Describe the body systems by organ. Basic systems of the human body. Structure and functions of the human body: cells and tissues
Human physiology is the science of the functions and processes occurring in the body or its component systems (organs, tissues, cells), and the mechanisms of their regulation that ensure human life in interaction with the environment.
Organism is an integral, independently existing biological system of an individual living being. As a system, it obeys the basic system principles:
1 – integrity , i.e. irreducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of its parts;
2 – structure , i.e. the ability to describe a system through its structure;
3 – hierarchical b, i.e. subordination of the constituent elements of the system;
4 – relationship between system and environment . The body is a self-regulating system that responds as a whole to changes in the external environment.
Characteristic of every organism is a certain organization of its structures. In the simplest living organisms - viruses - there is only an organization of the protein molecules and nucleic acids that make it up. This - molecular level organization of the body. Unicellular organisms have a supramolecular cellular level of organization, at which some separation of functions of different intracellular formations occurs. Multicellular organisms have cell differentiation, and tissues are formed from equally differentiated cells, i.e. can be distinguished tissue level organization of the body. Several tissues form an organ. This organ level organization of the body. The set of organs involved in the performance of any complex activity forms organ systems. The presence of organ systems determines system level organizations.
The entire human body is conventionally divided into organ systems based on the function they perform. If any of the systems is weakened for some reason, other systems are able to partially take over the function of the weakened system, help it, and give it the opportunity to recover. For example, when the function of the urinary system (kidneys) decreases, the respiratory system takes over the function of cleansing the body. If it fails, the excretory system - the skin - is activated. But in this case, the body switches to a different mode of functioning. He becomes more vulnerable, and the person must reduce his usual loads, giving him the opportunity to optimize his lifestyle. Nature has given the body a unique mechanism of self-regulation and self-healing.
We list 12 systems of the human body and their main functions.
1. central nervous system – regulation and integration of vital functions of the body.
2. Respiratory system – providing the body with oxygen, which is necessary for all biochemical processes; release of carbon dioxide.
3. Circulatory system – ensuring the transport of nutrients into the cell and releasing it from waste products.
4. Hematopoietic organ system – ensuring the consistency of blood composition.
5. Digestive system – consumption, processing, absorption of nutrients, excretion of waste products.
6. Urinary system and skin – excretion of waste products, cleansing the body.
7. Reproductive system - reproduction of the body.
8. Endocrine system – regulation of the biorhythm of life, basic metabolic processes and maintaining a constant internal environment.
9. Bone-muscular system– ensuring structure and movement functions.
10. Lymphatic system – cleansing the body and neutralizing foreign agents.
11. The immune system – ensuring the body’s protection from harmful and foreign factors.
12. Peripheral nervous system – ensuring the flow of excitation and inhibition processes, carrying out commands from the central nervous system to the working organs.
There is internal and external control of the body.
External control affects the system through nuclear DNA, messenger RNA, through neurosecretory, endocrine and other chemical regulators.
Internal management is carried out at several levels. The highest level of regulation of the physiological functions of the body and the relationship between the body and the environment is provided by the central nervous system. The second level of regulation is provided by the autonomic nervous system. The third level of regulation is carried out by the endocrine system. And the fourth level of regulation is the nonspecific regulation of physiological functions, which is carried out by body fluids (blood, lymph, tissue fluid). In the body, all these levels are interconnected, providing a beneficial result from the functioning of both an individual organ of the system and the organism as a whole.
Introduction
1. Musculoskeletal system
2. Central nervous system
3. Cardiovascular system
4. Respiratory system
5. Digestive system
6. Genitourinary system
7. Human immune system
Conclusion
Any person consists of physiological systems (digestive, respiratory, excretory, nervous, sensory, endocrine, musculoskeletal and genitourinary systems). Any system consists of organs, that is, tissues. The body is a system in which all organs and systems function in a coordinated manner.
The body undergoes self-regulation and communication between the body and the environment. This process is usually called neurohumoral regulation, because nervous and humoral processes take part in it.
Medicine, when considering the human body, perceives it, first of all, as a multi-structured, multifaceted microuniverse. Medical science, when considering the human body and its systems, proceeds from the principle of the integrity of the human body, which has the ability to self-reproduce, self-development and self-government.
The integrity of the body is determined by the structure and functional connection of all its systems, consisting of highly specialized differentiated cells, united in structural complexes that provide the morphological basis for the most general manifestations of the body's vital activity.
All organs and systems of the human body are in constant interaction and are a self-regulating system, which is based on the functions of the nervous and endocrine systems of the body.
The interconnected and coordinated work of all organs and physiological systems of the body is ensured by nervous and humoral mechanisms. In this case, the leading role is played by the central nervous system (CNS), which is capable of perceiving the influences of the external environment and responding to it adequately, including the interaction of the human psyche, his motor functions, depending on the conditions of the external environment.
The human musculoskeletal system is a functional set of skeletal bones, tendons, joints that, through nervous regulation, carry out locomotion, maintaining posture and other motor actions, along with other organ systems, forming the human body.
The human locomotor system is a self-propelled mechanism consisting of 600 muscles, 200 bones, and several hundred tendons. The components of the musculoskeletal system are bones, tendons, muscles, aponeuroses, joints and other organs, the biomechanics of which ensure the efficiency of human movements.
Functions of the musculoskeletal system:
Support - fixation of muscles and internal organs;
Protective - protection of vital organs (brain and spinal cord, heart, etc.);
Motor - providing simple movements, motor actions (posture, locomotion, manipulation) and motor activity;
Spring - softening shocks and shocks;
Participation in ensuring vital processes, such as mineral metabolism, blood circulation, hematopoiesis and others.
The human musculoskeletal system consists of bones and muscles, tendons and ligaments, which provide the necessary support and harmonious interaction. The field of medicine that deals with diseases of the musculoskeletal system is called orthopedics.
Bone tissue consists of 2/3 mineral salts, 1/3 bone cells and collagen fibers. Minerals make bones hard, and a network of collagen fibers gives them elasticity and increases their load-bearing capacity. With the help of tendons, muscles are attached to bones and are stretched, low-elastic bundles of fibers that slide in a looser shell.
The direct performers of all human movements are muscles. However, by themselves they cannot perform the function of human movement. The mechanical work of muscles is carried out through bone levers. Therefore, when considering how a person carries out his movements, we are talking about his musculoskeletal system, which includes three relatively independent systems: skeletal (or skeleton), ligamentous-articular (mobile joints of bones) and muscular (skeletal muscles).
Bones, cartilage and their connections together form the skeleton, which performs vital functions: protective, spring and motor. Skeletal bones take part in metabolism and hematopoiesis.
A newborn baby has about 350 cartilaginous bones, consisting mainly of ossein. As bones grow, they absorb calcium phosphate and become hard. This process is called calcification.
There are more than 200 bones (206-209) in the adult human body, the classification of which is based on the shape, structure and function of the bones. By shape, bones are divided into long, short, flat or round, and by structure into tubular, spongy and air-bearing.
During human evolution, the length and thickness of bones change. First, there is an increase in the strength and elasticity of bones due to the deposition of calcium phosphate in bone tissue. The elasticity of bone tissue is 20 times greater than the elasticity of steel. This process is determined by the chemical composition of the bone, i.e. the content of organic and mineral substances in them and its mechanical structure. Calcium and phosphorus salts give bones hardness, and organic components give firmness and elasticity.
The active process of bone growth is completed before the age of 15 years for women and 20 years for men. Nevertheless, the process of growth and regeneration of bone tissue continues throughout a person’s life.
To maintain this process, the body requires constant replenishment of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin O.
When there is insufficient calcium in the blood, the body borrows it from bone tissue, which ultimately makes the bones porous and brittle.
With age, the content of minerals, mainly calcium carbonate, increases, which leads to a decrease in the firmness and elasticity of bones, causing them to become brittle (fragile).
On the outside, the bone is covered with a thin shell - the periosteum, which is tightly connected to the bone tissue. The periosteum has two layers. The outer dense layer is saturated with vessels (blood and lymphatic) and nerves, and the inner bone-forming layer contains special cells that promote bone growth in thickness. Due to these cells, bone healing occurs when it is fractured. The periosteum covers the bone almost along its entire length, with the exception of the articular surfaces. The growth of bones in length occurs due to the cartilaginous parts located at the edges.
Joints provide mobility to the articulating bones of the skeleton. The articular surfaces are covered with a thin layer of cartilage, which allows the articular surfaces to glide with little friction.
Each joint is completely enclosed in a joint capsule. The walls of this bursa secrete joint fluid - synovium - which acts as a lubricant. The ligamentous-capsular apparatus and the muscles surrounding the joint strengthen and fix it.
