Constantius ii. Numismatics - Antique coins. Rome Emperor of Constantia

Survived by three sons: Flavius ​​Claudius Constantine II, Flavius ​​Julius Constantius II, and Flavius ​​Julius Constans. After their father's death, they divided the empire between themselves. The eastern part went completely to Constantius II, and the western part was divided between Constantine II (Britain, Gaul and Spain) and Constant (Italy, Illyricum and Africa). The brothers became the first emperors raised in Christian traditions, but this had little effect on their character.

Constantine II

Konstantin II (co-emperor 337-340) was born in 317 in Arelate.Before the end of this year, his father proclaimed him Caesar along with his older half-brother Crispus. At the same time, Constantine I's co-ruler, Licinius, also proclaimed his son Caesar. These appointments of infants to high positions buried the idea of ​​promotion to ruling positions on merit and revived the principle of succession to the throne by birth.

In 320 and 321 Constantine II has already been appointed to the post of consul. By 322 he had learned to put his signature, and in 324, together with Crispus, he became consul for the third time. Two years later, Crispus was executed on charges of treason, and Constantine II turned into the eldest heir.In 332 he was sent as the nominal commander of an army on the Danube to fight the Visigothic leader Alaric I, where the Roman army won an important victory, and in 333 they were transferred to Treviri to guard the Rhine border.

Constantius II (co-emperor 337-350 and sole emperor 350-361) was born in 317 in Illyricum. In 324 he was proclaimed Caesar.

Constant I (co-emperor 337-350) was born in 320 and raised at the court in Constantinople. In 333 he was proclaimed Caesar.

In 335, Constantine the Great, anticipating his imminent death, divided the empire between his sons. In 337, after his death, all three were proclaimed Augusti.After deifying their father (in accordance with imperial tradition and contrary to Christianity), the sons agreed to remove his two nephews, killing many other people at the same time. However, very soon friction began between them.

In 338, growing disagreements prompted the brothers to hold a meeting in Pannonia to finalize the boundaries of their dominions. Territory subject to Constantine II has not changed, but Constant I expanded its boundaries somewhat at the expense of Constantius II (for some unknown reason, Constantius even ceded Constantinople to his brother, who, however, returned it in 339). However, this did not stop the controversy, and in 240 Constantine II, being the eldest of the brothers and claiming to be considered the supreme ruler, he invaded Italy, taking advantage of the fact that Constant was at that time in Illyricum, busy pacifying unrest among the Danube tribes. However, an advance detachment sent by Constantine from Illyricum to meet the invading army attacked Constantine at Aquileia and killed him. So the entire western part of the empire fell into the power of Constant I.

The remaining co-emperor emperors were divided by religious differences. Of course, both were Christians, but Constantius, like most Easterners, was an Arian sympathizer, while Constantius was a proponent of orthodox Catholicism, based on the creed established by the Council of Nicaea. Constant generously financed the church and took strict measures against the Donatist heresy in Africa, and also encouraged the persecution of Jews and pagans.

In an effort to prevent a split, Constantius and Constant in 342 convened a council of representatives of east and west in Serdica, but it immediately split into two warring camps. Only after some time, under pressure from the emperors, did the parties come to some agreement through silent mutual compromises on theological issues.

Almost immediately after the death of Constantine the Great, the Persian king Shapur II The Great One violated the peace treaty concluded ten years earlier and began fighting in the east of the empire,who had to resist Constantius II. The main struggle was over Mesopotamian fortifications. Three sieges of Nisibis undertaken by Shapur ended in vain, and ten years later new tribes hostile to the Persians came from the east, and Shapur had to retreat.

At this time, in 343, Constant, having won major victories over the Franks, went to Britain. There he fought in the area of ​​Hadrian's Wall, but was not popular among the troops, because, according to the historian Victor (the reliability of which, however, is unknown), he was extremely contemptuous of the soldiers. Be that as it may, in 350 a mutiny broke out in his army, led by Magnentius, a Roman general of barbarian origin.

January 18, 350 Marcellinus, treasurer of Constans I, organized a reception in Augustodunum on the occasion of the birthday of his sons, at which Magnentius appeared in a purple robe and was proclaimed Augustus. The army went over to his side, and Constant fled to Spain and was killed on the way by Magnentius’s spy.After this, Magnentia was recognized by the entire West, including Africa. Realizing that the clash with Constantius II Inevitably, Magnentius sent envoys to him - Senator Nunehia and his commander-in-chief. Constantius put them under arrest, and sent his representative, Flavius ​​Philippus, to Magnentia.

Philip's official goal was to conduct peace negotiations, but his real goal was to find out the location of Magnentius' troops. He reproached the soldiers for violating their loyalty to the sons of Constantine the Great, which caused their confusion, and suggested that Magnentius confine himself to the possession of Gaul, after which he was arrested.

War broke out in 351. Magnentius gathered large forces in Gaul and gained numerical superiority over Constantius II, suffered serious losses during their advance to the Westand now forced to retreat. Having refused peace proposals, Magnentius set out for the Danube provinces and entrenched himself in the rear of Constantius, forcing him to turn back. During the long battle that took place in Lower Pannonia, the right wing of Magnentius’s army was crushed by Constantius’s cavalry, which led to the complete defeat of the usurper. Apparently, this was the first battle in which the cavalry defeated the legionnaires.

