Russian education. The formation of the state of ancient Russia, briefly the history of the ancient Russian state. Formation and development of the Old Russian state
According to some researchers, the formation of the Old Russian state was the result of the unification of the East Slavic tribes. However, disputes arose between many historians on the issue of the formation of the state. This is due to the so-called "Norman theory" that originated about 200 years ago.
In the oldest chronicles, the year 862 is mentioned as the time with Rurik dominating over them in the Slavic lands. This need arose in connection with the spread of internal strife. Inhabitants of Scandinavia (princes-Varangians) are called in some sources "northern people" - Normans.
Discussions about their vocation began in the 18th century after the founding of the Academy of Sciences and the transformations of Peter 1. At that time, invited to serve in the St. Petersburg Academy, Schlozer, Miller and Bayer became the founders of the assumption about how the formation of the Old Russian state took place. The "Norman theory" assumed that the Scandinavians brought statehood. Thus, the state was formed not by the Slavs, but by the Varangian princes. At the same time, another, "anti-Norman suggestion" began to spread. Its founders, Lomonosov and Trediakovsky, argued that the formation of the Old Russian state was the merit of the Slavs.
To one degree or another, most of the historians in the 19th century were supporters of the assumption that the Varangians formed the state. However, the historical science of the 20th century subjected the Norman theory to serious criticism. As a result, today most of the scholars-researchers of history do not deny some influence of the Normans on the formation of Russian statehood, but the degree of this influence is not exaggerated.
The leaders were called princes. The genealogy of the kings and princes of the state was conducted from the prince of the Varangians Rurik.
After the death of Rurik, who reigned in Novgorod, the Varangians came to the Dnieper. The first real ruler was Oleg. Reliable information has been preserved about him. Oleg took up the unification of the lands. In 882, he captured Kyiv, killed Dir and Askold, who reigned in it. Having made the capital of the city, Oleg called it "the mother of Russian cities." Thus, the formation of the Old Russian state of Kievan Rus took place.
During the reign, Oleg fought several successful battles with powerful Byzantium, twice he went on campaigns to Constantinople. As a result of this activity, in 907 and 911, Russia concluded favorable peace agreements.
The formation of the Old Russian state continued even after Igor ascended the throne after Oleg. According to some sources, he was the son of Rurik. During the reign of Igor, the inclusion of various tribal formations into Kievan Rus continued. So, he contributed to the emergence of Russian settlements on the Taman Peninsula, subjugated the street dwellers. In addition, Igor very actively continued Oleg's foreign policy activities. After military campaigns against Byzantium, he concluded a mutually beneficial agreement with her in 944. One of the first encountered the Turkic folk group - the Pechenegs.
The first ruler known to history was Olga, the widow of Prince Igor. The princess managed to retain power not only over Kyiv, but over all of Russia. During the reign of Olga, tribute duties were strictly regulated.
The formation of the Old Russian state continued until the very time of the reign of Yaroslav (1019-1054). This ruler was nicknamed "The Wise". Yaroslav united almost all ancient Russian lands with his power. The prince adopted "Russian Pravda" the first legislative code. During his reign, the state reached its highest power.
They unite in a powerful union, which will later be called Kievan Rus. The ancient state embraced the vast territories of the central and southern parts of Europe, united completely different culturally peoples.
Name
The question of the history of the emergence of Russian statehood has been causing a lot of controversy among historians and archaeologists for decades. For a very long time, the manuscript "The Tale of Bygone Years", one of the main documented sources of information about this period, was considered a falsification, and therefore the data on when and how Kievan Rus appeared were called into question. The formation of a single center among the Eastern Slavs is presumably dated to the eleventh century.
The state of the Russians received the usual name for us only in the 20th century, when the textbook studies of Soviet scientists were published. They specified that this concept does not include a separate region of modern Ukraine, but the entire empire of the Rurikids, located on a vast territory. The Old Russian state is called conditionally, for a more convenient distinction between the periods before the Mongol invasion and after.
Prerequisites for the emergence of statehood
In the era of the early Middle Ages, almost throughout Europe, there was a tendency to unite disparate tribes and principalities. This was due to the aggressive campaigns of some king or knight, as well as the creation of alliances of wealthy families. The prerequisites for the formation of Kievan Rus were different and had their own specifics.
By the end of the IX, several large tribes, such as the Krivichi, Polyany, Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Vyatichi, Northerners, Radimichi, gradually united into one principality. The main reasons for this process were the following factors:
- All unions rallied to confront common enemies - the steppe nomads, who often made devastating raids on cities and villages.
- And also these tribes were united by a common geographical location, they all lived near the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
- The first Kyiv princes known to us - Askold, Dir, and later Oleg, Vladimir and Yaroslav made aggressive campaigns in the North and South-East of Europe in order to establish their rule and impose tribute on the local population.
Thus, the formation of Kievan Rus gradually took place. It is difficult to talk briefly about this period, many events and bloody battles preceded the final consolidation of power in one center, under the leadership of the all-powerful prince. From the very beginning, the Russian state was formed as a multi-ethnic one, the peoples differed in terms of beliefs, way of life and culture.
"Norman" and "anti-Norman" theory
In historiography, the question of who and how created the state called Kievan Rus has not yet been finally resolved. For many decades, the formation of a single center among the Slavs was associated with the arrival of leaders from outside - the Varangians or Normans, whom the locals themselves called on these lands.
The theory has many shortcomings, the main reliable source of its confirmation is the mention of a certain legend of the chroniclers of the Tale of Bygone Years about the arrival of princes from the Varangians and the establishment of statehood by them, there is still no archaeological or historical evidence. This interpretation was adhered to by the German scientists G. Miller and I. Bayer.
The theory of the formation of Kievan Rus by foreign princes was disputed by M. Lomonosov, he and his followers believed that statehood in this territory arose through the gradual establishment of the power of one center over others, and was not introduced from outside. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus, and this issue has long been politicized and is used as a lever of pressure on the perception of Russian history.
First princes
Whatever disagreements exist regarding the issue of the origin of statehood, official history speaks of the arrival of three brothers in the Slavic lands - Sinius, Truvor and Rurik. The first two soon died, and Rurik became the sole ruler of the then large cities of Ladoga, Izborsk and Beloozero. After his death, his son Igor, due to his infancy, could not take control, so Prince Oleg became regent under the heir.
It is with his name that the formation of the eastern state of Kievan Rus is associated, at the end of the ninth century he made a trip to the capital city and declared these lands "the cradle of the Russian land." Oleg showed himself not only as a strong leader and a great conqueror, but also as a good manager. In each city, he created a special system of subordination, legal proceedings and rules for collecting taxes.
Several destructive campaigns against the Greek lands, which were made by Oleg and his predecessor Igor, helped to strengthen the authority of Russia as a strong and independent state, and also led to the establishment of a wider and more profitable trade with Byzantium.