The main directions of movement that the joints provide are: flexion - extension, abduction - adduction, rotation and circular movements.
The adult human skeleton weighs about 9 kg and is divided into the skeleton of the head, torso and limbs. It consists of 86 paired and 34 unpaired bones. We will limit ourselves to a brief introduction to them.
The skeleton of the head is called the skull, which has a complex structure. The bones of the skull are divided into two groups: cranial bones and facial bones.
The skull contains the brain and some sensory systems: visual, auditory, olfactory.
The bones of the face form a framework on which the initial sections of the respiratory and digestive systems are located. All the bones of the skull are fixedly connected to each other, with the exception of the lower jaw, which is connected using movable joints.
The upper part of the skull is formed by the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal bones. The inner surface is adapted to accommodate the brain and sensory organs. The nasal bones are clearly visible on the face, below which the upper jaw is located. The shape of the face is determined by the relationship between the cheek bones and the length of the face. From this ratio it can be long, narrow, short or wide.
When engaging in physical exercises and sports, the presence of supporting places of the skull - buttresses, which soften shocks and tremors during running, jumping, and sports games, is of great importance.
The skull is directly connected to the body through the first two cervical vertebrae.
Particular mention should be made of the skeleton of the body, which consists of the spinal column and rib cage. The spinal column consists of 24 individual vertebrae (7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar), the sacrum (5 fused vertebrae) and the coccyx (4-5 fused vertebrae).
The connection of the vertebrae is carried out using cartilaginous, elastic, elastic intervertebral discs and articular processes. Each vertebra consists of a massive body in the form of an arc with extending processes. Intervertebral discs increase the mobility of the spine. The greater their thickness, the greater the flexibility. If the curves of the spinal column are very pronounced (with scoliosis), the mobility of the chest decreases. A flat or rounded back (hunchback) indicates weak back muscles (usually in teenagers and young adults). Posture correction is carried out with general developmental exercises, strength exercises, stretching exercises and swimming.
The most mobile are the cervical vertebrae, the thoracic vertebrae are less mobile. For all its strength, the spine is a relatively weak link in the skeleton.
And finally, the main skeleton includes the rib cage, which performs a protective function for the internal organs and consists of the sternum, 12 pairs of ribs and their connections. The space bounded by the chest and diaphragm, separating the abdominal cavity from the chest cavity, is called the thoracic cavity.
The ribs are flat, arched, long bones that are movably attached to the sternum using flexible cartilaginous ends. All rib connections are very elastic, which is important for breathing. The thoracic cavity contains the circulatory and respiratory organs.
During the evolution of man, his skeleton has undergone significant changes. The upper limbs became organs of labor, the lower limbs retained the functions of support and movement. The bones of the upper and lower extremities are sometimes called the accessory skeleton.
The skeleton of the upper limb consists of the shoulder girdle (2 shoulder blades, 2 clavicles). The arms at the shoulder joint have high mobility. Since its congruence is insignificant, and the joint capsule is thin and loose, there are almost no ligaments, frequent dislocations and injuries are possible, especially habitual ones. The humerus bones (2) are connected through the elbow joint to the forearm (2), which includes two bones: the ulna and the radius. The hand has a palmar and dorsal surface. The bony base of the hand consists of 27 bones. Directly adjacent to the forearm is the wrist (8 bones), forming the wrist joint. The middle of the hand consists of the metacarpus (5 bones) and the phalanges of 5 fingers. In total, the upper limbs have 64 bones.
The skeleton of the lower limb consists of 2 pelvic bones. The pelvis is formed by the fusion of three bones - the ilium, the ischium and the pubis.
At the site of fusion of all three pelvic bones, a glenoid cavity is formed, into which the head of the femur enters, forming the hip joint. In total, the skeleton of the lower limb includes 62 bones.
Bone mass depends on mechanical factors. Properly organized activities and regular physical activity and sports lead to an increase in bone minerals. This leads to a thickening of the cortical layer of the bones, making them stronger. This is important when performing exercises that require high mechanical strength (running, jumping, etc.). Therefore, athletes have significantly greater bone mass than people leading a sedentary lifestyle.
With regular exercise, you can slow down and even stop the process of bone demineralization and, to a certain extent, restore the level of bone mineralization.
Any exercise is better than no exercise. Because bones respond by increasing density to physical activity to which they are not accustomed. The loads must be quite high.
Physical activity helps increase muscle strength, which provides stability to the body, and this reduces the risk of falls and, consequently, bone fractures. Even with relatively short periods of inactivity, bones begin to lose calcium and their density decreases.
Calcium intake is essential for healthy adult (over 25 years of age) bones. It is recommended to consume 800 mg of calcium daily (greens, vegetables, milk, yogurt, canned salmon, etc.). But consuming calcium or calcium supplements has little effect without exercise.
Improper training can lead to overload of the supporting apparatus. One-sidedness in the choice of physical exercises can also cause skeletal deformities.
2. Central nervous system
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord and their protective membranes. The membranes of the brain and spinal cord are structured as follows. On the outside is the dura mater, under it is the arachnoid mater, and then is the pia mater, fused with the surface of the brain. Between the pia mater and the arachnoid membrane is the subarachnoid space, which contains cerebrospinal fluid, in which both the brain and spinal cord literally float. The meninges and cerebrospinal fluid play a protective role, as well as the role of shock absorbers, softening all kinds of shocks and shocks that the body experiences that could lead to damage to the nervous system.
The central nervous system is made up of gray and white matter. Gray matter consists mainly of cell bodies, as well as some processes of nerve cells. Thanks to the presence of gray matter, our brain “thinks” by forming chains between the bodies of nerve cells. White matter consists of long processes of nerve cells - axons, which act as conductors and transmit impulses from one center to another.
The pathways of the nervous system are usually organized in such a way that information (for example, pain or tactile - the feeling of touch) from the right side of the body enters the left side of the brain and vice versa. This rule also applies to the descending motor pathways: the right half of the brain mainly controls the movements of the left half of the body, and the left half controls the right.
The brain consists of three main structures: the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum and the brainstem. The cerebral hemispheres - the largest part of the brain - contain higher nerve centers that form the basis of consciousness, intelligence, personality, speech, and understanding. In each of the cerebral hemispheres, the following formations are distinguished: underlying isolated accumulations (nuclei) of gray matter, which contain many important centers - the so-called subcortical formations; a large mass of white matter located above them; covering the outside of the hemispheres is a thick layer of gray matter with numerous convolutions that makes up the cerebral cortex.
The cerebellum also consists of gray and white matter. The cerebellum primarily provides coordination of movements.
The brainstem is formed by a mass of gray and white matter that is not divided into layers. The brain stem contains such important centers as the respiratory and vasomotor centers, as well as the nuclei of the cranial nerves, which regulate the functioning of the organs and muscles of the head and neck.
The spinal cord, located inside the spinal column and protected by its bone tissue, has a cylindrical shape and is covered with three membranes.
Peripheral nervous system
The peripheral system (PNS) provides two-way communication between the central parts of the nervous system and the organs and systems of the body. The PNS is represented by cranial and spinal nerves. These nerves emerge at different levels from the brain stem and spinal cord to reach the muscles and organs. The peripheral nervous system also includes the enteric nervous system, located in the intestinal wall.
Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic or autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates the activity of involuntary muscles, the heart muscle, and various glands. Its structures are located in both the central and peripheral nervous systems - these are the nuclei and plexuses located in the brain and spinal cord, as well as the nerves that go from these nuclei and plexuses to the internal organs. The activity of the autonomic nervous system is aimed at maintaining homeostasis, that is, a relatively stable state of the internal environment of the body. This system ensures constant body temperature, optimal blood pressure; it is also “responsible” for the frequency of heartbeat and breathing.
Solving problems associated with diseases of the nervous system is quite difficult. In any case, first of all, a union between the doctor and the patient is necessary, the patient’s understanding of the reasons for the development of the disease, a serious attitude towards fighting the disease and achieving the goal of recovery.
There are no processes in the human body that are not related to the state of the nervous system, not caused by its excessive tension or insufficient activity. And only maintaining the normal activity of this complexly organized system, even in cases where one or another damage has already occurred, gives a chance to defeat the disease. To direct the work of the nervous system, and therefore the body as a whole, in the right direction is the doctor’s task; to enable the healing processes to actively develop is not an easy job for the patient.
First of all, an integrated approach to solving problems is needed:
Timely holding of consultations and collegial adoption of correct decisions in complex clinical cases;
A combination of drug and non-drug treatment methods. In this case, rationally organized diagnostic and treatment processes make it possible to achieve the first positive results in a short time.