This bloodiest battle of the century caused irreparable damage to the military power of the empire. According to some accounts, Magnentius lost 24,000 men and Constantius 30,000. Magnentius retreated to Aquileia, where he tried to raise a new army. In the summer of 352, he, being unable to resist the offensive of Constantius II to Italy, retreated to Gaul, where the next year he was defeated again. Retreating to Lugdunum and realizing the complete hopelessness of his situation, Magnentius committed suicide. The Roman Empire was once again ruled by one man.

E even before the end of the war, Constantius II appointed his 26-year-old cousin Constantius Gallus as Caesar. The Emperor sent him to the East, where Gall suppressed uprisings in Syria and Palestine and brought fear to the Persians. But he ruled cruelly and did not take into account anyone’s opinion, which caused a flood of complaints to the emperor. Constantius II summoned him to Mediolan to give an answer to these complaints. In 354, on his way to the west, Gall was arrested, convicted and executed.

A little later, Constantia had to pacify the leader of the Franks, Silvanus, who appropriated the title of Augustus to himself. Silvanus was killed, but in the resulting confusion the Germans crossed the Rhine. Constantius sent Gallus's half-brother, Julian, there, proclaiming him Caesar.

In the spring of 357 Constantius II visited Rome, where he was amazed by the splendor of monuments and buildings. He discussed for a long time the question of what he should build, but having lost hope of creating anything like that, he decided to limit himself to an obelisk in. The emperor wanted to stay longer in the Eternal City, but suddenly reports began to arrive that the Sarmatians, Suevi and Quadi began to devastate the Danube provinces. On the thirtieth day of his stay in Rome, Constantius left the city and went to Illyricum. However, he soon had to urgently return to the East, where the Persian king Shapur II, having restored his eastern borders, he resumed the war against the Romans. In 359, he stormed the city of Amida in Mesopotamia, and a year later another Mesopotamian fortress, Singara, fell.

Constantius sent a letter to Julian asking for reinforcements, but the soldiers in Gaul opposed their sending to the East, suspecting Constantius of wanting to weaken their beloved commander. After this they proclaimed Julian Augustus, and he accepted the title. Despite the difficult situation in the East, Constantius II gathered an army to march against his treacherous cousin. By the winter of 361, he reached Cilicia, where he was suddenly struck by a fever. The emperor died in Mobsukren.

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324 Constantius was proclaimed Caesar. After the death of his father in 337, he assumed the title of Augustus and received control of Asia, as well as the entire East, starting with the Propontis. He was also entrusted with the war with the Persians, which he waged for many years, but without much success. Persian troops captured his cities, besieged his fortresses, and all his battles against the king ended in failure, except perhaps one, at Singara in 348, where Constantius missed a clear victory due to the indiscipline of his soldiers.

In 350, Constantius was distracted from the external war by unrest in the empire itself. It became known that his brother Constant was killed by the conspirators and Magnentius was proclaimed emperor in Italy. At the same time, Vetranion, who commanded the infantry in Illyricum, dishonestly seized power in Upper Moesia.

Constantius defeated Vetranion without bloodshed, solely by the power of his eloquence. Near the city of Serdica, where both armies met, a meeting was held like a trial, and Constantius addressed the enemy soldiers with a speech. Under the influence of his words, they immediately went over to the side of the rightful emperor. Constantius deprived Vetranion of power, but out of respect for his old age, he not only saved his life, but allowed him to live out a peaceful life in complete contentment.

The war with Magnentius, on the contrary, turned out to be extremely bloody. In 351, Constantius defeated him in a difficult battle at Mursa on the Drava River. In this battle, a huge number of Romans died on both sides - more than 50,000. After this, Magnentius retreated to Italy. At Lugdunum (Lyon) in 353 he found himself in a hopeless situation and committed suicide.

Once again the Roman Empire was united under the rule of one sovereign. According to Aurelius Victor, Constantius was abstinent in wine, food and sleep, hardy in work, skilled in archery and very fond of eloquence, but could not achieve success in it due to stupidity and therefore envied others. He greatly favored the court eunuchs and women; content with them, he did not stain himself with anything unnatural or illicit. And of the wives, of which he had a lot, he loved Eusebia most of all. In everything he knew how to maintain the greatness of his rank. Any search for popularity was abhorrent to his pride. Constantius was a Christian from childhood and devoted himself to theological debates with great enthusiasm, but with his interference in church affairs he created more unrest than peace. The time of his reign became the era of the dominance of the Arian heresy and persecution of the Orthodox clergy. According to the testimony of Ammianus Marcellinus, he combined the Christian religion, which is distinguished by its integrity and simplicity, with women's superstition. By immersing himself in interpretation instead of simply perceiving it, he aroused much controversy.

In 355, Constantius appointed his cousin as his co-ruler and entrusted him with a difficult war in Gaul against the Germans. In 358 he himself opposed the Sarmatians. In the spring, when the Danube was still in flood, the Romans crossed to the enemy bank. The Sarmatians, who did not expect such swiftness, fled from their villages. The Quads who came to their aid were defeated. Then the limigants were defeated. In 359, news arrived of the invasion of the eastern provinces of the empire by the Persian army. Constantius went to Constantinople to be closer to the theater of war.