Prince Vladimir
Igor's son Svyatoslav continued aggressive campaigns to remote territories, annexed the Crimea, the Taman Peninsula to his possessions, returned the cities previously conquered by the Khazars. However, the management of such economically and culturally diverse territories was very difficult to carry out from Kyiv. Therefore, Svyatoslav carried out an important administrative reform, placing his sons in charge of all major cities.
The formation and development of Kievan Rus was successfully continued by his illegitimate son Vladimir, this man became an outstanding figure in national history, it was during his reign that Russian statehood was finally formed, and a new religion was adopted - Christianity. He continued the consolidation of all the lands under his control, removing the sole rulers and appointing his sons as princes.
Rise of the state
Vladimir is often called the first Russian reformer, during his reign he created a clear system of administrative division and subordination, and also established a single rule for collecting taxes. In addition, he reorganized the judiciary, now the governors in each region made the law on his behalf. In the first period of his reign, Vladimir devoted much effort to fighting the raids of the steppe nomads and strengthening the country's borders.
It was during his reign that Kievan Rus was finally formed. The formation of a new state is impossible without the establishment of a single religion and worldview among the people, so Vladimir, being a smart strategist, decides to convert to Orthodoxy. Thanks to rapprochement with the strong and enlightened Byzantium, the state very soon becomes the cultural center of Europe. Thanks to the Christian faith, the authority of the head of the country is strengthened, as well as schools are opened, monasteries are built and books are printed.
internecine wars, disintegration
Initially, the system of government in Russia was formed on the basis of tribal traditions of inheritance - from father to son. Under Vladimir, and then Yaroslav, such a custom played a key role in uniting disparate lands, the prince appointed his sons as governors in different cities, thereby maintaining a single government. But already in the 17th century, the grandchildren of Vladimir Monomakh were mired in internecine wars among themselves.
The centralized state, created with such zeal over the course of two hundred years, soon broke up into many specific principalities. The absence of a strong leader and harmony between the children of Mstislav Vladimirovich led to the fact that the once powerful country was completely unprotected against the forces of the devastating hordes of Batu.
Way of life
By the time of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in Russia, there were about three hundred cities, although the majority of the population lived in the countryside, where they were engaged in cultivating the land and raising livestock. The formation of the state of the Eastern Slavs of Kievan Rus contributed to the massive construction and strengthening of settlements, part of the taxes went both to create infrastructure and to build powerful defensive systems. To establish Christianity among the population, churches and monasteries were built in every city.
The class division in Kievan Rus took shape over a long period of time. One of the first is a group of leaders, usually it consisted of representatives of a separate family, social inequality between the leaders and the rest of the population was striking. Gradually, the future feudal nobility is formed from the princely squad. Despite the active slave trade with Byzantium and other eastern countries, there were not so many slaves in Ancient Russia. Among the subject people, historians single out smerds, who obey the will of the prince, and serfs, who have practically no rights.
Economy
The formation of the monetary system in Ancient Russia takes place in the first half of the 9th century and is associated with the beginning of active trade with the major states of Europe and the East. For a long time, coins minted in the centers of the Caliphate or in Western Europe were used on the territory of the country; the Slavic princes had neither the experience nor the necessary raw materials to make their own banknotes.
The formation of the state of Kievan Rus became possible largely due to the establishment of economic ties with Germany, Byzantium, and Poland. Russian princes have always prioritized protecting the interests of merchants abroad. The traditional goods of trade in Russia were furs, honey, wax, linen, silver, jewelry, locks, weapons and much more. The message took place along the famous route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", when the ships rose along the Dnieper River to the Black Sea, as well as along the Volga route through Ladoga to the Caspian Sea.
Meaning
The social and cultural processes that took place during the formation and flourishing of Kievan Rus became the basis for the formation of the Russian nationality. With the adoption of Christianity, the country changed its appearance forever, for the next centuries Orthodoxy will become a unifying factor for all peoples living in this territory, despite the fact that pagan customs and rituals of our ancestors still remain in the culture and way of life.
A huge influence on Russian literature and the worldview of people was exerted by folklore, for which Kievan Rus was famous. The formation of a single center contributed to the emergence of common legends and fairy tales glorifying the great princes and their exploits.
With the adoption of Christianity in Russia, the widespread construction of monumental stone structures begins. Some architectural monuments have survived to this day, for example, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, which dates back to the 19th century. Of no less historical value are examples of paintings by ancient masters, which remained in the form of frescoes and mosaics in Orthodox churches and churches.
Formation of the Old Russian state
The Eastern Slavs were one of the three groups of ancient Proto-Slavs who, along with the Western and Southern Slavs, separated from the common Slavic, which was previously part of the Balto-Slavic ethnolinguistic community. From the end of the 4th century AD the tribes that inhabited Eastern Europe were involved in the Great Migration of Nations. During the IV-VIII centuries. our distant ancestors gradually settled vast areas, reaching the Elbe in the west, the Neva and Ladoga in the north, and the Middle Oka and the Upper Don in the east. At the same time, they came into contact with the Baltek and Finno-Ugric tribes living in these territories, eventually glorifying them. Common features of the ethnic image of the Eastern Slavs were formed in the VI-IX centuries. on the territory of Eastern Europe as a result of the regrouping of Slavic tribal associations: Antes, Sklavins, Dulebs, etc.
In the process of settlement among the Eastern Slavs, the tribal system was decomposed, new community, wearing territorial and political character. The structure of these communities was two-stage. Separate "tribal reigns" were larger unions. Having settled on the East European Plain, tribal unions were named mainly according to their habitat and landscape features. So, on the banks of the lake. Ilmen and r. The Volkhov was settled by the Ilmen Slovenes, who founded Novgorod and Pskov; in the upper reaches of the Dnieper, the Krivichi settled down, the future Smolensk and Polotsk became their cities; northerners lived on the eastern bank of the Middle Dnieper, their centers were in Chernigov and Pereyaslavl; on the western bank of the Dnieper, south of the northerners, the meadows lived, Kyiv became their main city; finally, the Drevlyans lived to the west of the glades, to the south - the streets and the Tivertsy, and in the interfluve of the Oka and the Volga - the Vyatichi. In total, by the VIII century. there were up to 15 large unions of tribal principalities, which formed the Old Russian state.
The most powerful associations were in the south - the union of glades, in the north - the union of Slovenes. On the basis of their merger, by the beginning of the 9th century, a stable state-political formation of Rus was formed.
The first reliable mention of the state of Russia (in the "Bavarian Chronograph") refers to 811-821, and according to Byzantine sources, under 860, a message is dated about the attack of Russia on Constantinople. Thus, the data at the disposal of science testify to the development of statehood in Russia long before the "calling" of the legendary Varangians. As you know, Arab and Iranian geographers reported on three political formations in Russia - Kuyavia, Slavia and Artania, and according to the oldest chronicle information in the 9th-10th centuries. there were also proto-state unions of principalities among the Drevlyans and Polochans.
