Economics and social structure. Economics and social structure of society. “Non-economic” factors of social differentiation

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The existence of society is impossible without the constant production of material goods; Social production determines the emergence and development of social structure; Economic relations actively influence the political life of society; In the production process, the necessary material conditions are created for the development of the spiritual life of society

Economic institutions are the norms and rules by which participants interact and carry out economic activities. formal rules - codes, laws, by-laws, etc. informal rules - traditions, customs, habits, behavioral stereotypes of economic entities; economic categories - market, property, competition, taxes, etc.

Economy and social structure of society - the relationship of the economy with such indicators as: the total population and its growth rate; public health status; formation of professional social communities; income and wealth inequality.

Research and analysis of the influence of the economic life of society on the formation of professional social communities; the rich occupy the best positions and have the most prestigious professions. These professions are better paid and involve mental work and management functions. The wealthy strata that make up the middle class in society include lawyers, qualified employees, the middle and petty bourgeoisie, the working class, according to modern ideas, constitutes an independent group that occupies an intermediate position between the middle and lower classes of society. The lower strata include unskilled workers, the unemployed, and the poor.

1. Social stratification of society, which is directly related to economic development, exacerbates the conflicting interests of various social groups. 2. The market economy must be adjusted through the implementation of certain social policies in order to prevent a social explosion. 3. The social policy of the Russian state at the present stage involves: support for low-income citizens; regulation of labor relations; assistance in employment of the unemployed population; freedom to choose a profession; ensuring accessibility of education and assistance in retraining of personnel; ensuring freedom of enterprise. 4. Coordination of the interests of various participants in the economic life of society is important, therefore the economic and social spheres must mutually support each other.

Before Peter I, industry and trade in Russia were poorly developed. The reason for this situation was quite objective circumstances - the slow development of agriculture (low yields, unproductive livestock farming) due to difficult natural and climatic conditions, the growing burden of state taxes, and low population density. Therefore, to satisfy state needs for weapons, gunpowder, and cloth, the Moscow government created its own enterprises, which by the end of the 17th century. there were about 20. Already under Alexei Mikhailovich, no taxes were taken from such factories and entire villages were assigned to them to provide labor. It was then difficult for private individuals to develop their crafts due to state fees and a large number of state farm-outs, monopolies on the most profitable goods, as well as the narrowness of effective demand among the broad masses of the population for manufactured goods (peasants were mainly engaged in subsistence farming).

Peter I essentially continued the policies of his predecessors in the field of industry and trade, but on a much larger scale. The number of manufactories increased by about 10 times, amounting to approximately 200. Peter I spent a lot of energy on promoting the search for minerals, especially iron and copper ores, gold, silver, on the establishment of mining factories, weapons, cloth and other manufactories. He built factories with state funds, encouraged the establishment of private enterprises, even to the point of using violent measures, transferred state-owned manufactories into private hands, invited foreign craftsmen and sent Russians to study abroad, etc. Vagrants, “walking” people, and peasants were sent to manufactories; from 1721, merchants received the right to buy peasants in villages to work in factories. And this is no coincidence.

In his industrial and trade policy, Peter I was based on the principles of mercantilism (i.e. benefit, benefit), which boiled down to the fact that every nation, in order not to become poor, must itself produce everything it needs and export more than import. Therefore, Peter I introduced high customs duties on imports, especially on goods produced in Russia, and limited the activities of foreign merchants in Russia. But this led to an even greater shortage of capital (foreigners were afraid to invest money in Russian enterprises), to the low quality of many Russian goods intended for a wide market due to the lack of competition. Therefore, after the death of Peter I, the new government revised its trade policy and reduced import duties.

For many decades there have been debates about the significance of the activities of Peter I in the field of industry and trade, about whether it gave impetus to the development of capitalism in Russia or not. Some believe that no, since feudal manufactories, and even state-owned ones, cannot be considered capitalist enterprises. Others believe, pointing to the large number of private factories, that there were elements of capitalism. The mistake is that both of them identify the construction of plants and factories and the emergence of capitalism as market relations. Capitalism, or the market, provides, first of all, for the development of free market relations between producers and consumers, and especially the presence of a free labor market. Nothing of this on any serious scale at the beginning of the 18th century. did not have. While supporting individual factory owners who worked for the state, Peter I, through extortions and state monopolies, ruined the bulk of merchants and artisans, not giving them the opportunity to accumulate capital sufficient to establish enterprises.