A special role in the treatment of patients with neurological diseases is played by rehabilitation and readaptation, which are of great importance in the world today.
Using rehabilitation programs specially developed for each patient, taking into account his individual characteristics, rehabilitation doctors will teach you to walk, do everything possible to restore the movements of the limbs and fingers, teach you to speak and even sing, and help you gain self-confidence. At the same time, it is very important to remember that the sooner program rehabilitation is started after an injury or stroke, the greater the guarantee of success, the better the result.
A common problem is headaches. Modern brain research systems greatly speed up the process of identifying the causes of headaches, allowing, first of all, to exclude high intracranial pressure, chronic inflammation or a tumor.
But much more often, headaches are associated with excessive tension in the muscles of the head and neck and are called “tension headaches.” In this case, drug treatments have a temporary effect, since they not only do not eliminate the causes of pain, but also do not affect the multiple mechanisms that underlie chronic headaches. And although the mechanisms of headaches (vascular, neuralgic, muscular, etc.) must be clarified in each case, many years of experience show that the greatest effect in the treatment of chronic headaches is exerted by the so-called reflex methods of influencing all of the above mechanisms.
Relaxation massage methods, complex effects on the muscular system, foot massage, acupuncture - a reliable arsenal of modern therapy methods that provide a lasting treatment effect. Maintenance preventive courses of treatment are guaranteed to avoid exacerbations.
Tension of muscle fibers very often causes pain in those muscles that are located close to the spine. In this case, it is enough to properly organize the impact of the hands on various muscle groups, a combination of relaxing and tonic methods, a complex of physical therapy, which allows you to avoid the use of strong painkillers and other medications, the overall effect of which is not indifferent to the body.
Another category of patients who now often turn to a neurologist are children. And here we also need an integrated approach, a team of experienced specialists: neurologists, massage therapists, speech therapists, psychologists who, working according to a unified treatment and rehabilitation program, will be able to do everything possible to develop and correct movements and speech, develop logical thinking and memory, maintain stable emotional condition and good mood of each child. And every child requires special attention.
An emotionally gentle diagnosis of a child’s condition, developed today by psychologists, eliminates communication difficulties, manifestations of negativism and increased anxiety in children, and solves the problem of psychological comfort of the child and his parents. Much attention today is paid to the use of various types of massage in the treatment of children: classical, segmental, acupressure, “Thai” and others. The enormous reserve capabilities of the child’s body, with a complex impact on the child’s physical and mental development systems, make it possible to obtain significant treatment results in a short time.
The intense rhythm of life, an abundance of information, a busy work schedule, when there is absolutely no time for rest and, it seems, you are working to the limit of your capabilities - all this often leads to emotional breakdowns, depression, and even a feeling of physical ill health. This is how healthy people develop chronic fatigue syndrome.
It is best to break this vicious circle in time. For this purpose, it is necessary, first of all, to use preventive treatment programs that will relieve tension, accumulated fatigue, and restore vigor and good mood. Consultations with a psychologist will help you understand the problems and find the right solutions that are important for normalizing the atmosphere at home and in the team of employees.
A sense organ is a specialized peripheral anatomical and physiological system that has developed in the process of evolution, which, thanks to its receptors, ensures the receipt and primary analysis of information from the surrounding world and from other organs of the body itself, that is, from the external and internal environment of the body. Some senses can complement others to a certain extent.
A person receives information through five senses:
Eyes (vision);
Ears, including the vestibular system (hearing and balance);
Tongue (taste);
Nose (sense of smell);
Skin (touch).
Information about stimuli affecting the receptors of the human senses is transmitted to the central nervous system. She analyzes incoming information and identifies it (sensations arise). Then a response signal is generated, which is transmitted along the nerves to the corresponding organs of the body.
The sense organs (organa sensuum) are receptors, or peripheral parts of the analyzers, that perceive various types of stimuli coming from the external environment. Each receptor is capable of perceiving certain factors, reacting to so-called adequate stimuli. Then the irritation is transformed into a nerve impulse and enters through the conductive pathways into the intermediate sections of the analyzers, formed by nerve centers located in the spinal cord and in the brain stem. From here the impulse is transmitted to the central part of the analyzers - to the cerebral cortex. It is here that the analysis and synthesis of nervous excitation occurs as a result of the reception of the stimulus by the senses. All three groups of departments (peripheral, intermediate and central) are interconnected morphologically and functionally, representing a single system.
The organ of vision (organum visus) perceives light stimuli. With their help, the process of perception of surrounding objects is carried out: size, shape, color, distance to them, movement, etc. 90% of information from the surrounding world comes through the eye.
The organ of hearing - the ear - is a complex vestibular-auditory organ that performs two functions: it perceives sound impulses and is responsible for the position of the body in space and the ability to maintain balance. This is a paired organ that is located in the temporal bones of the skull, limited externally by the auricles. The human ear perceives sound waves with a length of approximately 20 m to 1.6 cm, which corresponds to 16 - 20,000 Hz (oscillations per second).
The organ of smell (organum olfactus) is a peripheral part of the olfactory analyzer and perceives chemical irritations when steam or gas enters the nasal cavity. The olfactory epithelium (epithelium olfactorium) is located in the upper part of the nasal passage and the postero-superior part of the nasal septum, in the mucous membrane of the nasal cavity. This section is called the olfactory region of the nasal mucosa (regio olfactoria tunicae mucosae nasi). It contains the olfactory glands (glandulae olfactoriae). The receptors of the olfactory region of the nasal mucosa are capable of perceiving several thousand different odors.
The organ of taste (organum custus) is a peripheral section of the taste analyzer and is located in the oral cavity. The tongue is an unpaired outgrowth of the floor of the oral cavity in vertebrates and humans.
The main function is to help with chewing food. Important functions of the tongue are also determining the taste of food through taste buds (papillae) located on its upper surface, and changing the acoustic properties of the oral cavity when making guttural sounds. The latter function is especially pronounced in people who have a developed speech system.
Touch (kinesthetics, tactile sense) is one of the five main types of senses that a person is capable of, which consists in the ability to feel touch, perceive something with receptors located in the skin, muscles, and mucous membranes. The sensations caused by touch, pressure, vibration, texture and extension have a different nature. Caused by the work of two types of skin receptors: nerve endings surrounding the hair follicles and capsules consisting of connective tissue cells
The vestibular apparatus (lat. vestibulum - vestibule), an organ that perceives changes in the position of the head and body in space and the direction of body movement in vertebrates and humans; part of the inner ear.
The vestibular apparatus is a complex receptor of the vestibular analyzer. The structural basis of the vestibular apparatus is a complex of accumulations of ciliated cells of the inner ear, endolymph, calcareous formations included in it - otoliths and jelly-like cupules in the ampoules of the semicircular canals. Two types of signals come from balance receptors: static (related to body position) and dynamic (related to acceleration). Both signals arise from mechanical stimulation of sensitive hairs by displacement of either otoliths (or cupules) or endolymph. Typically, the otolith is denser than the surrounding endolymph and is supported by sensory hairs.
When the position of the body changes, the direction of the force acting from the otolith on the sensitive hairs changes.
Due to the different inertia of the endolymph and cupula, upon acceleration, the cupula shifts, and the friction resistance in the thin channels serves as a damper (silencer) of the entire system. The oval sac (utriculus) plays a leading role in the perception of body position and is probably involved in the sensation of rotation. The round sac (sacculus) complements the oval one and is apparently necessary for the perception of vibrations.
3. Cardiovascular system
The circulatory and respiratory systems are collectively called the cardiovascular system. They supply the body with oxygen and nutrients and remove carbon dioxide from it. Food is converted into hydrocarbons, which react chemically with oxygen to produce energy, water and carbon dioxide.
Without oxygen, body tissues begin to die.
This is the cardiovascular system. Oxygenated blood (red) from the lungs enters the left atrium, the left ventricle is then pumped through the aorta and arteries, branching into smaller and smaller vessels and ultimately into the smallest condition called hypoxia.
To maintain the required level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, the brain regulates breathing, mainly depending on changes in carbon dioxide levels and, to a lesser extent, as a result of the work of sensors that determine the level of oxygen in the blood of the aorta and carotid arteries. The brain gives the command to start breathing when it detects increased levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. Therefore, hyperventilation before diving while holding your breath can lead to loss of consciousness - the reduced level of carbon dioxide does not stimulate the respiratory centers, despite the lack of oxygen.
Arteries that carry blood under significant pressure have thick, elastic walls. Veins have low blood pressure and therefore have inelastic, relatively thin walls. The walls of the capillaries are microscopically thick, which facilitates the diffusion of gases.