The emergence of the state of the Eastern Slavs proceeded in difficult external conditions. The federation of unions of Slavic tribes (Slovenes, Krivichi) that had developed in the north, as well as non-Slavic tribes (Chud and Merya) were influenced by their northern neighbors - the Scandinavians (Varangians), and the meadows were tributaries of the Khazar Khaganate. The desire of the Varangians and Khazars to subjugate the East Slavic unions of principalities was explained by their desire to control the most important international trade route of that era from the shores of the Baltic to the Black Sea - the famous route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
According to the "Tale of Bygone Years" in 862, the northern federation of tribal principalities expelled the Varangians and stopped paying tribute to them, which caused an aggravation of internal strife. To establish peace, three Varangian princes (kings) were called to reign: the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. The first began to reign among the Ilmen Slovenes, first on Ladoga, and then in Novgorod. This is how the Rurik dynasty arose. After the death of the brothers who ruled in other tribes (the lands of the Vesey and Krivichi), Rurik (862-879) managed to unite the entire northern and northwestern parts of the East Slavic and Finno-Ugric lands under his command.
Archaeological excavations have now established that in the famous "Ryurik settlement" in the region of Veliky Novgorod by the middle of the 9th century. a princely residence arose, in which the Norman (Scandinavian) warriors - the Vikings - lived mainly. On the basis of the chronicle report, scientists suggest that the emergence of this center is associated with the calling of the prince "from beyond the sea" by the top of the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes. The local nobility concluded an agreement with the invited prince - a series according to which the collection of income from subject tribes was carried out by representatives of the local elites, and not by the prince's retinue. This agreement formed the basis of the relations that had developed by that time with the princes in the northern federation, and later in Novgorod.
Rurik, who ruled after Rurik, his relative Prince Oleg (879-912), having made a campaign from Novgorod down the Dnieper, he took Smolensk and Lyubech, and then seized Kyiv by cunning, killing the princes Askold and Dir, who ruled in the city (according to the annals, "the husbands of Rurik"), where he established himself, becoming with 882 city of Novgorod and Kyiv prince. Kyiv was a convenient point where it was possible to concentrate the tribute collected from the surrounding tribes, since the Dnieper rapids and the steppe strip, where the nomads ruled, went further. Although the exact annalistic dates for the IX century. very conditional 882 considered to be the year of the creation of the state of Rus with the capital in Kyiv(hence the name Kievan Rus in historiography).
The development of the Old Russian state
1. Formation of the Old Russian state at the end of the 9th century. Causes, nature, features
2. Development of the Old Russian state in the X-beginning of the XII centuries.
3. General characteristics of the Old Russian state and its significance in the history of our Motherland
List of used literature
Old Russian state Rurik power
1.Education Old Russian states in end I X in. The reasons, character, peculiarities
The Old Russian state was formed as a result of a complex interaction of a whole complex of both internal and external factors, socio-economic, political and spiritual. First of all, one should take into account the changes that took place in the economy of the Eastern Slavs in the VIII-IX centuries. Yes, already mentioned development of agriculture , special arable land in the steppe and forest-steppe region of the Middle Dnieper, led to the appearance of an excess product, which created conditions for the separation of the princely retinue group from the community (there was separation of military administrative work from productive ). In the north of Eastern Europe, where farming could not be widely spread due to harsh climatic conditions, crafts continued to play an important role, and the emergence of an excess product was the result of the development exchange and foreign trade. In the area where arable farming is spread, tribal community evolution, which, thanks to the fact that now a separate large family could provide for its existence, began to transform into agricultural or neighboring (territorial ). Such a community, as before, mainly consisted of relatives, but unlike the tribal community, arable land, divided into allotments, and the products of labor were here in the use of separate large families who owned tools and livestock. This created some conditions for property differentiation, but social stratification did not occur in the community itself - the productivity of agricultural labor remained too low. Archaeological excavations of East Slavic settlements of that period revealed almost identical semi-dugout family dwellings with the same set of objects and tools.
To political factors The formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs should be attributed to the complication of intra-tribal relations and inter-tribal clashes, which accelerated the formation of princely power, increased the role of princes and squads both defending the tribe from external enemies and acting as an arbiter in various kinds of disputes.
The evolution of the pagan ideas of the Slavs of that era also contributed to the formation of the power of the prince. So, as the military power of the prince, who brought booty to the tribe, defended it from external enemies and took on the problem of resolving internal disputes, grew, his prestige grew and, at the same time, alienation from free community members occurred.
Thus, as a result of military successes, his performance of complex managerial functions, the prince’s removal from the circle of affairs and concerns familiar to the community members, which often resulted in the creation of a fortified intertribal center - the residence of the prince and squad, he began to endow his fellow tribesmen with supernatural powers and abilities, in it more and more they saw the guarantee of the well-being of the entire tribe, and his personality was identified with a tribal totem. All this led to the sacralization of princely power, created the spiritual prerequisites for the transition from communal to state relations.
External prerequisites include the "pressure" exerted on the Slavic world by its neighbors - the Khazars and the Normans.
On the one hand, their desire to take control of the trade routes linking the West with the East and South accelerated the formation of princely retinue groups that were drawn into foreign trade. Taking, for example, products of crafts, primarily furs from their fellow tribesmen and exchanging them for prestigious consumption products and silver from foreign merchants, selling them captured foreigners, the local nobility more and more subjugated the tribal structures, enriched themselves and isolated themselves from ordinary community members. . Over time, she, having united with the Varangian warrior-merchants, will begin to exercise control over trade routes and trade itself, which will lead to the consolidation of previously disparate tribal principalities located along these routes.
On the other hand, interaction with more advanced civilizations led to the borrowing of certain socio-political forms of their life. It is no coincidence that for a long time the great princes in Russia were called, following the example of the Khazar Khaganate, Khakans (Kagans). For a long time, the Byzantine Empire was considered the true standard of the state-political structure.
It should also be taken into account that the existence in the Lower Volga of a powerful state formation - the Khazar Khaganate, protected the Eastern Slavs from the raids of nomads, who in previous eras (Huns in the 4th-5th centuries, Avars in the 7th century) hampered their development, interfered with peaceful labor and, as a result, the emergence of the “embryo” of statehood.
In its development, the ancient Russian state went through a number of stages. Let's consider them.
At the first stage of the formation of the ancient Russian state (VIII-mid-IX centuries), the prerequisites mature, the formation of intertribal unions and their centers - principalities, which are mentioned by Eastern authors. By the ninth century the appearance of the polyudya system goes back, i.e. collecting tribute from the community in favor of the prince, which in that era, most likely, was still voluntary and was perceived as compensation for military and administrative services.
At the second stage (the second half of the 9th - the middle of the 10th century), the process of folding the state is accelerated largely due to the active intervention of external forces - the Khazars and the Normans (Varangians). PVL speaks of the raids of the warlike inhabitants of Northern Europe, who forced the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi and Finno-Ugric tribes of Chud and Vesi to pay tribute. In the South, the Khazars collected tribute from the meadows, northerners, Radimichi and Vyatichi.