At the same time, it depleted the bulk of the population - the peasants, not giving them the opportunity to become consumers of industrial products.

In the absence of natural conditions and normal prerequisites for the development of industry and trade, the economic policy of Peter I in this direction inevitably had to have the character of an artificial boost, and after solving major foreign policy problems and the disappearance of the energetic influence of the reformer, many of his undertakings were to decline. That’s what happened: from Peter’s manufactories by the end of the 18th century.

In the first quarter of the 18th century. The ruin of the wealthiest part of the Russian merchant class - the “living room of the hundred” - occurred, after which the names of many owners of traditional trading houses disappeared from the list of wealthy people. The gross intervention of the state led to the destruction of loan and usury capital, on the basis of which capitalist industry developed in the West.

At the beginning of the 18th century. The final formation of the noble class takes place, which enjoyed exclusive rights of soul and land ownership. The process of the formation of the nobility was the result not only of the long development of the service class, but also of the conscious activity of Peter I. Instead of the principle of origin, which allowed noble service people to immediately occupy a high position in society, in the army and in the civil service, the main principle that determined the position of a service person became personal length of service, the conditions of which were determined by law.

Thus, the path to the top was opened to the most capable representatives of the lower classes of society, and the principle of seniority, promotion through the ranks based on merit, enshrined in the Table of Ranks of 1722, strengthened the nobility at the expense of people from other classes. But, on the other hand, this was not the final goal of the reforms. Introducing the principle of personal service, the conditions strictly stipulated in the Table of Ranks for promotion up the ladder of ranks (the most important condition was the obligatory service from an ordinary soldier or clerical officer), Peter I sought to transform the rather amorphous mass of servicemen “by fatherland” (by origin) into military personnel. a bureaucratic corps completely subordinate to him and dependent only on him. Of course, at the same time, the formation of the estate of the nobility as a corporation, endowed with special rights and privileges, with a corporate consciousness, principles and customs, took place, but this process reached its completion only by the middle of the 18th century, when the nobility was gradually freed from compulsory service. Peter I sought to connect the very concept of “nobleman” as closely as possible with mandatory, permanent service that required knowledge and practical skills.

Peter I inspired his subjects that only the nobleman who serves is worthy of honor. And in fact: all the nobles were assigned to various institutions and regiments, their children were sent to schools without fail, sent to study abroad, those who did not want to study were forbidden to marry, pleasure estates were taken away from those who evaded service.

Great changes took place under Peter I in the situation of the non-serf rural population; in fact, the class of state peasants was created. It included black-sowing peasants of the North, yasak peasants - foreigners of the Volga region, and single-dvorets of the South. In total - at least 18% of the tax-paying population. Odnodvortsy by origin were service people, but they were small-scale, owning, as a rule, one household, but had the right to have serfs (and some had them) and not to pay taxes. Now they were “put under taxation,” which blocked their path to the nobility. Belonging to the taxable classes now meant non-privilege, and state policy was aimed at limiting the rights and opportunities that tax-paying people had as personally free from serfdom.

Changes also occurred in the position of serfs. The difference in the position of serfs and serfs was eliminated - serfs had not paid taxes until that time, and now they were also subject to taxation. Elimination of servitude in the 18th century. led to an increase in the corvée labor of serfs, since previously it was the slaves who cultivated the lord’s fields.

Peter I unified the social structure of cities, into which Western European city institutions were transferred: magistrates, guilds and guilds. Having deep historical roots in their homeland, these institutions were transferred to Russia by force, through administrative means. The townsfolk population was divided into two guilds: the first guild was made up of the “first-class”, which included the top of the townsfolk, rich merchants, artisans, citizens of intellectual professions, and the second guild included small shopkeepers and artisans, who, in addition, were united in workshops according to professional sign. All other townspeople in the guild were not included and were subject to a complete check in order to identify runaway peasants.

Division into guilds and unification into workshops turned out to be a pure fiction; European bodies of city government on Russian soil turned into bodies for extorting taxes from townspeople. The old system of distributing taxes according to wealth was also retained, when the richest citizens were forced to pay for tens and hundreds of poor people, which led to the preservation of backward social structures and hampered the development of market relations and entrepreneurship.

In general, the social policy of Peter 1 was aimed at unifying the class structure of society (to what has been said should be added the introduction of states of clergy with a clear distribution of rights and responsibilities according to the Spiritual Regulations), which had the goal of creating a so-called “regular state” - autocratic, military-bureaucratic and policeman.