The tissues of the brain and nervous system consume approximately one-fifth of the oxygen carried by the circulatory system. If there is a lack of oxygen, they die within minutes, while other tissues survive for hours.
The heart consists of two receiving chambers (atria) and two muscular pumps (ventricles). One-way valves prevent blood from flowing back into the atria when the ventricles contract. The right and left sides of the heart contract simultaneously, but are separated from each other.
The right ventricle creates less pressure than the left, since blood from it has a short journey to the lungs. The left one must create enough pressure so that the blood can reach the head and limbs. The heart rate (pulse rate) varies, but in healthy people it is 60-80 beats per minute at rest and 80-150 when performing physical activities.
There are 4.5-6 liters of blood in the human body. The blood contains plasma - an aqueous solution of salts, sugars and proteins - which acts as a carrier of nutrients. In the form of a suspension in the plasma there are red blood cells (erythrocytes), involved in the transport of oxygen, and white blood cells (leukocytes). fighting infections, and blood platelets (platelets), which stop bleeding by forming blood clots.
During physical activity and with significant physical stress, blood pressure rises with an increase in the volume of oxygen supplied to the tissues and a more intense removal of carbon dioxide from the body. The pressure and volume of blood supplied to the tissues should not decrease to such an extent that the tissues begin to suffer from a lack of oxygen, nor should they increase to a level where the integrity of the arteries is threatened.
In a person in a relaxed state, normal blood pressure during heart contraction (systolic) is in the range of 120-140 mm Hg. Art.. and in the periods between contractions (diastolic) - 70-80 mm Hg. Art. Typically, blood pressure is recorded as the ratio of systolic to diastolic pressure, for example. 130/80.
Various factors can prevent the heart from maintaining normal blood pressure, including decompression sickness and near drowning. A significant decrease in blood pressure leads to hypotonic shock. At the other extreme, the body reacts to fear or stress by releasing adrenaline into the blood to stimulate the heart and breathing, to constrict blood vessels.
The heart is the pump, and the blood vessels are the pipelines that carry nutrition to the brain and nerves (control system), muscles, joints and ligaments (motor system), and other parts of the body. In addition, blood vessels remove waste substances from the body's organs. The heart has its own blood supply system - the coronary vessels, which are so named because they cover the heart muscle in the form of a crown.
The main enemy of the cardiovascular system is cholesterol. It can be deposited on the walls of blood vessels and clog their lumen, preventing blood flow. If the coronary vessels become clogged, this leads to a heart attack. If it is the blood vessels of the brain, then it will disrupt its functioning and lead to a stroke. If the vessels of the arms and legs become clogged, this leads to a decrease in performance and then to muscle failure, as well as impotence.
Cholesterol is needed by the body, as it participates in the construction of body cells and substances that the body needs, including hormones, are synthesized from it. On the other hand, it is dangerous for the heart and blood vessels. But not all cholesterol is dangerous. Cholesterol can be low density ("bad") - it is what clogs the blood vessels, and it can be high density ("good") - it is not deposited in the blood vessels.
Cholesterol is always present in the human body, since the body synthesizes most of it itself, and receives a smaller part from animal food. Therefore, it is believed that cholesterol-free diets can reduce cholesterol levels in the blood by only 20%.
The human circulatory system is a highly complex device that works superbly at various levels of organization of living matter and acts as a mechanical, hydraulic and even biochemical device. Our body is made up of 1000 trillion cells, the normal existence of which requires 10 million liters of water, rich in minerals and organic substances, as well as oxygen.
The circulatory system, which pumps blood and renews it, copes with this task by simultaneously transporting building material, chemical carriers of energy and substances that protect our health to the cells. The blood flow is a continuous flow with a density of 1.06 g/cm3. It flows through a network of blood vessels, which includes large veins and arteries that branch many times and gradually decrease to the size of tiny capillaries. Various substances easily leak through the thin walls of the capillaries, which is why a continuous exchange occurs in living tissues: the blood gives life-sustaining substances to the body’s cells and washes away decay products.
The total length of all the vessels of our body is about 150 thousand km, and their area is approximately 7000 m2, which is equal to the area of 10 football fields. For every square centimeter of muscle tissue there are from 3000 to 5000 capillaries or more. Of these vessels, only 10% are constantly functioning, the rest “rest”, being closed. They get involved in work only when a person performs movements associated with very heavy physical exertion.
Since the transport functions of the vascular system are somewhat different, this also causes corresponding differences in the structure of blood vessels. Large arteries and veins serve mainly to transport blood. Metabolism with surrounding tissues constantly occurs through the walls of even very large arteries, but it is very weak.
The multi-stage coagulation mechanism sometimes works in vain if it is activated by some disease process. Inflammation, changes in blood composition, atherosclerosis, infectious damage to the walls of blood vessels and other negative phenomena in the body force the circulatory system to intensively produce and accumulate fibrinogen. The body does this to strengthen the blood vessels, but the effect is exactly the opposite.
Excess blood clots accumulate in narrow areas of blood vessels, impeding the movement of blood. The blood flow is gradually blocked, including the life-saving fluid that may not reach any area at all. If a blockage of a vessel leading to the heart or brain occurs - and this happens, unfortunately, quite often - death will inevitably occur. For this reason, several million people die every year in the world.
However, numerous other problems are associated with the cardiovascular system. One of them is high blood pressure, which often acts as an independent disease called hypertension. Of course, the movement of absolutely any liquid through a channel system must always be supported by pressure. It is due to blood pressure that it moves from large vessels to small ones.
Contractions of the heart muscle create excess pressure in the fluid, in other words, tension exceeding the pressure of the air that surrounds our body. Excessive pressure, called arterial pressure in medicine, is measured from a conventional zero, which is atmospheric pressure. Every minute of quiet work, the heart passes through 3.6 kg (about 3.6 liters) of blood to maintain this internal tension. It is maximum at the moment of contraction - systole, while during diastole, relaxation of the myocardium, it drops to zero.
Circulatory disorders, especially renal, or heart disease entail an increase in pressure, with which the body tries to compensate for the pathological changes occurring in it. One of the most common causes of increased blood pressure is various undesirable processes in the tissues of cell walls, which are activated during certain diseases, metabolic disorders, age-related changes in the body, etc.
Artificial aging of blood vessels, expressed in a decrease in their elasticity, accompanies hypertension and many other diseases. As a result of stress and general nervousness in the body, blood vessels are injured due to excessive irritation of their muscles by overexcited nerves. As a result, hypertension develops. The strength of the vessels decreases, and sclerotic phenomena are observed in them.
The list of manifestations of pathogenesis in various disorders can be endless. In any case, the condition of the blood vessels and their walls, which is regulated by biochemical processes associated with the activity of fibrinogen and other protein substances, somehow affects blood pressure.
Another condition for the proper functioning of the circulatory system is maintaining a constant speed of blood flow in the vessels. Blood must move at a strictly defined speed. Firstly, due to this, normal pressure in the vessels is maintained. And secondly, and this is the most important thing, only in this way is a complete supply of oxygen and nutrients to various tissues achieved.
The speed of blood flow is determined by the intensity of the heartbeat, blood pressure and the size of the lumen of the blood vessels. The difference in blood pressure between the periods of systole and diastole generates a pressure wave at a speed of 25 m/s, i.e. 90 km/h! Due to such waves, a blood speed of 50 cm/s is maintained in the arteries, and 20 cm/s in the veins. In capillaries, blood flow slows down due to their small transverse diameter. Here, the blood flow speed reaches a maximum of 2 mm/s, and pulse fluctuations are damped. Uniform movement of fluid creates optimal conditions for metabolism in tissues.
In some cases, a slowdown in blood flow in small arteries, veins and, naturally, capillaries is caused by infections, low muscle tone, hypotension, insufficient physical activity of a person (physical inactivity), etc. In such cases, in vessels and adjacent tissues, as well as in blood-fed negative changes occur in organs. Congestive, or stagnant, phenomena are noted here.
Stagnation entails further development of hypotension, problems with the nervous system, often sexual disorders, atrophy of many tissues, imbalance of fluids in tissues and, as a consequence of the latter, lethargy, swelling and headaches. Congestive phenomena are accompanied by an inflammatory process, which progresses as the area in which stagnation is noted increases. The vessels themselves experience degeneration; dangerous transformations of blood plasma proteins occur in them.