Modern researchers, overcoming the extremes of Normanism and anti-Normanism, have come to the following conclusions: the process of folding the state began before the Varangians, the very fact of their invitation to reign indicates that this form of power was already known to the Slavs; Rurik - a real historical figure, being invited to Novgorod to play the role of an arbitrator and, perhaps, a defender from the "overseas Varangians" (Svei), seizes power. His appearance in Novgorod (peaceful or violent) is in no way connected with the birth of the state; the Norman squad, not burdened by local traditions, more actively uses the element of violence to collect tribute and unite Slavic tribal unions, which, to a certain extent, accelerates the process of folding the state. At the same time, there is a consolidation of the local princely squad elite, its integration with the Varangian squads and the Slavicization of the Varangians themselves; Oleg, having united the Novgorod and Kyiv lands and bringing together the path "from the Varangians to the Greeks", brought the economic base under the emerging state; ethnonym "Rus" of northern origin. And although the chronicle refers it to one of the Norman tribes, it is most likely a collective name (from the Finnish ruotsi - rowers) under which was hidden not an ethnic, but an ethno-social group, consisting of representatives of various peoples engaged in sea robbery and trade. Then, on the one hand, it becomes clear the spread of this term, no longer associated with any ethnic group, among the Eastern Slavs, and on the other hand, the rapid assimilation of the Varangians themselves, who also adopted local pagan cults and did not hold on to their gods.
During the reign Oleg (879-912) in his hands concentrated power over the territory from Ladoga to the lower reaches of the Dnieper. There was a kind of federation of tribal principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv. His power was manifested in the right to collect tribute from all the tribes included in this union. Oleg, relying on the power of the Slavic-Norman squads and "wars" (armed free community members), in 907 makes a successful campaign against Byzantium. As a result, an agreement beneficial for Russia was signed, which provides it with the right to duty-free trade. New concessions were made in the agreement of 911.
Igor (912-945) sought to preserve the unity of the intertribal federation, and also defended its borders from the formidable nomads who appeared - the Pechenegs. In the 40s, he made two campaigns against Byzantium, which violated its agreements with Russia. As a result, having failed, he concluded a less favorable agreement in 944, and in 945, during a polyudy in the Drevlyane land, he was killed for demanding tribute in excess of the usual.
Third, the final stage of the folding of the state begins with the reforms of the princess Olga. Having avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband, she establishes a fixed rate of tribute, and arranges " graveyards" , which became the mainstay of princely power in the field. Her son's politics Svyatoslav (964-972), famous for the victory over Khazaria and campaigns on the Danube, which ended in failure, required the mobilization of significant forces for external conquests. This somewhat delayed the internal dispensation of the Russian land.
The complete elimination of tribal principalities occurs during the reign of St. Vladimir (980-1015). He tries strengthen the pagan faith and hence their power. For this purpose, a pantheon of five main gods is being created, headed by Perun, who was especially revered among the princely combatants. But this measure did not change much, and then Vladimir goes on a kind of "spiritual revolution" from above - he introduces in 988 Christianity. This essentially monotheistic religion made it possible to supplant local pagan cults and laid the spiritual foundation for the emerging unified Russian people and the Old Russian state.
Ticket 1.1. Origin and development Old Russian state (XI- StartXIIcenturies)
The first information about the Slavs. Eastern Slavs lived in large areas from the Carpathians to the Baltic Sea, the upper reaches of the Oka and the middle reaches of the Dnieper. They founded large settlements with a free layout, were engaged in hunting and fishing, farming, various forestry activities, blacksmithing and foundry, and livestock breeding were developed. The predecessors of the Slavs in the days of Ancient Greece and Scythia were engaged in grain trade with the Greek settlement cities on the Black Sea coast. In the 7th century Byzantine chroniclers noted the countless attacks of the Slavs who settled the modern Balkans.
Settlement of the Eastern Slavs. According to the "Tale of Bygone Years" by the monk Nestor, the Eastern Slavs in the 9th century. were a numerous people with a tribal organization. On the territories of tribal unions, cities and settlements arose that played an important role in transit trade between the "north" and "south" - "the path from the Varangians to the Greeks" (from the Baltic to Constantinople), as well as between the "west" and "east" - the northern continuation of caravan routes from the Caspian Sea to Western Europe. Kyiv was the center glade, living along the middle reaches of the Dnieper. Korosten is the capital Drevlyansky tribe. Smolensk and Gnezdovo were major centers on the territory Krivichi and Polochan. Novgorod near Ilmen Lake was the capital Slovenian settled in the east Vyatichi(Moscow-river and upper reaches of the Oka). Other notable tribes include - Dregovichi, Radimichi, northerners and in the south Buzhans, Volhynians, Dulebs, Tivertsy, street.
Slavic life. Already at that time, the organization of the Slavs had features inherent in the state: the power of elected elders and military leaders-princes, armed squads and "outposts", the organization of trade and military campaigns in the Black Sea, the Caucasus and the Caspian, ensuring order and security on trade routes and centers trade. In the ninth century in the Slavic lands there were a large number of settlements with earthen ramparts, ditches and fences made of pointed logs. The Vikings called Russia "Gardariki" - a country of cities.
Formation of the Old Russian state. Invited in 862 by the Novgorodians to protect trade routes, the Varangians, led by the prince Rurik seized power in Novgorod. In subsequent years, Rurik subjugated Beloozero and Izborsk. After the death of Rurik (879), the Novgorodians were headed by his relative Oleg. In 882, Oleg captured Kyiv and became the first Grand Duke of Kievan Rus.
The first Russian princes and the development of the Russian state. Oleg subjugated the Drevlyans, Tivertsy and Radimichi. He fought with the Khazar Khaganate and Byzantium. Oleg's military campaigns against Tsargrad (Constantinople) in 907 and 911 went down in history, when Kievan Rus forced the Byzantines to pay tribute to themselves and signed trade agreements with the empire. Next Grand Duke Igor(912-945) rules were no longer so successful. His two campaigns against Byzantium were defeated, and he himself was killed by the rebellious Drevlyans. His wife, Grand Duchess Olga, proved to be a wise ruler. Under her rule, graveyards (places of trade and tribute collection) were created in all lands (tribal territories), tribute collection was streamlined, she herself traveled around the subject territories, where she “gave judgment and truth”, visited Constantinople and converted to Christianity. Her son and heir Svyatoslav during his short reign (969-972) he defeated the "masters of the Don steppes" Pechenegs, defeated the Khazar Khaganate and fought against Byzantium. After the death of Svyatoslav in Kievan Rus, a war broke out between his sons, the winner of which was Vladimir(). He continued to strengthen the state, subjugating a number of Slavic tribes to his power. His most important step was the state-religious reform - the adoption of Christianity (888-889). Thanks to this, Kievan Rus was included in the pan-European cultural and political life.