The social sphere of society is formed by large, more or less stable social associations of people and the relationships between them. These associations are formed under the direct influence of labor, the economic life of society as a whole, and at the same time are closely connected with the political and spiritual spheres. Social relations therefore act as aspects of material and spiritual relations, including political ones, and do not exist alongside them. Spiritual and political relations by their nature are ideological relations and are correlated as a whole and a part.

In the socio-economic structure of society, there are structures first And second order. The first-order structure includes large, historical social associations of individuals, called historical communities of people. In the second-order structure, classes are distinguished first of all.

7.1. Historical communities of people

Historical communities of people are large, stable associations (collectives), revealing common features of life, material and spiritual culture, language, psychology etc. These are a kind of natural stages in the development of the generic, social essence of man, primarily labor and thought. Since labor is the final basis and reason for the development of society, it is the most important factor in the unification of individuals into various types and forms of community and their successive succession from formation to formation. If there is no common life and work, there is no historical community. The latter therefore acts primarily as an economic community. Connections in the production process lead to territorial and administrative connections, to a common language as a necessary means of communication, accumulation, storage and transmission of socially organized experience, to the formation of certain psychological traits of people, determined by the conditions of joint life and work.

With changes in the productive forces and production relations, the types and forms of collectivity change. The main types of community known to history are tribal community, nationality, nation. Sometimes they include race, i.e. groups of people that differ in anthropological and biological characteristics (hair color and shape, eye shape, etc.) expressed in social communities. Until now, belonging to a race performs a social-forming function: sympathies, close relationships, and communication arise primarily between representatives of the same race. However, it is hardly legitimate to consider race as a historical community, the main feature of which is one or another form of economic community.

IN primitive communal formations based on consanguineous relationships develop generic And tribal communities, and with them the first forms arise marriage and family. A characteristic feature of a tribal community is that economic relations appear here in the shell of family ties. The economic life of society was such that it was family ties that came to the fore. Kinship-This is a complex social phenomenon that has its own biological basis. The latter acts as a kind of matrices, on which social connections are formed (tribal, family, national, etc.). It is assumed that by the time of the division of the primitive herd (the initial state of human society), family ties began to play a certain role; maternal clans were formed mainly from relatives of the female line. Their emergence was determined not only by natural connections, but also by social ones - the significant role of women in household and social work, especially during the period of hoe farming. With the transition from hoe farming to plow farming, from breeding domestic animals to cattle breeding, matriarchy is replaced by patriarchy, because in cattle breeding, and then in agriculture (where cattle began to be used as draft power), the main role began to belong to men. From the patriarchal clan, a patriarchal family gradually emerges (consisting of three to four generations of immediate relatives, descendants of the father), the economic basis of which is the collective ownership of land and the main means of production; Only items for personal use are individually owned.

Family arises from the need for the reproduction of the human race, but has a social nature. Marriage and closely related relationships are only the biological basis of the family, but not its essence. With the increasing complexity of work and economic life in general, family relationships are increasingly filled with social content. At the same time, social kinship remains significantly dependent on biological connections. Therefore, both in historical communities (clan, tribe, nationality, nation), and in the main unit of society - the family - it is necessary to take into account biological matrix. The biological connection between parents and children acts as the basis on which social connections are also formed in society as a whole. It is known that in modern nations all individuals are ultimately distant relatives. In the context of global integration processes taking place in the world economy, it is possible for humanity to transform into panmixian a genus that, due to heterosis (the properties of first-generation hybrids to surpass the best of the parent forms in vitality, fertility and other biological characteristics), allows for the further biological development of humanity.

The economic basis for the formation of a new community is nationalities- serve private labor and private property. The predominantly subsistence nature of the economy determines local, local economic and other connections. Nationality develops as a result of the merger of different tribes, their loss of economic, territorial, administrative, linguistic independence and the formation on their basis of a common material and spiritual culture, a single territory, language, and later a state that contributes to its strengthening. Nationalities are distinguished by shape slaveholding And feudal society. Historically, the ancient Hellenic, ancient Egyptian and other peoples of the slave-owning society were the first to form. They apparently covered the free population of a given country, not including slaves. The nationality in feudal society (Old Russian, Northern French, etc.) includes mainly the working population (peasants, artisans, etc.). Some nationalities (Nenets and others) began to take shape under capitalist conditions.