In 360, he learned that the German legions had proclaimed Caesar Augustus. Constantius found himself in a quandary because he could not decide against whom to start the war first. After much hesitation, he continued the Persian campaign and entered Mesopotamia through Armenia. The Romans besieged Bezabda, but, despite all their efforts, they were unable to take it. In the fall they retreated to Antioch. Constantius was still anxious and confused. Only in the fall of 361, after the Persians left Roman borders, did he decide to start a war against. From Antioch the emperor moved to Tarsus and then felt a slight fever. He continued on his way, but in Mobuscrs the illness overcame him completely. The heat was so great that it was impossible to touch his body. The medications didn't work; Feeling at his last breath, Constantius mourned his end and appointed a successor to his power.

Rome. Constantines (313 - 364)

Constantine I the Great (306-337) - Flavius ​​Valerius Constantinus - Emperor Caesar Caius Flavius ​​Valerius Constantinus Augustus. Son of Constantius I Chlorus and Helen, born in Naissa. Under Diocletian and Galerius he served in the army, and after the death of his father he was proclaimed Augustus by the troops in Eburacum (York).

Civil wars 306-324 once again they shook the foundations of the empire and destroyed the Diocletian monetary system. Constantine again had to rebuild the entire system of public administration and finance.

Constantine successfully fought against the Franks and Alamanni on the Rhine, and later against the Goths and Sarmatians on the Danube. In 310, he deprived Maximian of power and, after the death of Galerius in 311, in alliance with Licinius, in 312 he defeated Maxentius in the Battle of the Milvian Bridge near Rome. Then, in 314 or 316, he conquered most of the Balkan Peninsula from Licinius and, after the final victory and execution of the latter, became the sole ruler of the empire.

The coin in the picture below is classified as "nominated". XVI - 16 denarii or 2/3 follis. At the same time, the designation XII is found - 12 denarii or 1/2 follis.

In contrast to the Diocletian tetrarchy, Constantine again concentrated all power in the hands of his family. Between 317 and 333 his sons Constantine II, Constantius and Constantius were proclaimed Caesars and co-rulers, and also appointed heirs to state power.

In the field of internal politics, the reign of Constantine was in many ways a continuation of the activities of Diocletian, the strengthening of the established dominant as a form of state power and was characterized by the transformation of the empire into a military-bureaucratic state, which was divided by Constantine into 4 prefectures - Eastern, Illyricum, Italy and Gaul, which were in turn subdivided into 14 dioceses (dioceses) and 114 provinces.

Initially, the residences of Constantine were Trier, then Sirmium and Serdika (Sofia). In 326, Constantine finally chose Byzantium as the capital of the empire, which in 330 he renamed Constantinople (city of Constantine).

Constantine surrounded himself with a magnificent imperial court with a ceremonial modeled on eastern states (wearing a diadem, bowing to the emperor), established a consistory - a secret imperial council - and exercised his power through a strictly organized bureaucracy.

Senators, whose position was again strengthened, were involved in every possible way in governing the state. The distinction between military and civil administration, begun by Gallienus, received its final form under Constantine.

According to the army reform, the troops were divided into mobile (comitatenses) and troops permanently stationed in border areas (limitanei). The Praetorian Guard was disbanded and the Praetorian Prefecture underwent a major reorganization. The influx of immigrants from Germanic tribes into the army became massive.

The professional attachment of classes, primarily colons, to the land intensified. The introduction of the gold solidus into circulation stabilized the monetary unit.

From 313 to 337, up to 17 mints operated in the empire with the number of officials at different times ranging from 28 to 67.

In the field of currency, Constantine also proceeded from the attempts to stabilize his predecessor. Unlike Diocletian, his monetary reform was successful. This applies primarily to gold money, where a new denomination of the solid was introduced. If the gold coins of Diocletian's time still weighed 1/60 of the Roman pound, then under Constantine they weighed 1/72.

Manufactured throughout the Empire since 324, the gold unit existed for another century, and was the basis of gold currency in the Byzantine Empire. While the solidus was common, the silver siliqua unit, which was equal to 1/24 of the solidus, was apparently minted in smaller quantities. The copper units, called follis, had a silver plating amounting to 2% of the weight. During mass production, weight quickly began to decrease, which led to new inflationary processes.

The solidus was introduced into circulation around 309 and existed until the 11th century in the Byzantine Empire. It was minted first in Trier, and from 314 throughout the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Since 324 it began to be produced in its western part. Weight was 1/72 lb (4.55 grams).

Miliarisium - 1/1000 of a gold pound (0.327 grams of gold). When minting 72 solidi from a pound of gold, about 14 miliaris were spent per solidi. Initially it was approximately 1 and 3/4 silicas. Subsequently, there were 12 miliarisii (heavy miliarisii) per solid, and the ratio with siliqua was established at 1 to 2. Then miliarisii began to be called dikeraton. Light miliarisium had a ratio with solidus of 1 to 18.

The production of silver silicium began around 324 (or 320). It replaced the argentus, which was minted at 96 per pound. The weight of the coin is 1/144 pounds (2.27 grams) or 1/1728 gold pound (0.19 grams gold). It was 1/24 solidus (12 follis or nummii, based on the solidus being 288). There are other explanations, according to which siliqua in 1/144 pound appeared only under Constantius II (355), and under Constantine I the same aureus was minted in 1/96 pound (3.41 grams). Then, with the ratio of the cost of gold and silver 1:12-1:14 Argentus per solidus, it was necessary to have 16-19 with the metric fineness of a silver coin being close to 1000. Or the mintage should be made from an alloy of 670-790 fineness.

By 313, the follis (nummium) was “crushed” into a three-gram coin with a silver content of about two percent and an exchange rate of 1:240 to solidus. The decline was about 200% by 307. In the east of the empire, the aureus was equal to 288 nummii. The ratio doubled (576) in 321 after Licinius' reform.