After the death of Vladimir, war broke out again between his sons. The winner was Yaroslav, called Wise. () - the heyday of Kievan Rus. His state became one of the strongest states in Europe; an alliance with him, his patronage and friendship were sought by many European sovereigns. Yaroslav became related to the kings of France, Norway, Poland, Hungary, the emperors of Rome and Byzantium. His daughter Anna became Queen of France. Under Yaroslav, the first set of laws appeared - "".
Ticket 2.1. Political fragmentation in Russia. Russia specific (XII- XIIIcenturies)
Kievan Rus was a powerful and strong state. In terms of territory, it has not been equal in Europe since the time of Charlemagne. The trade routes passing through it ensured its economic prosperity. But after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, who divided the Russian land between his sons, troubles began again, which led to feudal fragmentation.
Causes of feudal fragmentation in Russia. The growing feudal fragmentation in Russia had political and economic reasons. Most important in the political structure of the Kievan state was the seat of the Kievan Grand Duke, the de facto head of state. The procedure was adopted according to which the grand princely Kiev throne was occupied by the "eldest in the family", and not the eldest son of the deceased. The vacated inheritance was again given not to his eldest son, but to the next in age among the princes, the descendants of Rurik. The princes thus did not consolidate in their original destinies, but gradually moved according to the “ladder right” to richer lands. These transitions gave rise to all sorts of intrigues, quarrels, and caused military clashes. Some did not want to leave their homes, while others, on the contrary, rushed to foreign princedoms. They often entered into alliances with foreigners: they called Hungarians, Poles, Polovtsy for help. There were more and more princes, cities and princely thrones were not enough for everyone. The authority of the power of the Kyiv prince was constantly falling. Even the best of the princes, who understood the perniciousness of civil strife, could not oppose anything to the course of events. If in the middle of the XII century. on Russian land, there were 15 large and small specific principalities that argued among themselves, then on the eve of the invasion of Batu Khan into Russia () there were already about 50 of them, and a century later there were 250 of them.
Economically, the process of fragmentation was supported by the growth of agricultural productivity, the emergence of new cities, the development of handicrafts, and a general rise in culture. Global changes also affected: Kievan Rus flourished while there was active trade along the "path from the Varangians to the Greeks." The weakening of the Byzantine Empire and its capture by the crusaders (1204) put an end to this most important all-Russian economic activity. This also contributed to fragmentation.
Russian feudal lands.Kiev principality remains one of the largest, although its importance has fallen significantly. It occupied the Right Bank of the Dnieper and the basins of its tributaries - Teterev, Irpen and Ros. The princes in Kyiv changed very often, and the territory of the principality was constantly decreasing. On the eve of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, Kiev remained one of the largest cities in Russia. Chernihiv and Seversky principality for almost a century and a half belonged to the descendants Oleg Svyatoslavich, grandson of Yaroslav the Wise. All this time, the Chernigov princes held power and fought for Kyiv, relying on their Polovtsian neighbors, with whom they were friends and related. The author of the ancient Russian work - "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - brilliantly guessed the terrible threat lurking in the disunity of the Russian lands, and called for the unity of all Russian forces. Other major independent principalities and lands of that time were Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Polotsk, Smolensk, Muromo-Ryazan, Veliky Novgorod. The absence of a strong centralized authority contributed to the economic upsurge of individual lands, the development of culture and art. Territories competed with each other, actively developed. The number of cities grew - in the 13th century there were already more than 300. Local markets developed, commodity production grew. But at the same time, the fragmentation of Russia into several principalities independent of each other significantly weakened the military power of the Russian land, its ability to repel external aggression.
Bitlet 3.1. Culture of Ancient Russia (X- XIIIcenturies). Significance of adopting Christianity
The culture of Kievan Rus became the highest manifestation and expression of the Slavic culture of that time. It developed together with the state under the influence of the rapid growth of crafts, the inclusion of Kievan Rus in the system of international relations and trade. It was she who became the common foundation of the culture of three close Slavic peoples - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.
Cultural achievements of Kievan Rus. An important factor in cultural development was the formation in the era of Kievan Rus of a single ancient Russian people and the emergence of a single Russian literary language. The culture of Kievan Rus was based on the paganism of the Slavs of previous eras. A significant part of this culture has been preserved in the form of epics, tales, ritual and lyrical songs, traditions and customs of folk life. Initially, Slavic culture was open, it actively interacted and adopted many of the cultures of those peoples with whom Russia fought, reconciled and traded.
Acceptance of Christianity. The adoption of Christianity played a huge role in the development of common Slavic culture. Orthodoxy allowed the Russians to enter the circle of civilized peoples of their time, to establish cultural interaction with them. Together with Christianity, Byzantine writing and art came to the Russian land, church schools were created. 13th century students along with prayers, they studied literacy, "tsifir", commercial office work. The highest educational institution of the Russian Middle Ages was the Kiev-Pechersk Monastery, which trained church hierarchs - abbots, bishops, metropolitans. They studied theology, Greek, ecclesiastical literature, and "eloquence". With Orthodoxy, stone construction, icon painting, wall painting, stone carving and wooden sculpture came to Russia from Byzantium.
Spread of writing. From the beginning of the X century. writing spreads in Russia. Thanks to Bulgarian missionaries Kirill and Methodius a single Slavic alphabet appears - "Cyrillic", based on a number of East Slavic "alphabets" of an earlier period. The population of Kievan Rus was highly educated. This is evidenced by the numerous finds of birch bark letters in Novgorod, Smolensk, Vitebsk and Pskov, chronicles, lives of saints, travel descriptions, religious and philosophical writings that have come down to us. These are the "Sermon of Law and Grace" Bishop Hilarion,“The Journey of Abbot Daniel to Holy Places”, “The Tale of Igor's Campaign” (1185) is an outstanding patriotic literary and publicistic work. In the XI century. in Russia, the first libraries appear at monasteries and princely courts.
The development of architecture. Old Russian architecture reached an outstanding level. Many buildings of the 12th and later centuries have survived to our time - temples, princely palaces, boyar chambers and other structures. They are distinguished by beauty and harmony, originality of architectural design and design.
The development of art. With the adoption of Christianity, other forms of art - painting, sculpture, music - also underwent changes. The samples of art taken from the harsh and ascetic Byzantium were reworked and acquired new, more life-affirming qualities. Frescoes and mosaics were used to decorate temples, princely residences and boyar houses. The old art of wood and stone carving was perfected. Jewelry art developed, gold and silver craftsmen created genuine masterpieces that adorned the salaries of icons and gospels, the outfits of Russian beauties. In musical art, a characteristic feature was the performance of various epics, tales and songs.
Military affairs, development of crafts. Russian blacksmiths were able to make strong chain mail from several layers of steel rings, forged armor - “armor”, Russian swords and blades (sabers) were widely known. They also made horse armor. All this made it possible to form not only a lightly armed cavalry capable of fighting on equal terms with the steppe warriors, but also a heavy cavalry, which could compete with the knightly cavalry of the Europeans. In addition to bows, powerful crossbows appeared. Improved military tactics and strategy. Urban artisans produced almost all the necessary household and cultural items: they made silver jewelry and utensils, furniture and horse harness, household tools, built boats and plows, huts and estates, sewed clothes. The level of agricultural production grew, new varieties of garden and horticultural crops were grown, borrowed in Byzantium, from other neighbors.