Nations are formed from people of various tribes and nationalities (for example, the Italian nation was formed from the Romans, Greeks, Germans, Etruscans, Arabs, etc.) due to the socialization of production and the creation of a single market. Nation characterized a commonality of economic life, territory, language, mental makeup, manifested in national character and culture. The economic community inherent in it has a deeper and more universal character due to the dominance capitalist commodity production with its inherent division and cooperation of labor, commodity-money relations. Thus, the merging of previously separated Russian regions, lands, and principalities into one whole was facilitated by the increasing exchange between them, the gradually growing commodity circulation, and the concentration of markets into a single market. But since the leaders and masters of this process were capitalists, the creation of these national ties was nothing more than the creation of bourgeois ties.

Lenin identified two main trends in the development of bourgeois nations. First: the awakening of national life and national movements, the struggle against all national oppression, the creation of national states. Second: the development and intensification of all kinds of relations between nations, the breaking down of national barriers, the international unity of capital and economic life in general. Both of these trends in their dialectical relationship constitute a single world law of capitalism, but if the first of them prevails at the beginning of its development, the second characterizes “mature capitalism moving towards its transformation into a socialist society” 130. This leads to the basic principles of the national program under socialism: 1) the principle of equality of nations, including the right of nations to self-determination and secession; 2) the principle of internationalism and the fight against bourgeois nationalism. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between the nationalism of the oppressed nation and the oppressor. If for the proletariat of the oppressing nation the main demand in the national question, as a rule, is recognition of the right of small nations to secede, then for the proletariat of the oppressed nations such a demand remains the right to unify. Since every bourgeois nationalism of an oppressed nation has a general democratic content against oppression, it must be supported.

Socialist nations are formed in two ways: as a result of a radical transformation of bourgeois nations or directly from nationalities. The social nature of labor and property contributes to the creation of a single multinational community that takes into account the characteristics of work, life, culture, demographic processes, etc. every nation and nationality, not excluding small ethnic communities.

The integration processes taking place in the modern world economy clearly indicate that in the future, on the basis of a new commonality of economic life, national differences will gradually be erased. National isolation will be replaced by a comprehensive connection of nations, their dependence on each other. Changes in economic life will lead to a change in the mental makeup of people, to the need for a common language. This will create the prerequisites necessary for the emergence of a new community of people. The latter, unlike previous historical communities, will already be ahistorical. This form of community of people will become socialized humanity, which Marx considered as the ideal of the new, i.e. dialectical and historical materialism. “The point of view of the old materialism is “civil” society; the point of view of new materialism is human society, or socialized humanity” 131. The emerging and deepening crisis of modern civilization imperiously demanded joint action of all countries, all social forces of the world. A united humanity was conceived by Marx as created on a communist basis. The emergence of global problems puts forward a more complex and ambitious task - the creation of humanity united in its efforts in the conditions of a socially heterogeneous world, which has not yet overcome the antagonism of classes.

“Society 6th grade” - Association of people based on interests and activities. The word “community” is more appropriate here. A specific stage in the development of a people. All people living in a country or on a planet (humanity). Society. Labor collective. B) An association of people by origin (noble society, high society, etc.).

“The social structure of Russian society” - Completely different social and socio-psychological personality types are being formed. The same applies to social communities. Middle-income people. State municipal. Social structure of Russian society. Highly wealthy. Rich. Poor. Types of property. Low-income people.

“Structure of Society” - Student. This type of stratification is typical for developed Western countries. Social groups. Social structure of Russian society. The positions of social groups are different. Social sphere of society. 5. Find the “Strangers” in the chain: A person performs different social roles according to his social status.

“Interaction in society” - Society as a system. Society and public relations. Think about how a person can relate to nature? Interaction between man and society. System of social sciences. What is society? Society and nature. Subsystems. Society.

“Social structure of society” - Profession. Social interests. Marxist theory is based on the division of society into classes. Social stratification. Social equality. Social group. Downward vertical mobility: ruin, demotion. The existence of inequality does not eliminate the question of social equality. Social role.

“The social sphere of society” - Philosophy science religion law art morality ideology. Forms of social consciousness: Media. Public opinion. Yakovets Yu.V. History of Civilizations: Textbook. Unity and difference of nature and society. Differences between civilization and culture. Society as an object of knowledge. The main spheres of society's life.