Atherosclerosis is dangerous in many ways. This disease, which has various forms, consists of the appearance on the walls of blood vessels of atherosclerotic plaques composed of a fat-like substance called cholesterol. Atherosclerosis leads to pathological changes in the surface of the vascular endothelium. As a result, biochemical processes begin in the blood to heal the walls of blood vessels. The treatment is unsuccessful, but blood clots appear in the bloodstream.
In conclusion, we should mention those cases when the biochemical defense mechanism, while working adequately to the situation, turns out to be faulty. As a result, the formation and subsequent resorption of blood clots occurs incorrectly; some clots break away from the site of injury and enter the bloodstream, threatening to block a vessel.
The human respiratory system consists of tissues and organs that provide pulmonary ventilation and pulmonary respiration. The airways include: nose, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles. The lungs consist of bronchioles and alveolar sacs, as well as arteries, capillaries and veins of the pulmonary circulation. Elements of the musculoskeletal system associated with breathing include the ribs, intercostal muscles, diaphragm, and accessory respiratory muscles.
The nose and nasal cavity serve as conduits for air, where it is heated, humidified, and filtered. The nasal cavity also contains olfactory receptors.
The larynx lies between the trachea and the root of the tongue. The laryngeal cavity is divided by two folds of mucous membrane that do not completely converge along the midline. The space between these folds - the glottis - is protected by a plate of fibrocartilage - the epiglottis. Along the edges of the glottis in the mucous membrane lie fibrous elastic ligaments, which are called the lower, or true, vocal folds (ligaments). Above them are the false vocal folds, which protect the true vocal folds and keep them moist; they also help to hold your breath, and when swallowing, they prevent food from entering the larynx. Specialized muscles tighten and relax the true and false vocal folds. These muscles play an important role in phonation and also prevent any particles from entering the respiratory tract.
The trachea begins at the lower end of the larynx and descends into the chest cavity, where it divides into the right and left bronchi; its wall is formed by connective tissue and cartilage. In most mammals, cartilage forms incomplete rings. The parts adjacent to the esophagus are replaced by a fibrous ligament. The right bronchus is usually shorter and wider than the left. Having entered the lungs, the main bronchi gradually divide into smaller and smaller tubes (bronchioles), the smallest of which, the terminal bronchioles, are the last element of the airways. From the larynx to the terminal bronchioles, the tubes are lined with ciliated epithelium.
In general, the lungs have the appearance of spongy, porous cone-shaped formations lying in both halves of the chest cavity.
The smallest structural element of the lung, the lobule, consists of a terminal bronchiole leading to the pulmonary bronchiole and alveolar sac. The walls of the pulmonary bronchiole and alveolar sac form depressions called alveoli. This structure of the lungs increases their respiratory surface, which is 50-100 times greater than the surface of the body. The relative size of the surface area through which gas exchange occurs in the lungs is greater in animals with high activity and mobility. The walls of the alveoli consist of a single layer of epithelial cells and are surrounded by pulmonary capillaries. The inner surface of the alveoli is coated with a surfactant. The surfactant is believed to be a secretion product of granule cells. An individual alveolus, in close contact with neighboring structures, has the shape of an irregular polyhedron and approximate dimensions of up to 250 µm. It is generally accepted that the total surface area of the alveoli through which gas exchange occurs depends exponentially on body weight. With age, there is a decrease in the surface area of the alveoli.
Each lung is surrounded by a sac - the pleura. The outer layer of the pleura is adjacent to the inner surface of the chest wall and the diaphragm, the inner (visceral) covers the lung. The gap between the layers is called the pleural cavity. When the chest moves, the inner leaf usually slides easily over the outer one. The pressure in the pleural cavity is always less than atmospheric (negative).
The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle of the heart, it divides into right and left branches, which go to the lungs. These arteries branch following the bronchi, supply the large structures of the lung and form capillaries that weave around the walls of the alveoli.
The bronchial arteries of the great circle also bring blood to the lungs, namely, they supply the bronchi and bronchioles, lymph nodes, walls of blood vessels and the pleura. Most of this blood flows into the bronchial veins, and from there into the azygos (right) and semi-amygos (left). A very small amount of arterial bronchial blood enters the pulmonary veins.
At the beginning of life, a person has a pair of healthy, clean lungs. Throughout life, many people knowingly or unknowingly damage their lungs. It is difficult to overestimate the damage a person causes to the lungs. DS supplies the blood with oxygen and removes gaseous waste. Without oxygen, cells cannot function. When the effectiveness of DS decreases, the speed of processes in the body slows down.
The main cause of lung damage is tobacco smoke, and an average of 20 trillion particles of foreign substances (toxins) enter the respiratory tract of a city dweller per day.
From a medical point of view, hypoxia occurs when there is insufficient oxygen supply to tissues. A summary of the different causes of hypoxia:
1. Insufficient transport of O2 by blood (anoxemic hypoxia) (O2 content in the arterial blood of the systemic circulation is reduced).
A. Reduced PO2:
1) lack of O2 in the inhaled air;
2) decreased pulmonary ventilation;
3) decreased gas exchange between the alveoli and blood;
4) mixing the blood of the large and small circle,
B. Normal PO2:
1) decreased hemoglobin content (anemia);
2) impaired ability of hemoglobin to attach O2
2. Insufficient blood transport (hypokinetic hypoxia).
A. Insufficient blood supply:
1) throughout the cardiovascular system (heart failure)
2) local (blockage of individual arteries)
B. Impaired blood outflow;
1) blockage of certain veins;
B. Insufficient blood supply with increased demand.
3. Inability of tissue to use incoming O2 (histotoxic hypoxia).
5. Digestive system
The digestive system ensures that the body absorbs the nutrients it needs as a source of energy, as well as for cell renewal and growth. The human digestive apparatus is represented by the digestive tube, large glands of the digestive tract (salivary glands, pancreas, liver), as well as many small glands located in the mucous membrane of all parts of the digestive tract. The total length of the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus is 8–10 m. For the most part, it is a tube bent in the form of loops and consists of parts that pass into each other: the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, thin, thick and straight intestines.
From the esophagus to the rectum, the walls of the digestive tube are formed by the mucous membrane (tunica mucosa), submucosa (tela submucosa), muscular layer (tunica muscularis), and outer serous or connective membrane (tunica adventitia) lining it from the inside.
Thanks to the presence of the digestive system, a complex physiological process occurs during which food entering the body undergoes physical and chemical changes and is absorbed into the blood. This process is called digestion. The digestive system consists of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and digestive glands.
In the oral cavity, primary processing of food occurs, which consists of its mechanical grinding with the help of the tongue and teeth and transformation into a food bolus. The salivary glands secrete saliva, the enzymes of which begin to break down the carbohydrates contained in food. Then, through the pharynx and esophagus, the food enters the stomach, where it is digested under the action of gastric juice.
Human throat
The stomach is a thick-walled muscular sac located under the diaphragm in the left half of the abdominal cavity. By contracting the walls of the stomach, its contents are mixed. Many glands concentrated in the mucous wall of the stomach secrete gastric juice containing enzymes and hydrochloric acid. After this, the partially digested food enters the anterior part of the small intestine - the duodenum.
The small intestine consists of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. In the duodenum, food is exposed to pancreatic juice, bile, and the juices of the glands located in its wall. The final digestion of food and absorption of nutrients into the blood occurs in the jejunum and ileum.
Undigested residues enter the large intestine. Here they accumulate and must be removed from the body. The initial part of the large intestine is called the cecum. A vermiform appendix emerges from it - the appendix.
The digestive glands include the salivary glands, microscopic glands of the stomach and intestines, the pancreas and the liver. The liver is the largest gland in the human body. It is located on the right under the diaphragm. The liver produces bile, which flows through the ducts into the gallbladder, where it accumulates and, as needed, enters the intestines. The liver retains toxic substances and protects the body from poisoning.
The pancreas is one of the digestive glands that secrete juices and convert complex nutrients into simpler and water-soluble ones. It is located between the stomach and duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that break down proteins, fats and carbohydrates. 1–1.5 liters of pancreatic juice are secreted per day.
If stale foods or toxic substances (arsenic, copper compounds, natural poisons) enter the digestive system, food poisoning occurs. Acute poisoning requires the use of emergency measures to quickly remove the poison even before the doctor arrives: gastric lavage, inducing vomiting, etc.
Disorders of the digestive system bring a lot of trouble to a person. Diseases of the digestive system, as a rule, affect other systems, causing a chain reaction. Digestive disorders occur as a result of hereditary or congenital diseases; pathogens that enter the body; improper nutrition (eating foods of poor quality or that are far from healthy for the body, violations of the eating schedule, etc.); psychosomatic reactions.