Life of Kievan Rus. In the countryside, every peasant took part in the life of the rural community - "peace", knew the calendar, weather signs well, continued to perform many pagan cults and rituals. He knew agriculture, confidently navigated the forest, hunted, deftly used an ax, knew how to build, look after livestock, cook, possessed military skills, could protect himself from the raids of the steppe dwellers, and from the injustice of the boyars, princely combatants, wealthy merchants and their servants. He was an obedient Christian and often attended church, knew how to read. He went to the market, where he bargained recklessly, selling his products and buying things needed in the household. Men often spent winter evenings at home feasts with guests, listened to and sang songs, told stories from life. It is no coincidence that the epics of that time preserved the bright and joyful attitude of people who perceived life as a holiday, on which there was a place for princes and heroes, warriors and "honest Christians".
Ticket 4.1. The struggle of Russia against external invasions inXIIIin.
Kievan Rus and the Steppe. The southeastern Slavs, and then Kievan Rus, were constantly subjected to raids by steppe warriors and nomadic tribes. Huns and Avars, Bulgars and Ugrians (Hungarians), Pechenegs and Cumans were a constant threat to the settled Slavic population. At the same time, Kievan Rus carried on trade with the steppes, the main subject of which were horses and cattle, caravans with oriental goods came to Russia through the steppe.
Defeat on the Kalka River. In 1223, a Polovtsian arrived in Kyiv Khan Kotyan and said that "unknown peoples" called Tatars appeared in the steppe, and asked for military assistance. For almost eight days, the united Russian-Polovtsian army pursued the enemies and on May 31, 1223, collided with the main forces of the Mongol commander Subedey Bogatyr near the Kalka River. The defeat of the Russian squads was terrible: most of the princes and warriors died in battle and during the flight; the captives were also killed; few survivors were able to tell in Russia about their defeat.
Mongol campaign against Russia. Death Genghis Khan(1227) did not stop the military aspirations of the Mongols. In 1235, at the kurultai of the Mongol khans, it was decided to continue the campaign to the west. It was headed by the grandson of Genghis Khan batu, and the military leader - Subedei. The total number of the Mongolian army was 60-120 thousand horsemen. In 1237 hostilities began. The first victim of the Mongols was Ryazan. After a six-day siege, the city was taken and plundered, most of the inhabitants were killed or taken in full. The same fate befell Kolomna, Moscow. In February 1238, Vladimir and other cities of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus were taken: Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Uglich, Galich, Dmitrov, Tver. Troops of the Grand Duke Yuri Vsevolodovich were defeated at the Battle of the City River. The Mongols actually devastated North-Eastern Russia. In the years they fell upon southern Russia, taking Kiev and other cities. Soon the troops of Batu and Subedei began hostilities against Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic and Moldova. But the Mongols were no longer strong enough to continue their conquests, and in 1242 Batu Khan returned to the steppe regions of the Lower Volga.
Threat to Russia from the West. Practically the only territory of Russia that was not subjected to the Mongol ruin was Novgorod and its allied Pskov. But these Russian lands were under threat from the west. The German military and spiritual orders - Livonian and Teutonic - at that time were actively colonizing the Baltic states. Denmark joined them. The German-Danish alliance agreement signed in June 1238 provided for an attack by the Danes on Novgorod. In the summer of 1240, the Swedes landed at the mouth of the Neva.
Alexander Nevskiy. At that time, the Novgorod prince was 19-year-old Alexander Yaroslavich, son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich. Alexander proved himself to be a talented military leader. He quickly gathered his squad and the Novgorod militia and dealt a crushing blow to the landed Swedes. Returning to Novgorod, Alexander soon learned about the military operations of the German knights who occupied Izborsk and Pskov. With the help of the Vladimir-Suzdal army, Alexander liberated Pskov in 1242, and then defeated the main forces of the Livonian Order on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Northwestern Russia was liberated.
Russia and Horde. Nevertheless, the victories in the west did not completely solve the question of the fate of Russia. Having become the Grand Duke of Russia in 1252, Alexander Nevsky led the only possible line at that time towards allied subordination to the Golden Horde. With armed force, he crushed the scattered resistance of the Russian cities to the Tatar tribute collectors. In 1263, he managed to complete a difficult diplomatic mission. He obtained from the khans of the Golden Horde the transfer of the right to collect tribute to the Russian princes. The Grand Duke managed to ensure the security of the country and the people, saved Russia from final ruin, bought time to let her recover from the terrible defeat of Messrs. He became the ancestor of the policy of the Moscow princes, aimed at "gathering Russia." Alexander Nevsky died in 1263 at the age of 43.
Ticket 5.1. The unification of Russian lands around Moscow and the formation of a single Russian state inXIV- XVcenturies Opposition to the Horde
Russia after Batu's invasion. Russia was a sad sight after the invasion of Batu. Many cities and villages were devastated, life in them barely flickered. If earlier the princes fought with each other, now many of them sought to get into the khan's capital of the Golden Horde in order to get a label for the right to reign with money and humiliated requests. Those who received the khan's mercy often brought Tatar detachments to Russia in order to strengthen their power. Under these conditions, the art of diplomacy came to the fore - the ability to humble oneself before force, to conduct intrigues. A significant part of the Russian lands (Kyiv, Smolensk, Polotsk, all the southern Russian and western lands) became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The border between Russia and Lithuania was two hundred kilometers from Moscow.
Development of the Moscow principality. After the death of Alexander Nevsky, his youngest son Daniel got a run-down possession - Moscow with adjacent territories. During the nearly eighty years of the reign of Daniel and his sons Yuri and Ivan Kalita Moscow has changed. The population grew; new trade routes began to pass through Moscow; Moscow princes were famous for their Christian virtues, care for the peasants and their farms; through purchases of the surrounding lands, they constantly increased their possessions, not embarrassed by predatory actions: Daniil Alexandrovich “deceived” took away Kolomna from the Ryazan prince (1300), and his son Yuri Danilovich captured Mozhaisk (1303). Kalita "bought" Uglich, Galich and Belozersk with districts. Their successors continued to expand the territory of the Moscow Principality
The struggle of the Moscow princes for the great reign. The growth of the power and influence of Moscow already at the beginning of the XIV century. allowed Yuri Danilovich to start the struggle for the grand throne of Russia. The main rivals of Moscow in this were the princes of Tver. Yuri Danilovich spent several years in the Horde, married his sister Khan Uzbek and achieved his goal, having received the label of the Grand Duke of Vladimir. According to his own denunciation, in 1318 the Tver prince Mikhail Yaroslavich was executed in the Horde. Son of the slain - Dmitry Mikhailovich - managed to turn the Horde to his side. Yuri Danilovich was summoned to the khan's headquarters and killed there. The same fate soon befell Dmitry. The Prince of Tver became the Grand Duke - Alexander Mikhailovich. But Ivan Kalita, the younger brother of Yuri Danilovich, managed to take over. In 1327 Tver rebelled against the Baskak Chol Khan. Ivan Kalita stood at the head of the rebels. His reward was power over Novgorod and Kostroma. Ivan Kalita had great political talent. He correlated his actions with the circumstances, was cunning and cruel, he was distinguished by patience, foresight, purposefulness. In the Horde, he showed "humble wisdom", brought "a lot of gold and silver" to the khan, khanshams and murzas. He knew how to restore order in his native land. Tribute for the Horde was brought to Moscow to the Grand Duke, who skillfully used these funds. Under Ivan Kalita, the residence of the Metropolitan of All Russia was moved to Moscow Theognost. Thanks to this, Moscow has become the spiritual and religious center of Russia. , his sons Semyon Ivanovich() and Ivan Ivanovich(), in everything they continued the line of their father.