In a short period of time - less than forty years - the follis decreased in weight from 11 to one and a half grams and the silver content from 4 to 0.4 percent. But all this time it was steadily denominated in virtual currency - “ordinary denarii” (denarii communes)

In the absence of precise information about the denominations of bronze Roman coins from the end of the third century, a code is used to designate them, including letters of the type of metal (copper alloy - AE) and a diameter number - 1 (32-26 mm), 2 (25-21 mm), 3 (20-17 mm) and 4 (less than 17 mm). Dimensions given may vary slightly from source to source.

Monetary system of Konstantinov:

Silver coins of Constantine I:

Constantine's turn to Christianity apparently occurred during the period of the struggle against Maxentius. The Edict of Milan in 313 recognized Christianity as an equal religion. Thus, the foundation was laid for its establishment as a state religion. State intervention in church affairs, in particular in church disputes, which became commonplace from the time of Constantine, made the church state and turned it into an instrument of political power.

In 325, Constantine convened the 1st Ecumenical Council in Nicaea, fully encouraging the activities of the church in the spread of Christianity. In 321, Constantine declared Sunday an official “day of rest.”

With the construction of the Lateran Church, Constantine laid the foundation for monumental church architecture. In 313 he completed the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius. In 312-315 In Rome, a triumphal arch was erected, decorated with numerous rich figured reliefs, borrowed from earlier buildings and partially recycled.

Gold, silver and even bronze medallions with a weight greater than that of standard denominations (multiplums) were also produced, which were used for distribution to officials and soldiers.

During the campaign against the Persians, Constantine, mortally ill, stopped in Nicomedia, where he died, having shortly before received baptism from Eusebius of Caesarea. His ashes were buried in the Apostolic Church in Constantinople. Church historians named Constantine the Great and hailed him as a model of a Christian ruler. The Russian Orthodox and Armenian churches honor the memory of Constantine as a saint and equal to the apostles on May 21.

During the reign of Constantine the Great, coins were issued with portraits of the Caesars Constantine, Crispus and Constant (all three were sons of the emperor), Delmatius (335-337), Hanniballianus (335-337), and the emperor's wives Fausta and Helen.

Kaloker, usurper emperor in Cyprus in 333/334. On the island of Cyprus, the head of the camel herds, Kaloker, rebelled and clothed himself in purple. He was defeated by Dalmatius the Censor. The usurper and his accomplices were tortured and executed at Tarsus in Cilicia.

Constantine II (337-340) - Flavius ​​Claudius Constantinus - Emperor Caesar Flavius ​​Claudius Constantinus (iunior) Augustus.

Son of Constantine I. Soon after his birth, he was proclaimed Caesar by his father and in 335 received the so-called Gallic prefecture (Britain, Gaul and Spain) and the western part of North Africa during the division of the empire. Constantine's attempt to take custody of his younger brother Constans and seize Italy led to a war between the brothers, during which Constantine lost the battle at the Battle of Aquileia and was killed.

Constans I (337-350) - Flavius ​​Julius Constants - Emperor Caesar Flavius ​​Iulius Constans Augustus. Youngest son of Constantine I.

In 333 he was proclaimed Caesar and in 335 he received Illyria, Italy and Africa as his inheritance. After the death of his father, his brother Constantine II entered into a fight with him, but was killed in 340, after which Constant took possession of the entire West. In 338, Constans defeated the Sarmatians on the Danube. In 341-342 won victories over the Franks on the Rhine and in 343 over the Picts and Scots in Britain.

Constant, an adherent of orthodox views, supported the side of Athanasius in the Arian church dispute and fought with all his might against the pagans, Jews and Donatists in Africa. The harsh treatment of the soldiers and the ruinous financial policies of Constant for the population led to a conspiracy led by Magnentius, which ended with the overthrow of the emperor in 350. While fleeing, Constant was killed near the Pyrenees.

After 347, some changes were made to the monetary system of Constantine, designed to increase the role of bronze coins with a minimal silver content at that time:

• centenionalis = 100 old denarii (bronze, 23 mm until 354, then 18 mm - "FEL TEMP REPARATIO" series);
• centenionalis = 100 old denarii (bronze, 15 mm after 354 - series "SPES REIPVBLICAE");
• majorina = possibly centenionalis or AE1;
• half centenionalis = 50 old denarii (1% silver);

Constantius II (337-361) - Flavius ​​Julius (Claudius) Constantius - Emperor Caesar Flavius ​​Iulius Constantius Augustus. Son of Constantine I.

In 324 he was named Caesar and in 335 he received control of the Asian provinces. Having become Augustus in 337, he in 338-350. and 359-361 successfully fought wars against the Persian king Shapur II. After the death of the brothers - Constantine II in 340 and Constant in 350 - and the victory over the usurper Magnentius in 352, Constantius became the sole ruler of the empire (353).

In 355, Constantius appointed his cousin Julian as Caesar of the western provinces. Constantius considered Julian's brilliant successes in Gaul so dangerous for himself that in 360 he made peace with Shapur and moved from the Persian borders to Paris, Julian's residence, but died along the way.

The weight of the main silver coin (Argentus? siliqua?) was reduced to 1/144 pounds (2.27 grams). This coin was called "light siliqua".