The most common causes of gastrointestinal diseases are infectious pathogens, as well as poor nutrition. For example, gastrointestinal diseases are often caused by bacteria: salmonella, staphylococcus, shigella, which enter the body with poor-quality food. Pathogens such as amoebas, worms (roundworms, tapeworms, pinworms) enter the gastrointestinal tract with uncleaned, poorly processed foods, contaminated drinking water or through dirt.
In recent years, diseases of the digestive system, which are based on improper, unbalanced nutrition, have become more frequent. Excessive consumption of fatty, sweet, flour foods leads to overload of the digestive system. In addition, food eaten while running is poorly chewed and, accordingly, is poorly absorbed by the body.
A few words should be said about the stresses that abound in our lives, especially in megacities. Our mental, or more precisely, psycho-emotional state has a direct impact on the functioning of all organs and systems of the body. For example, a stressful situation at work or a scandal at home can cause abdominal pain and the recurrence of a peptic ulcer. We should not forget that many people react to professional and personal problems with ailments of the gastrointestinal system.
6. Genitourinary system
The genitourinary system includes two groups of organs that perform different functions: the urinary organs and the genital organs. They are combined into one system, since they are formed together in the embryonic period and have common sections in the adult body.
The human urinary system is represented by a pair of kidneys and ureters, as well as the bladder and urethra. The structure of the urethra differs in men and women.
The male reproductive system includes the testes and epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory ducts, prostate gland and urethra. The external genitalia of men are represented by the penis and scrotum.
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries with appendages, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, labia majora and minora, and clitoris. Between the labia minora there is the vestibule of the vagina, into which the external opening of the urethra and the vaginal opening, as well as the ducts of the Bartholin glands, open.
The main organ of the urinary system is the kidney, a paired organ located retroperitoneally in the lumbar region. Urine released from the kidney enters the renal calyces, the renal pelvis, and then into the ureter, which opens into the bladder in the pelvis. The urethra begins from the bladder, the structure of which differs in men and women.
In the reproductive system, the gonads occupy a central place in terms of functional significance. In men, this is a testicle with an epididymis - a paired organ located in the scrotum. The female reproductive gland is the ovary, a paired organ lying together with the ovarian appendage in the pelvic cavity on the sides of the uterus. The uterus occupies a position between the bladder and rectum.
When the genitourinary system is disrupted, various diseases occur, most often of an inflammatory nature: pyelitis, glomerulofeuritis, pyeloniphritis, urethritis, cystitis, prostatitis, urolithiasis and others. As a result, urine tests change, bags under the eyes, swelling, pain and heaviness in the back and lower abdomen, pain when urinating, disturbances in erectile function and potency. To solve a number of problems associated with disorders in the genitourinary system, RPE "TRINITA" offers a complex of dietary supplements.
This program is a composition successfully selected in terms of its fatty acid and vitamin composition, combining the highly effective action of sea buckthorn, cedar, and flaxseed oils, well known for their healing properties, resulting in a full bouquet of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids from linoleic, alpha-linolenic, gamma-linolenic and dihomo gamma-linolenic to eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, as well as fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, P, P, PP. All this determined the ability of this program to actively influence the correction of disturbed homeostasis of the cardiovascular, nervous, endocrine, immune and genitourinary systems, restoration of erection and increased libido.
The mechanism of action of this program is that it:
1) due to the action of active components, it eliminates atherosclerotic damage to blood vessels that reduce blood flow to the nerve centers that stimulate sexual activity;
2) due to the active action of the components, it removes the effect of alcohol, which inhibits the production of testosterone;
3) due to the action of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic fatty acids, it increases tolerance to physical and mental stress and thereby reduces the load on the central nervous system and prevents neuroses, depression and fatigue that negatively affect sexual activity, enhancing the synthesis of prostaglandins E3, which inhibit prostate enlargement;
4) due to docosahexaenoic acid, it strengthens the peripheral nervous system and enhances the regeneration of nerve fibers, incl. nerve fibers of the penis, destroyed by lesions of the spinal cord;
5) due to lititin, it enhances the transmission of nerve impulses, which is extremely reduced during impotence;
6) due to pumpkin oil, it eliminates the deficiency of zinc, which is necessary for the functioning of the prostate and other reproductive organs, and, most importantly, vitamin A, which, along with calcium and phosphorus, is involved in the absorption of zinc by the body;
7) due to gamma-linolenic acid and lecithin, it improves blood circulation in the pelvis, stimulates the function of the prostate gland, and increases erectile function;
8) protects sperm from aggregation and makes cells more mobile;
9) due to P-carotene and allicin, it increases antioxidant activity, strengthens the immune system and stimulates sexual activity.
Gynecology and urology, as very young branches of medicine, which appeared in the 20th century, are widely used in practice. After all, with their help, effective treatment of cervical erosion, treatment of adnexitis, treatment of infertility, treatment of prostatitis, treatment of chlamydia, removal of condylomas, and so on is carried out. Urology, which deals with the functioning and diagnosis of the genitourinary system in men, on the contrary, is widely known to the male population of the planet; consultation with a urologist is the main tool for helping all men, regardless of their state of health.
Gynecologists and urologists around the world make every effort to ensure that men and women are healthy and that healthy children are born.
The immune system is the sixth sense organ that recognizes viruses and bacteria that the brain is unable to identify, and converts this information into hormones that are sent to the brain to activate the immune process.
This system consists of lymph nodes, blood proteins called immunoglobulins and special white blood cells - leukocytes, as well as the organs that produce these cells and the blood vessels through which they are transported. Lymph nodes, which are located in the area of important, one might say strategic, points of the lymph vessels of the knee, elbow joints, in the armpit, in the groin area, on the neck, in the chest and abdominal cavity, filter and purify the blood and during illness serve as a collection site for cells that destroy microbes.
Immunoglobulin plays an important role in maintaining normal immunity. Antibodies bind foreign proteins into complexes that are harmless to the body. It is estimated that there are 100 million different types of antibodies in the body, each with a specific role. The body constantly resists mutant cells (cancer cells). These malignant cells are constantly present in the body and the immune system usually identifies and destroys them.
Factors influencing the state of the immune system are a polluted environment, combined with poor diet and bad habits, especially smoking, as well as lack of rest, which can reduce the body’s resistance to pathogenic bacteria, viruses and other factors leading to diseases;
The most important factor for maintaining the normal functioning of the immune defense system is a balanced diet. It should be remembered that the body is not able to cope with the harmful effects of a lack of a number of minerals.
The human immune system is a complexly organized multi-level structure that has its own language for transmitting information inside and outside the system, constantly and simultaneously reacting to numerous exogenous and endogenous agents, irritations, and signals.
It is important to emphasize that the immune system functions in close connection with the nervous, endocrine and autonomic nervous systems, with surrounding organs and tissues. Accordingly, if there is a malfunction in the functioning of the immune system, other internal organs and systems will suffer, and, conversely, disorders or pathology in the nervous, endocrine, digestive, genitourinary and other systems and organs will lead to disruption of the functioning of the immune system.
The ultimate goal of the immune system is to destroy a foreign agent, which may be a pathogen, a foreign body, a toxic substance, or a degenerated cell of the body itself. This achieves the biological individuality of the organism.
Causes of development of diseases of the immune system:
Hereditary predisposition (genetic anomalies and malformations, the presence of diabetes mellitus, bronchial asthma or other hereditary diseases in relatives);
Infections: acute and chronic viral, bacterial, having a multifactorial damaging effect on the immune system (HIV, viral hepatitis, tuberculosis and other infectious viral, bacterial lesions, exposure to toxins, decay products of microbes and viruses, depletion of the antioxidant system and others);
Damaging factors of the external environment of a physical and chemical nature (temperature, radiation, environmental pollution with toxic chemicals - heavy metals, pesticides, chlorine-containing substances, radioactive particles, etc., the formation of various physical fields, widespread use of sources of non-ionizing radiation;
Metabolic factors: nutritional – deficiency of proteins, macro- and microelements, vitamins due to insufficient intake from food or their increased consumption due to overload;
Stressful: acute severe psychological trauma, prolonged intellectual and physical overload, stressful situations of a mental (social, personal) and physical nature, chronic sleep deficiency.
Surgical interventions, injuries, physical overload.
There are several variants of immune system pathology:
Autoimmune diseases (the immune system attacks the body's own tissues). Some of these diseases are quite common and well known: rheumatoid arthritis, glomerulonephritis, autoimmune thyroiditis, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, diabetes mellitus and others;
Immunodeficiency states. Congenital immunodeficiencies: hereditarily caused deficiency of parts of the immune system, which are most often diagnosed in early childhood, acquired due to viral damage to an initially “healthy” immune system or its depletion/weakening under the pressure of other reasons (stress, trauma, serious illness, etc.) ;
Of particular relevance in the world at the moment is the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome resulting from HIV infection, hepatitis B, C (“the gentle killer”), tuberculosis, as well as new strains of viruses (causative agents of influenza, pneumonia, tropical infections), which have a high contagiousness.