Dmitry Donskoy and victory at the Kulikovo field. Five generations of Moscow princes - from Daniil Alexandrovich to Dmitry Donskoy() - exalted Moscow, turned it into a true leader of Russia. launched an open challenge to the Golden Horde. In 1378, Dmitry's governors defeated a large army of Murza in the battle on the Vozha River Begich, sent Mamaem, the real owner of the Golden Horde, the recalcitrant Russians.
The decisive clash took place on the Kulikovo field in the upper reaches of the Don at the confluence of the Nepryadva River on September 8, 1380. The battle brought together the military forces of most of Russia and the Golden Horde. The Grand Duke personally took part in the battle and was seriously wounded. Military happiness fluctuated for a long time during the day, but the strike of the Russian ambush regiment in the rear of the advancing troops of Mamai decided the outcome of the battle. The destruction was complete. Mamai fled to the Crimea and was killed there by his former allies, the Italians.
The Battle of Kulikovo is a key, turning point in the history of Russia. Russia won the first big victory over its enemies. The Moscow prince turned into a national hero. The country began to rise in all spheres of life. Having lived only 39 years, Dmitry Donskoy handed over power over all of Russia by will to his son Vasily, without asking the permission of the Golden Horde khans.
Ticket 6.1. Moscow Russia in the era of Ivan the Terrible
"Russian kingdom". In January 1547, all of Moscow was amazed by the huge and solemn celebration of the wedding of the young Grand Duke of All Russia to the kingdom Ivan VasilyevichIV. The royal title made Ivan IV virtually equal to the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, equalized him with the recent rulers of Russia - the Golden Horde khans, and placed him above European kings. The crowning of the kingdom also strengthened the authority of the Russian Orthodox Church: the tsar received the crown from the hands of its head.
But after the magnificent celebrations and the marriage of Ivan IV to one of the Russian beauties Anastasia Romanova a series of terrible events unfolded. In April 1547, almost all of Moscow burned out in a fire. The common people of Moscow rebelled, accusing the tsar's relatives of arson. And although the uprising was crushed, the young king understood that the uprising was caused by the deep discontent of the people. Thus began the period of reforms of Ivan IV
The Elected Rada and the Reforms of the 1550s The Chosen Rada united around the tsar - an informal body consisting of close friends and relatives of Ivan IV. There were both persons of humble origin (nobleman Alexey Adashev and confessor of Ivan IV Sylvester), and prominent courtiers (princes Andrey Kurbsky, Kurlyatev, Vorotynsky, Silver, metropolitan Macarius). For 13 years, the Chosen Council was the government under the tsar, engaged in reforming the military forces, judiciary, and finances. In February 1549, the tsar convened the Zemsky Sobor - a full-fledged class-representative body of "all kinds of people" of the Muscovite state. Councils were convened as needed to resolve issues of national importance (1565, 1584, 1589 and later). The Council of 1549 expanded the rights of the nobility and limited the self-will of the princes and boyars, gave the task of developing and adopting a new Code of Laws (the work was completed in 1550). The new Sudebnik limited the rights of governors, the role of state courts and control by tsarist officials were strengthened, the presence of zemstvo elders and kissers representing the servicemen of the townspeople, "black" peasants, became mandatory in court. In 1550, military reform began. The military service of the nobles and archers was streamlined, the issues of their maintenance were resolved at the expense of the issued lands and money from the treasury. A new census was carried out and special taxes were introduced - “food”, “polony”, etc. The Church Council (1551) did not allow land holdings to be taken away from the church, but in the future the transfer of land to monasteries without the consent of the king was prohibited.
The reforms gave a powerful impetus to the strengthening of the state, its army, raised the spirit of the people. 1550s were years of unprecedented success for Russia. The Kazan and Astrakhan kingdoms were annexed, the peoples of the Volga region - the Chuvash, Bashkirs, Udmurts, etc. - became part of Russia, and the development of the wealth of the Urals began.
Oprichnina. Ivan Vasilyevich IV the Terrible was a complex and outstanding personality. Impressive and educated, painfully proud and unrestrained, suspicious - he learned too many secrets of the behind-the-scenes political struggle during his childhood. In 1553, Ivan IV, having fallen seriously ill, faced a serious crisis in his power. The behavior of the boyars aroused in him doubts about their personal loyalty. He began to fear a conspiracy against himself. The death of the infant son Dmitry (1554) and his wife Anastasia (1560) finally convinced Ivan IV of the "boyar conspiracy". He dissolved the Chosen Rada, and expelled its active members from Moscow. Mass executions of those suspected of "treason" began in the country. Many boyars and nobles fled abroad, including one of the heroes of the capture of Kazan, Prince Andrei Kurbsky (1564). To cope with "treason", Ivan IV announced the creation oprichnina from among the people who were especially loyal to him. It was a new state reform. The king divided the country into two parts, the oprichnina lands made up his own lot. Oprichniki formed the personal guard of the king, they renounced their relatives and friends, swore allegiance only to the king. Many patrimonies and cities were subjected to oprichny defeat. Novgorod suffered the most (1569) - Ivan IV accused the Novgorodians of wanting to go "to the side of Lithuania" and destroyed half of the city, depriving it of the last remnants of its former liberty. But in 1571, the oprichnina army could not defend Moscow from the attack of the Crimean Tatars Devlet Giray. And then the severity of repression fell upon the guardsmen and their leadership.
Ivan's tragedyIV. The unbridled tsar turned into his personal tragedy. In 1581, during a quarrel, he hit his son and heir with a heavy staff on the head Ivan Ivanovich. Young Ivan died four days later. Ivan the Terrible left one son - narrow-minded Fedor. Although in 1583 Ivan IV had another son - Dmitry, The days of the dynasty were numbered. Ivan the Terrible died in 1584, Tsarevich Dmitry died in 1591, and Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich died in 1598 without leaving an heir. Thus ended the Rurik dynasty on the Russian throne. The history of Russia under Ivan IV falls into two periods - before 1560, when Russia achieved one success after another and developed rapidly, and after 1560, when the state suffered a series of serious defeats and setbacks.