During his reign, Constantius actively intervened in the activities of the church, supporting Arianism. Pagan cults were prohibited, but the persecution for them was not cruel. The improvement of palace ceremonial, the development of theocratic tendencies and the official equalization of Constantinople with Rome in 359 allow us to call Constantius the first “Byzantine” emperor. Obviously, the beginning of the celebration of Christmas dates back to the period of his reign (354).

Magnentius (350-353) - Emperor Caesar Flavius ​​Magnentius Magnentius Augustus (Flavius ​​Magnentius Maximus Augustus).

Magnentius, of barbarian origin, in the ranks of the Roman army rose to the rank of comite (highest officer), in 350 he usurped the throne and was proclaimed emperor of the western part of the Roman Empire by the troops. On his orders, the former Emperor Constans was killed. In a war with Constantius II, who refused to recognize his authority, Magnentius was defeated at the Battle of Mursa (351) and, after another defeat, committed suicide.

Majorina, 350-353, bronze (5.61). Obverse - Magnentius, DN MAGNENTIVS PF AVG, A, reverse - two Victorias (VOT/V/MVLT/X), VICTORIAE DD NN AVG, RPLC (Lugdunum).

Vetranion (350) - a native of Mysia, was a simple soldier in the Roman army, but thanks to his courage he gradually rose to the highest ranks and was appointed commander of the legions located in Illyria and Pannonia. When, after the death of Constantine the Great, unrest and unrest began in the empire, he took advantage of his power over the army and even proclaimed himself emperor.

Decentius is the brother of Magnentius (Caesar, ruled in Gaul, 350-353).

Nepotianus (350) - usurper emperor - Emperor Caesar Flavius ​​Iulius Popilius Nepotianus Constantinus Augustus.

Julius Nepotian, son of Eutropia, half-sister of Constantine the Great, declared himself emperor in Rome on June 3, 350. With a detachment of gladiators, he attacked Rome, but was killed by the generals of Magnentius on June 30, 350, after 28 days from the start of the uprising. His head was placed on a spear and carried around Rome.

Silvanus (355) - commander of the infantry (magister peditum) in Gaul in 352-355, for a short period in 355 - usurper. Frank by birth. Silvanus initially supported Magnentius, and then in 351, before the Battle of Mursa Major, he defected to Constantius II. In 352 or 353, he was appointed commander of the infantry in Gaul, but soon intrigues began against him: a letter was fabricated at the Roman court in his name, which voiced his claims to the Roman throne. Sylvan had no choice but to rebel against injustice. Silvanus' troops in Colonia Agrippina (Cologne) proclaimed him emperor. Constantius, still unaware of the true causes of the rebellion, sent legions led by Ursucinus against the rebels. The emperor, who learned about the background of the uprising only after the death of Silvanus, spared his son.

Flavius ​​Claudius Constantius Gallus - Roman emperor with the title of Caesar in 351-354. Nephew of Constantius II, who appointed him as his junior co-emperor, and brother of Julian II. He was appointed co-emperor by Constantius II after the uprising of Magnentius. He was given control of the East with its center in Antioch. During his reign he had conflicts with the Syrian nobility. He was suspected by Constantius of exceeding his powers and striving for sole power; he was summoned to the west by Augustus and executed there in 354.

Julian II the Apostate (355-363) - Emperor Caesar Flavius ​​Claudius Iulianus Augustus.

The son of Julius Constantius, nephew of Constantine I. In 337, Julian, together with his older half-brother Gall, survived the massacre of soldiers, to which his father and other relatives fell victim. He received a strict Christian upbringing, but already in his youth he studied pagan literature and philosophy.

Having met the Antiochian rhetorician Libanius and the Neoplatonist Maximus, who became his teacher, Julian, under their influence, turned to paganism. In 355, Constantius II proclaimed him Caesar and sent him to Gaul to defend the Rhineland borders. Julian fought successfully against the Franks and Alamanni. In 360, in Lutetia (Paris), soldiers proclaimed him emperor, but it did not come to a conflict with Constantius II due to the latter’s death in 361.

In an effort to improve the situation of the country, Julian carried out reforms of the financial and tax systems, expanded the rights of municipal curiae, and improved the army and post office. His efforts to restore paganism did not have a strong social basis. In 363, Julian launched a long-prepared campaign against the new Persian power, ruled by Shapur II of Sassanid. Julian reached the enemy capital, Ctesiphon, but could not take it and was forced to turn back. In the battle of Marang, Julian received severe wounds and died.

Jovian (363-364) - Emperor Caesar Flavius ​​Iovianus Augustus.

Originated from Singidunum (modern Belgrade). Being the head of the emperor's personal guard, after the death of Julian the Apostate he was elevated to the throne. Jovian concluded a peace treaty with the Persian king Shapur II for 30 years, according to which he renounced Mesopotamia and Armenia. Being a Christian, Jovian canceled all the religious edicts of Julian and returned its privileges to the church. However, he was tolerant of paganism and all areas of the Christian religion. Jovian died in Bithynia on his way to Constantinople.

Participation in wars: Civil War. War with the Sassanids (338-361). War with the Sarmatians and Quads
Participation in battles:

(Flavius ​​Julius Constantius) Son of Constantine the Great, Roman emperor in 337-361, served as consul ten times

Constantius II was the middle son Constantine I and Faust. He surpassed his brothers not in skill and virtue, but in luck and cunning. Being a very controversial person, he managed to become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire, which his father bequeathed to five heirs.

At the age of twenty, Constantius II was the ruler of Thrace and the East. After death Constant in 350 he successfully eliminated the usurpers who arose and began to rule autocratically.