Diseases of the immune system have become increasingly common in recent years. They are dangerous because they affect not individual organs, but the entire body as a whole. These diseases are difficult to treat, so their prevention and early diagnosis are especially important.
Medical science, when considering the human body and its systems, proceeds from the principle of the integrity of the human body, which has the ability to self-production and self-development.
The human body develops under the influence of the genotype as well as factors of the constantly changing external natural and social environment.
The integrity of the body is determined by the structure and functional connection of all its systems. The physiological regulation of processes occurring in the body is very perfect and allows it to constantly adapt to changing influences of the external environment.
All organs and systems of the human body are in constant interaction and are a self-regulating system, which is based on the functions of the nervous and endocrine systems of the body. The interconnected and coordinated work of all organs and physiological systems of the body is ensured by humoral (fluid) and nervous mechanisms. In this case, the central nervous system also plays a leading role, which is capable of perceiving and responding to the influences of the external environment, including the interaction of the human psyche, its motor functions with various environmental conditions.
A distinctive feature of a person is the ability to creatively and actively change both external natural and social conditions to improve health and increase mental and physical performance.
Without knowledge of the structure of the human body, the patterns of activity of individual systems, organs and the entire organism as a whole, vital processes occurring under the influence of natural factors on the body, it is impossible to properly organize the process of physical education.
2. Epstein M. Haptika. Man of touch // Epshtein M.N. Philosophy of the body / Tulchinsky G.L. Body of freedom. - St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2006, p. 16-38
3. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology - St. Petersburg: Peter Publishing House, 2000 - 712 pp.: ill. – (Series “Masters of Psychology”)
4. Granit R., Electrophysiological study of reception, trans. from English, M., 1957;
5. Esakov A. I., Dmitrieva T. M., Neurophysiological foundations of tactile perception, M., 1971;
6. Physiology of sensory systems, part 2, L., 1972 (Guide to Physiology);
7. Milner P., Physiological Psychology, trans. from English, M., 1973, ch. 8, 10.
8. N.P. Naumov, N.N. Kartashov “Zoology of Vertebrates”
9. K. Schmidt-Nielsen “Animal Physiology” (translation from English by M. D. Grozdova)
10. “Fundamentals of Physiology” edited by P. Sterki, translated from English by N. Yu. Alekseenko.
The human body consists of organs. Heart, lungs, kidneys, hand, eye - all this organs, i.e. parts of the body that perform certain functions.
Organ has its own, unique form and position in the body. The shape of the hand is different from the shape of the leg, the heart is not like the lungs or the stomach. Depending on the functions performed, the structure of the organ varies. Usually an organ consists of several tissues, often 4 main ones. One of them plays a primary role. Thus, the predominant tissue of the bone is bone, the main tissue of the gland is epithelial, the main tissue of the muscle is muscular. At the same time, each organ has connective nervous and epithelial tissue (blood vessels).
Organ is part of the whole organism and therefore cannot work outside the body. At the same time, the body is able to do without some organs. This is evidenced by surgical removal of a limb, eye, and teeth. Each organ is an integral part of a more complex physiological organ system. The life of an organism is ensured by the interaction of a large number of different organs. Organs united by a specific physiological function constitute a physiological system. The following physiological systems are distinguished: integumentary, support and movement systems, digestive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory, reproductive, endocrine, nervous.
Major organ systems
Integumentary system
Structure: skin and mucous membranes. Functions – protect against external influences of drying out, temperature fluctuations, damage, penetration of various pathogens and toxic substances into the body.
Support and movement system
Structure – represented by a large number of bones and muscles; bones, connecting with each other, form the skeleton of the corresponding parts of the body.
Functions – support function; the skeleton also performs a protective function, limiting the cavities occupied by internal organs. The skeleton and muscles provide movement of the body.
Structure - includes the organs of the oral cavity (tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas).
Functions - in the digestive organs, food is crushed, moistened with saliva, and is affected by gastric and other digestive juices. As a result, the nutrients necessary for the body are formed. They are absorbed in the intestines and delivered by the blood to all tissues and cells of the body.
Circulatory system
Structure – consists of the heart and blood vessels.
Functions - the heart with its contractions pushes blood through the vessels to the organs and tissues where continuous metabolism occurs. Thanks to this exchange, cells receive oxygen and other necessary substances and are freed from unnecessary substances such as carbon dioxide and waste products.
Respiratory system
Structure – nasal cavity, nasopharynx, trachea, lungs.
Functions - participates in providing the body with oxygen and in releasing it from carbon dioxide.
Structure - the main organs of this system are the kidneys, ureters, and bladder.
Functions – performs the function of removing liquid metabolic products.
Reproductive system
Structure: male reproductive organs (testes), female reproductive glands (ovaries). Development occurs in the uterus.
Functions - performs a function, germ cells are formed here.
Endocrine system
Structure - various glands. For example, thyroid gland, pancreas.
Functions - each gland produces and releases special chemicals into the blood. These substances are involved in regulating the functions of all cells and tissues of the body.
Nervous system
Structure – receptors, nerves, brain and spinal cord.
Functions – unites all other systems, regulates and coordinates their activities. Thanks to the nervous system, human mental activity and behavior are carried out.
Scheme of building an organism
Molecules - cellular organelles - cells - tissues - organs - organ systems- organism
The entire human body is conventionally divided into organ systems, united according to the principle of work performed and function. These systems are called anatomical-functional; there are twelve of them in the human body.
Everything in nature is subject to a single law of expediency and the economical principle of necessity and sufficiency. This is especially evident in the example of animals. Under natural conditions, an animal eats and drinks only when it gets hungry and thirsty, and just enough to get enough.
Little children retain this natural ability not to eat or drink when we want, but obey only their desires and instincts.
Adults, unfortunately, have lost this unique ability: we drink tea when friends gather, and not when we feel thirsty. Violation of the laws of nature leads to the destruction of our organism as a part of this very nature.
Each system performs a specific function in the human body. The health of the body as a whole depends on the quality of its execution. If any of the systems is weakened for some reason, other systems are able to partially take over the function of the weakened system, help it, and give it the opportunity to recover.
For example, when the function of the urinary system (kidneys) decreases, the respiratory system takes over the function of cleansing the body. If it fails, the excretory system - the skin - is activated. But in this case, the body switches to a different mode of functioning. He becomes more vulnerable, and the person must reduce his usual loads, giving him the opportunity to optimize his lifestyle. Nature has given the body a unique mechanism of self-regulation and self-healing. Using this mechanism economically and carefully, a person is able to withstand colossal loads.
12 body systems and their functions:
1. Central nervous system - regulation and integration of vital functions of the body
2. Respiratory system - providing the body with oxygen, which is necessary for all biochemical processes, releasing carbon dioxide
3. The circulatory system - ensuring the transport of nutrients into the cell and releasing it from waste products
4. The hematopoietic system - ensuring the constancy of blood composition
5. Digestive system - consumption, processing, absorption of nutrients, excretion of waste products
6. Urinary system and skin - excretion of waste products, cleansing the body
7. Reproductive system - reproduction of the body
8. Endocrine system - regulation of the biorhythm of life, basic metabolic processes and maintaining a constant internal environment
9. Musculoskeletal system - providing structure, movement functions
10. Lymphatic system - cleanses the body and neutralizes foreign agents
11. Immune system - ensuring the body’s protection from harmful and foreign factors
12. Peripheral nervous system - ensuring the processes of excitation and inhibition, carrying out commands from the central nervous system to the working organs
The basics of understanding the harmony of life, self-regulation in the body, as in a particle of nature, came to us from the ancient Chinese concept of health, according to which everything in nature is polar.
This theory has been confirmed by all further development of human thought:
A magnet has two poles;
- elementary particles can be charged either positively or negatively;
- in nature it is heat and cold, light and darkness;
- in biology - male and female organism;
- in philosophy - good and evil, truth and lies;
- in geography it is north and south, mountains and depressions;
- in mathematics - positive and negative values;
- in Eastern medicine - this is the law of yin and yang energies.
Philosophers of our time called this the law of unity and interpenetration of opposites. Everything in the world obeys the law “in nature everything is balanced, strives for the norm, for harmony.”
