyst, stomatitis, neuralgia of the facial nerve.
Reduction in pancreatic necrosis, arsenic poisoning, barbiturates, due to reabsorption in peritonitis, small intestine obstruction, perforation of an ulcer or rupture of the fallopian tube.

When studying blood parameters in various diseases, it is possible to identify some integral, which manifests itself in a complex of changes in the concentration of some metabolites.

Liver. Acute condition:

• increased activity of ALT;
• an increase in ACT activity is a more difficult process;
• decrease in the concentration of urea (in severe diseases);
• increased creatinine levels;
• hypoproteinemia.

Liver. Stagnant phenomena:

• increased GGT activity;
• increased activity of alkaline phosphatase.

Pancreas:

• increased activity of amylase;
• decrease in calcium concentration - in acute pancreatitis;
• creatinemia - severe diabetes;
• hyperglycemia - diabetes, hypoglycemia - deficiency of glucagon, insulin;
• increase in GGT activity.

Heart:

• increased activity of ACT - myocardial infarction;
• increase in calcium concentration - heart failure;
• an increase in the concentration of urea is a severe degree of heart failure.

Kidneys:

• creatinemia - acute and chronic damage, an increase in the concentration of creatinine with blockage of the urinary tract;
• increased urea content;
• magnesium - an increase in concentration - in chronic renal failure, a decrease in the level in kidney disease with significant diuresis;
• decrease in calcium concentration - in chronic kidney disease;
• hyperphosphatemia - in chronic renal failure.

Tumors:

• increased activity of alkaline phosphatase - with osteogenic sarcoma;
• increased activity of ACT - with liver metastases;
• increased activity of GGT - with tumor growth in the liver.

V.V. Kotomtsev, Head of the Department of Biotechnology, USAU, Professor, Doctor of Biological Sciences