Ticket 7.1. The main directions of foreign policy and the expansion of the territory of the Russian state inXV- XVIcenturies
Annexation of Kazan. At the center of foreign policy issues of the government IvanaIV there were relations with the Kazan and Crimean khanates, with scattered, but dangerous nomads of the Don steppes - the Nogais (named after Khan Leg). Kazan troops almost every year made devastating raids on Russian lands. Ivan IV decided to start the war: it was necessary to eliminate the center of aggression, put his protege on the khan's throne in Kazan, and establish control over the Volga route of trade with the countries of the East. In 1552, the 150,000th Russian army laid siege to Kazan. After six weeks of siege, the Russians broke into the city. The Kazan Khanate was included in the Russian state.
"Discovery" of Siberia. The fall of Kazan had another important consequence. A few years later, with the consent of Ivan the Terrible, merchants and industrialists entrenched themselves in the Urals. Stroganovs. The money that came from them, gold and furs, accounted for almost a quarter of the income of the Russian treasury. The detachments of Cossacks invited by the Stroganovs to protect the lands, led by Yermak made a trip deep into Siberia, defeated the troops of the Siberian Khan in several battles Kuchum and took its capital, Itil. This victory opened before the Russians the prospect of a peaceful conquest and development of the vast expanses of Western and Eastern Siberia, Yakutia and Primorye. In 1584, a delegation of Siberian Cossacks arrived at Ivan IV, who laid at his feet another huge possession - Siberia, which was then included in the Russian State.
Astrakhan and Crimea. In 1556, the governors of Ivan IV took Astrakhan. The Astrakhan Khanate arose, like Kazan, with the collapse of the Golden Horde. A year later, the ruler of the Great Nogai Horde voluntarily swore allegiance to the Russian sovereign Khan Ismail. With a request to accept their peoples into Russia, ambassadors from Chuvashia, Udmurtia and Bashkiria arrived in Moscow. The problem of Crimea remained unresolved. The Crimean khans repeatedly raided the south of Russia. In 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Giray attacked the Russian lands by surprise and burned Moscow. More than 100 thousand people were taken to full. But conquering the Crimean Khanate, which was under the auspices of the Ottoman Empire and separated from the Russian border by lifeless expanses of the steppes, was almost impossible at that time.
Livonian war. In the west, the problem remained unresolved, which faced even the grandfather of Ivan IV - IvanIII. Russia did not have access to the Baltic Sea, it needed diplomatic, economic, cultural relations with Western Europe. An obstacle to this was a chain of states hostile to Russia - Sweden, the Livonian Order, Poland and the Ottoman Empire. The weak link in this chain was the Livonian Order: back in 1503, the Order undertook to pay tribute to Russia, but did not fulfill its obligation. Ivan IV in 1558 started a war against Livonia. Russian troops reached the coast of the Baltic Sea, took Narva and Derpt (Yuriev), laid siege to Revel and Riga. In 1561, the defeated Livonian Order ceased to exist, "unsubscribing" the lands captured by the Russians of Denmark, Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. At this time, Ivan IV and his diplomacy made a serious miscalculation. Instead of seeking an honorable peace, Ivan the Terrible decided to continue the war against new opponents. But military happiness turned away from the Russians. The war dragged on, the tsarist troops suffered defeat. In search of the guilty, Ivan the Terrible unleashed terror in the country and created an oprichnina to fight the "traitors". In 1581 the troops of the Polish king Stefan Batory invaded Russia and laid siege to Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov saved Russia from complete defeat. Ivan IV offered peace to his enemies at the price of renouncing the conquered in Livonia and part of the original Russian lands. As a result, Sweden took over the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland.
Relations with England. Even during the Livonian War, Ivan IV actively tried to find allies in the West. Relations with England developed most successfully. The tsar granted numerous privileges to English merchants, invited a large group of specialists to Russia - geologists, doctors, specialists in melting metals and minting coins. But the development of relations ceased with the death of Ivan IV in 1584.
Under Ivan IV, Russia expanded unprecedentedly to the east and became the largest state in the world in terms of its territory. The Golden Horde yoke remained in the past, the heirs of the Horde were "brought under the arm of Moscow." But the establishment of political, economic and cultural contacts with the West failed. Despite the enormous tension of all the forces of the country, the "door" to the west did not open. Russia remained in the ring of states hostile to it, and the country's forces for many years were undermined by the internal policy of Ivan IV himself
Ticket 8.1. Culture and spiritual life of Russia inXV- XVIcenturies
In the 16th century, the formation of the Russian (Great Russian) nationality and the formation of the Russian language, which differs not only from Belarusian and Ukrainian, but also from Church Slavonic, preserved in writing, take place. The basis of the Russian language proper was the Rostov-Suzdal dialect and the Moscow dialect.
Education and book a business. With the formation of a single state, the need for educated people is growing. The Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551 ordered priests to create "schools" in their homes to teach the children of priests and deacons. There were also secular teachers. In the second half of the 16th century, the first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic were created. The number of handwritten books grew, despite their high cost (in 1600, one handwritten book on 135 sheets was exchanged “for a self-propelled gun, and a saber, and for black cloth, and for a simple curtain”). From the middle of the XVI century. printing appeared in Moscow. The initiator of the printing business was IvanIV. The first printing house in Moscow began work in 1551; from 1563 he was engaged in printing books "in Moscow" Ivan Fedorov. in the development of printing business is invaluable. He himself made all kinds of printing equipment, was a talented author, an excellent engraver and woodcarver, edited and corrected texts. Chronicle continued. At the request of Ivan IV, the Front Chronicle Code was created - an encyclopedia of world and Russian history. On the initiative of Metropolitan Macarius, the "Fourth Menaion" was published - a 12-volume collection for popular reading by days of the week and months. Confessor of Tsar Ivan IV Sylvester wrote the secular book "Domostroy", which contained the life rules of the Russian Orthodox person, the business ethics of his time. In 1556, a guide was published for state scribes on measuring and describing land plots with rules for calculating areas of various shapes. In 1581, the first pharmacy in Russia was opened in the Kremlin. Iconography developed. An outstanding master icon painter and painter was Dionysius, monk of the Joseph-Voloko-Lama Monastery.
The development of architecture. Brick housing construction appeared, architecture developed. The hip style of folk wooden architecture penetrates into stone architecture. Tent churches of the 16th century - characteristic structures of that time. The crown of Russian architecture of the XVI century. St. Basil's Cathedral on Red Square in Moscow, built Barma and Postnik. The king created the Order of Stone Affairs, which was in charge of the construction of all stone structures. Russia had experienced craftsmen and builders capable of solving complex problems. Yes, master Ivan Vyrodkov in the Kazan campaign, he set up the Sviyazhsk fortress on the Volga in four weeks, and during the siege of Kazan he led the construction of assault towers.