So it is in the human body. A prerequisite for the normal functioning of each of the body systems (if we consider them separately) is the provision of favorable (optimal) conditions. So, if a person’s functioning of one system is disrupted due to circumstances, it is possible to help normalize its functioning only if optimal conditions are created.
The functions of the systems are inherent in nature as self-regulating. Nothing can go up or down indefinitely. Everything must come to an average value.
How can we influence the human body, the functions of its systems?
In many respects, the conditions for the optimal functioning of systems coincide, but for some positions they are individual and inherent in a particular system. The work of other systems and the body as a whole depends on the work of each system. There are no important and minor functions in life. All activities are equally important.
But under certain conditions, the importance of a particular function can increase sharply. For example, in an epidemic, the immune defense function comes first, and if a person strengthens his immunity in time, this will allow him to avoid illness. And for good adaptation, a person must clearly understand the functions of systems and master methods of self-management of them. This means increasing the required function at the right time.
A person in ideal conditions, with optimal operation of all twelve systems, as well as with optimal sensory, intellectual and spiritual space, would be healthy and live a long time.
We need to highlight priority areas of influence on the body, which depend on living conditions, the nature of work, the level of psycho-emotional stress, heredity, nutrition, etc. The quality of system operation directly depends on the conditions in which it is located. Individual conditions also shape the characteristics of optimal functioning.
Each person must have a program of optimal life activity, taking into account the individual characteristics of existence. Only in this case can he create the conditions for a long and happy life.
Based on materials from the book “System catalog of natural products Coral Club International and Royal Body Care”, author O.A. Butakova
Man is rightfully considered the most complex living organism. Its anatomy ensures normal functioning and its resistance to the environment. If we allow some metaphor, then the human body is at the same time a warehouse, an electric company, a pharmacy, and a wastewater treatment plant. Thanks to its anatomical structure, the human body has strength and strength.
Anatomy is a science that studies the structure of a person, its external and internal components. At the same time, human anatomy clearly demonstrates how perfect and at the same time fragile the human body is. After all, damage to one system can cause disruptions in the work of all other departments.
External structure of a person
Human anatomy is divided into internal and external structure. The external structure of a person is the parts of the body that everyone can see and name:
- head;
- in front - sternum;
- behind - back;
- upper and lower limbs.
Skeleton
The human skeleton includes:
- scull;
- cervical vertebrae;
- lower jaw;
- sternum;
- collarbone;
- brachial bone;
- ribs;
- shoulder blades;
- xiphoid process;
- sacrum;
- coccyx;
- radius;
- elbow bone;
- hand bones;
- femur;
- tibia;
- fibula;
- bones of the foot.
The human skeleton is a kind of framework for internal organs, which includes many different bones connected into joints.
When a child is born, his skeleton has 350 bones. As we grow older, some bones fuse together, so an adult has 200 of them. All of them are divided into two groups:
- Axial bones that are included in load-bearing structures.
- Accessory bones.
Adult developed bone includes:
- organic fabric;
- inorganic fabric;
- water.
Cartilage
Cartilage tissue can sometimes be a constituent component of bone, and sometimes acts as a temporary element. It should be noted that cartilage tissue is less strong and dense than bone tissue.
Cartilage contains specific cells - chondrocytes. A characteristic feature of cartilage is the absence of blood vessels around it, that is, they do not penetrate or nourish it. Cartilage receives nutrition from the fluid that is found in the tissues surrounding it.
Cartilage is of the following types:
- yellow fibrous;
- hyaline;
- white fibrous.
Articulations
- articulations of the body bones;
- articulations of the bones of the torso and head;
- articulations of the bones of the upper limbs;
- articulations of the bones of the lower extremities.
The joints provide movement to the muscles that are attached to the tendons. The ability of muscles to contract allows you to move your torso, arms and legs, as well as perform a variety of actions: jumping, turning around, stopping suddenly, running, bending and even smiling.
Internal structure of a person
The internal structure of a person is organs of primary importance that have their own functions and are not open to the human eye. These include:
- heart;
- stomach;
- lungs;
- brain;
- liver;
- lungs;
- intestines.
In addition to the above parts, the internal structure of a person includes secretion glands, nerve trunks, blood vessels, etc. These include:
- thymus;
- mammary glands (in women);
- prostate gland (in men);
- adrenal glands;
- thyroid;
- pituitary;
- pineal gland;
- endocrine glands;
- exocrine.
The nervous system includes: central and peripheral sections. The vascular system includes: veins, capillaries; arteries.
It is well known that the anatomical structure of the human body has certain similarities with some animals. This fact is due to the fact that humans evolved from mammals. It has not only anatomical similarity, but also a similar cellular structure and similar DNA.
The human body consists of cells that group together to form the epithelium, from which all human organs are formed.
All departments of the human body are connected into systems that function harmoniously to ensure sustainable human life:
- Cardiovascular. It plays a major role because it pumps blood and transports it to all other organs.
- Respiratory. Saturates the blood with oxygen and also converts it into carbon dioxide.
- Nervous. Includes the spinal cord and brain, nerve endings, trunks and cells. The main task is the regulation of all body functions.
- Digestive. The most complex system in humans. The main task is to digest food, providing the body with nutrients and energy for life.
- Endocrine. Debugs nervous and biological processes.
- Musculoskeletal. Promotes human movement and supports his body in an upright position. It includes: joints, ligaments, muscles.
- Skin or integumentary system. It is a protective shell that prevents harmful elements from penetrating inside.
- Urinary and sexual. The genital organs are divided into male and female. The main function is reproductive and excretory.
What organs does the chest hide?
In the chest are located:
- heart;
- lungs;
- bronchi;
- trachea;
- esophagus;
- diaphragm;
- thymus.
Heart
The heart is located between the lungs and is essentially a muscle. In size, the heart is no larger than a person’s fist, that is, if each person clench a fist, then its size will be identical to his heart. Its function is to receive and pump blood. It has an unusual oblique arrangement: one side extends to the right, up and back, and the other down and to the left.
The main vessels branch from the right side of the muscle. The beating of the heart is ensured by its two sides: left and right. The left ventricle is larger than the right one. The heart is lined with a specific tissue called the pericardium. The inner part of the pericardium grows to the heart, and the outer part is connected to the blood vessels.
Lungs
The largest paired organ that occupies the main part of the chest. The lungs are located on both sides of the heart and are enclosed in the pleural sacs. Despite the fact that the right and left lungs are not much different in appearance, they have different functions and structures.
As you can see in the picture, the lungs are made up of lobes: the left lung includes two lobes, and the right lung has three. The left lung has a bend in the left part, the right one does not have such a bend. The main function of the lungs is to supply the blood with oxygen and convert it into carbon dioxide.
Trachea
Located between the bronchi and larynx. It consists of cartilaginous half-rings, connective ligaments and muscles that are located on the back wall, covered with mucus. At the bottom, the trachea divides into two bronchi, which go to the lungs. The bronchi are a continuation of the trachea. They perform the following functions:
- carrying air through the lungs;
- protective and cleaning function.
Esophagus
It is a long tube that starts in the larynx. Passes through the diaphragm and connects to the stomach. The esophagus consists of circular muscles that move food towards the stomach.
What organs are hidden in the abdominal cavity?
The abdominal cavity contains parts of the body that enter the digestive system. These include:
- stomach;
- liver;
- gallbladder;
- pancreas;
- duodenum;
- small intestine;
- colon;
- rectum;
- anus.
Stomach
The main part of the digestive system. It is a continuation of the esophagus, which is separated from it by a valve covering the entrance. The stomach is shaped like a pouch, fills with food and produces juice (a specific liquid) rich in enzymes that break down food.
Intestines
The intestine is the longest part of the digestive tract. It begins after the gastric outlet. It is shaped like a loop and ends with an outlet hole. The intestine consists of:
- small intestine;
- colon;
- rectum.
The small intestine consists of the duodenum and ileum, which pass into the large intestine, and the large intestine into the rectum. The main function of the intestines is to digest food and remove its remains from the body.
Liver
The largest gland in the human body. Also involved in the digestion process. The main task is to ensure metabolism and participate in the process of hematopoiesis. It is located immediately below the diaphragm and is divided into two parts called lobes. It connects to the duodenum, is closely connected with the portal vein, communicates and functions with the gallbladder.
Spleen
Located under the diaphragm. The main functions are:
- in the formation of blood elements;
- protection of the body.
The spleen changes in size depending on the amount of accumulated blood.
Kidneys
The kidneys are also located in the abdominal cavity, despite the fact that they are not related to the digestive tract. Kidneys - consist of paired parts that perform an important function: regulation of homeostasis. They have the shape of beans and are involved in the process of urination. The ureters are located directly above the kidneys.