However, Constantius II, a cunning but mediocre man, “depended in his judgments on gossip and succumbed to intrigue.” The imperial eunuchs acquired special power at court, so that Constantius became like a weak-willed Claudius I, who became famous throughout Roman history for his obedience to his own freedmen.

During the time of Claudius I in Rome, a staff of eunuchs was not yet kept at court; to the 4th century Roman morals were noticeably barbarized in an eastern manner, and the emperors introduced eunuchs.

Ammianus Marcellinus, who lived in the 4th century. and who knew well the customs of the imperial palace, writes about the eunuchs like this: “Always ruthless and cruel, devoid of any blood ties, they feel a sense of attachment to wealth alone, as to the child most dear to their hearts.”

Was especially powerful eunuch Eusebius. The courtiers wittily said that “Constantius II has great power with Eusebius.” After the death of Constantius II, Eusebius was executed.

Actually Constantius II He put himself at the mercy of his servants, who managed the affairs of the Roman Empire as they pleased. “The severity of the reign of Constantius II was increased by the insatiable greed of the tax collectors, who collected more hatred for the emperor than money.”

Constantius II was a Christian. “Constantius combined the Christian religion, which is distinguished by integrity and simplicity, with women’s superstition. Plunging into interpretation instead of simply perceiving it, he aroused a lot of verbal debate. Entire bands of bishops, using the state postal service, traveled in all directions to their meetings - the so-called synods, trying to organize the Christian cult at their own discretion. This caused great damage to the state postal service.”

Constantius II, being a Christian, was, however, very far from being a humble servant of God and did not feel any special respect for the Christian bishop who sat in Rome. Considering himself the ruler of the universe, Constantius expelled Bishop Liberius from Rome because he refused to mindlessly obey one of his orders. Liberius was secretly escorted out of Rome at night "for fear of the people, who were very loyal to him."

In the early 50s of the 4th century. Constantius decided to celebrate his triumph in Rome, where he had never been.

Ammianus Marcellinus, the last of the great historians of the ancient world, preserved the description of this triumph: “Constantius decided to visit Rome so that after death of Magnentius celebrate a triumph over Roman blood. He personally did not defeat any people in the war, he also did not receive news of the defeat of any people thanks to the valor of his generals, he did not add new lands to the Roman power, he was never seen on the battlefield first or in the forefront. But he wanted to show a brilliant procession, sparkling gold banners, a magnificent retinue to a peaceful people who had no hope of ever seeing anything like this and did not even dream about it.”

Having entered Rome, Constantius was amazed by the appearance of the city's population, as he saw a huge number of foreigners.

During the triumph, “as if wishing to intimidate the Euphrates and the Rhine with the appearance of weapons, Constantius sat alone on a golden chariot, trimmed with various precious stones, playing with iridescent reflections in the sun.

Following the long line of banners, they carried dragons on spears, shining with gold, purple and precious stones; blown by the wind, they hissed with their huge mouths, as if enraged, and their tails curled through the air in long curves.

On both sides, in two rows, walked warriors in shiny, sparkling armor, with shields, in helmets, on which the sultans played with iridescent light. Everywhere were visible horsemen clad in armor, who seemed not like people, but like statues: thin iron rings, fastened together, covered their entire bodies, adapting to their curves, so that the armor merged with the body.

Horns were blown and the name of the triumphant was exclaimed, but Constantius remained calm and majestic. Being very short in stature, he nevertheless bent down when entering the high gate; he directed his gaze forward, as if his neck could not move; like a statue, he turned his head neither to the right nor to the left; when pushing the wheels, he did not lean forward, did not wipe his mouth, did not blow his nose, did not spit, and did not make any movements with his hands. This appearance of greatness he acquired was evidence of his great endurance, of which only he was capable.”

Constance shocked by the abundance of magnificent buildings in Rome, he enjoyed exploring the city, but was forced to leave on the thirtieth day, as alarming reports began to arrive about attacks by the Suevi, Quadi and Sarmatians on Roman possessions. It was time for the triumphant to think about the safety of the Roman borders, and he went to Illyria.

But Constantius did not possess any military talents, for he was cowardly and weak-minded. Ammianus Marcellinus writes about him: “As much as this emperor suffered damage and losses in external wars, he was equally distinguished by his success in internecine wars and was all splashed with pus, which was exuded by the internal abscesses of the state. For this unusual success, rather deplorable, he erected in his honor on the ruins of the provinces expensive triumphal arches in Gaul and Pannonia, and inscriptions were made on the arches listing his deeds.

In the fall of 355, Constantius elevated his only surviving relative to the rank of Caesar. Juliana and entrusted him with the protection of Gaul, for the Roman Empire had to fight off the barbarians, both in Europe and in the East.

During the solemn ceremony, turning to Julian, Constantius spoke verbosely, floridly and hypocritically: “The fact that I rightly grant supreme power to my noble relative exalts me even more than the fact that I myself possess this power. So, share with me the hardships and dangers, take upon yourself the governance of Gaul and the care of its safety. If it becomes necessary to come face to face with the enemy, stand firmly next to the standard bearers, arouse the fighting spirit in the soldiers, go into battle yourself, being careful, of course; Come to the aid of those who tremble in battle, say words of reproach to those who are timid, be an impartial witness of heroism and cowardice in battle. Go, brave man, for danger has come, and lead the same brave men with you! Bound by strong bonds of love, we will help each other, we will fight together, and with equal understanding and benevolence we will rule a peaceful universe, if only God sends his permission to our prayers. Hurry to defend with vigilant care the post entrusted to you by the fatherland itself!”

Himself Constance had to go to war with the Persians.

In 360, when the Persians began military operations against the Roman cities of the East, Constantius “spent the winter in Constantinople and with great diligence supplied the eastern border with all kinds of military equipment. He stockpiled weapons, recruited soldiers; replenished the legions with strong young warriors, who enjoyed fame in the East for having fought more than one big battle, and in addition called in auxiliary detachments of the Scythians (or Goths) for money or requests, meaning to set out from Thrace at the beginning of spring and immediately provide assistance to those places that needed it."

In the summer of 360, military clashes between the Romans and the Persians took place in Mesopotamia.

Roman troops in autumn besieged the Bezabdu fortress on the Tigris River, this fortress previously belonged to the Romans, but was captured by the Persians.

The siege of Bezabda was described in detail by Ammianus Marcellinus, who only became a historian in his later years, and before that he spent many years in war, so his description is of particular value: “Approaching the fortress named Bezabda, Emperor Constantius set up a camp, built a high rampart around it and deep ditch and began to go around the fortress, knowing from numerous reports that its fortifications, which had fallen into disrepair from time and negligence, had been restored by the Persians in the best possible way.

Trying to foresee everything even before the outbreak of hostilities, the emperor sent experienced people and offered the Persian garrison the choice of either leaving Besabda, which previously belonged to the Romans, without bloodshed and returning to their own, or going over to the side of the Romans with a guarantee of promotions and awards. But since the defenders of the fortress belonged to noble Persian families and were experienced warriors, seasoned in battles and dangers, the Romans had to prepare for a siege.

In close formation, to the sound of trumpets, the Roman troops enthusiastically approached Bezabda and surrounded it on all sides. The legions broke into small detachments and attempted to storm the walls, moving carefully forward under the cover of raised and tightly packed shields. But from the walls of the fortress, a variety of shells rained down on them in a cloud, which began to pierce the shifted shields; so the Romans gave up and retreated. The next day was given for rest. On the third day, the Romans again, tightly moving their shields, with a battle cry, made an attempt to approach the fortress from all sides. Although its defenders hid behind stretched Cilician felt curtains, when necessary, they boldly stuck out their hands and threw stones and arrows down. And when the Romans bravely pushed the cars right up to the walls, barrels, blocks of stone and fragments of columns fell on top of them. These huge weights fell on the besiegers, breaking their cover, and they had to retreat with the greatest danger.

On the tenth day, when the courage of the Romans began to cause great concern among the Persians, it was decided to move a huge ram, with the help of which the Persians had previously crushed Antioch, to the walls of the fortress; They took him away from there, but then left him in Carrhae, and he fell into the hands of the Romans.

The sudden appearance of this superbly coordinated weapon had such a depressing effect on the besieged that they were almost ready to capitulate, but nevertheless gathered their courage and began to take defensive measures against this formidable machine. Here both sides equally showed both daring courage and reasonable caution.

The Romans, while they were installing this old ram, previously disassembled into parts for ease of transportation, at the fortress wall, tried with all their might to protect it, and many people on both sides died from clouds of arrows and stones.

The embankments erected by the Romans for the assault quickly grew in height, and the siege became more and more fierce from day to day. On the Roman side, many people died because, fighting in front of the emperor, they, in the hope of distinction, took off their helmets so that the emperor could see their faces - this is where they were hit by well-aimed enemy arrows.

Day and night, both sides carried out guard duty in the most vigilant manner. The Persians watched with fear as the height of the embankments grew, and looked with horror at the huge ram, behind which there were already other smaller rams. The besieged made the greatest efforts to burn all these siege weapons, but their arrows and other throwing objects with blazing fire had no effect, since most of the wooden surfaces of the rams were covered with wet leather and fabrics, and everything else was smeared with alum solution for protection against fire projectiles.

With great courage the Romans advanced their rams, and although their protection required the greatest efforts, the warriors, in their ardent desire to take possession of Bezabda, did not retreat in the face of the most obvious dangers.

When the huge ram was already very close and was ready to begin to destroy the tower that rose in front of it, the defenders of the fortress managed to deftly catch its protruding iron forehead, which had the appearance of a ram’s head, with a net, and tied it with long ropes so that it was impossible to give it scope, pulling back, and the ram thus could not smash the wall with frequent blows. In addition, the Persians poured molten resin. And for a long time the guns brought up by the Romans stood inactive, showered with arrows and huge stones.

The Roman mounds grew higher and higher. The besieged, seeing certain death before their eyes if they did not take emergency measures, decided on a last resort and suddenly made a sortie. Having attacked the advanced detachments of the Romans, they began to throw burning torches and pots of flammable mixtures at the rams with all their might.

After a fierce battle, the Persians, having achieved nothing, were thrown back and again appeared on the battlements of the fortress walls, but the Romans began to shoot arrows at them from the embankments and throw stones and fire projectiles from slings; the latter flew over the roofs of the towers, but fell, mostly without causing harm, since fire brigades were on standby in the fortress.

The number of fighters on both sides decreased. Death threatened the Persians unless some special effort on their part rescued them. And so they decided to make a sortie again, preparing it in the most careful way. Whole crowds of them poured out of the gates, their best fighters began to throw iron baskets filled with brushwood, flammable compounds and other flammable substances at the wooden parts of the guns.

Everything was clouded with black clouds of smoke; At the sound of the trumpets, the legions quickly rushed into battle. The battle flared up hotter and hotter, and when it came to hand-to-hand combat, suddenly everything was illuminated by the glow of a fire: the fire ran through the siege weapons, they all burst into flames except for the large ram; The brave men, with the greatest exertion of strength, barely pulled him away in a scorched state, cutting the ropes with which he was entangled from the wall.

When the darkness of night brought an end to the battle, the troops were given a short rest. They barely had time to refresh themselves with food and a short sleep when the commanders raised them to their feet again and ordered them to move the siege weapons away from the wall, since the Romans now intended to fight from high embankments that were already completed and rose above the walls.

On the highest places of the embankments, two throwing weapons and two ballistas were placed, so that it would be easier to drive the defenders of the fortress from the walls, and so that one could hope that, in fear of the ballistas, not a single Persian would dare to even look out.

When all these preparations were completed, at dawn the Roman troops formed into three columns; The plumes on their helmets swayed menacingly, the warriors with ladders in their hands moved to storm the fortress. There was a howl of trumpets, the clang of weapons, and a battle began with equal ferocity on both sides. The Romans spread their formation wider, seeing that the Persians were hiding in fear of the ballistae placed on the embankments, and began to smash the tower with a ram; The Romans approached the wall with pickaxes, axes, crowbars and ladders; clouds of shells were flying from both sides.

The Persians suffered great damage from the shells of two ballistas, flying at them from above, as if along a slope. Seeing inevitable death ahead of them, the Persians rushed towards death. They divided the military work among themselves, as far as possible: some remained to defend the walls, while others, the majority, quietly opened the gates and slipped out of the fortress with swords drawn, followed by people who were dragging flammable materials.

While the Romans fought hand-to-hand with the first, the second, dragging flammable materials, crawled across the embankment and slipped coals into the fastenings, which consisted of wooden beams, wicker and bundles of reeds. The flames quickly engulfed the embankment, and the Roman soldiers barely had time to pull the ballistas from it.

When the coming evening put an end to the battle, and both sides dispersed for a short rest, the emperor began to waver in his thoughts: on the one hand, the most solid motives prompted him to insist on taking Bezabda, because this fortress was an invincible stronghold against enemy invasions, and on the other hand, on the other hand, the late season made us think about returning back. He decided to stay here for a while longer, without bringing matters to a serious battle; he hoped that perhaps the lack of food would force the Persians to surrender. But his expectations were not met.

While the war dragged on in this weakened state, the wet season arrived, and rain clouds brought a menacing gloom over the land. The soil was so wet from constant rains that the clayey soil with its fatty plant layer turned into continuous impassable mud. Continuous peals of thunder and constantly flashing lightning terrified timid souls; Besides, rainbows were visible in the sky all the time.

The emperor, due to all these circumstances, wavered between hope and fear, since winter was approaching and ambushes could be expected in these roadless places; He was also worried about the possibility of a riot on the part of disgruntled Roman soldiers; In addition, he was tormented by the consciousness that he seemed to have stood in front of the open door of a rich house and was forced to return back, having achieved nothing.

So, Constantius abandoned the hopeless enterprise. Intending to spend the winter in Antioch, he returned to poverty-stricken Syria, suffering a cruel blow that remained unavenged and aroused sorrowful memories for a long time.”

Winter 360 Constantia II I was struck by terrible news: in Gaul the troops arbitrarily proclaimed Julian emperor with the title of Augustus.

However, Julian showed tact and sent polite letters to Constantius, where he explained that the weight had happened solely by the will of the soldiers.

Julian's ambassadors arrived to Constantius. “Having been admitted to the emperor, the ambassadors presented him with Julian’s letters. The emperor read them and flared up with terrible anger: death was thrown at the ambassadors by the look of his squinting eyes. Without asking them anything and without saying anything himself, he ordered them to leave. No matter how angry he was, he nevertheless indulged in painful thoughts: whether to order the troops, on whose loyalty he could count, to move against the Persians or against Julian. After much hesitation, he finally gave the order to set out on a campaign to the East, agreeing with the opinion of his prudent advisers. He ordered Julian to be informed that under no circumstances would he give his permission for the coup to take place, and tried to impress upon the newly-proclaimed Augustus that if he values ​​his life and the lives of his loved ones, then let him abandon his arrogant claims and let him be content with the title and power of Caesar.”

In the fall of 361, troops were sent against Julian, but things did not come to a collision, since Constantius suddenly became seriously ill. “The heat was so great that it was impossible to touch his body, which was blazing like a brazier. The medications didn't work; feeling at his last breath, he mourned his end and, while still fully conscious, appointed, they say, Julian as the successor to his power.”

Ammianus Marcellinus writes about Constantius II: “If in some respects he can be compared with emperors of average dignity, then in those cases when he found a completely false or the most insignificant reason to suspect an attempt on his dignity, he carried out the investigation endlessly, considered truth and untruth as one thing and surpassed in ferocity, perhaps Caligula, Domitian and Commodus. Taking these ferocious sovereigns as his model, at the beginning of his reign he uprooted all the people connected with him by ties of blood and kinship. Although he was extremely concerned about being considered just and merciful, he did not know justice in matters of this kind.”

Some right-thinking people expressed the opinion that Constantius might have shown greater greatness of spirit if he had, without shedding blood, renounced the power which he had defended with such cruelty.