Summary: Skepticism as a direction of ancient philosophy. D. A. GusevAncient skepticism and the philosophy of science: a dialogue through two millennia Philosophy of ancient skepticism periods of development

1. Correlation between philosophical doubt and skepticism
2. Skepticism
3. The evolution of ancient skepticism
4. General principle of skepticism

Correlation of philosophical doubt and skepticism

To some extent, skepticism is always present in philosophy, and in this sense, philosophy itself is a consequence of skepticism, that is, doubts about the truth of traditional views on the nature of things. Therefore moderate skepticism or "methodological" skepticism is an indispensable condition for the very possibility of philosophy.

On the other hand, the nature of such a great phenomenon as philosophical doubt can only be psychologically reminiscent of "moderate skepticism." In its essence, it is rather akin to faith, because the philosophical so-called. Doubt is that inner, absolutely inseparable, immanent drive that constitutes philosophical thought as a phenomenon that occupies a completely independent place among other types of human thought and is not reducible to anything else. It has a deeply positive pathos (tonoV) of mastering the Unknown through difficulties, aporias, selfless intensification of philosophical research. The doubt of such a skeptic, oddly enough, has the character of self-confidence and, thus, has as its result a calmness and firmness of spirit within itself, in which there is no touch of sadness and which are the direct opposite of doubt. This is the equanimity professed by skepticism.

Skepticism

But here we will talk about skepticism in principle. He is distinguished by his consistency in skepticism, bringing his skeptical conclusions to their logical conclusion. And its end is a doubt about the possibility of mental life itself in general.

Ancient skepticism - the 3rd philosophical direction of the Hellenistic era - existed from the end. 4th century BC e. according to the III century. n. e. It was a reaction to the philosophy of the Stoics, and to a lesser extent - Epicureanism. The largest representatives of this trend are Pyrrho (360–270 BC), Carneades (c. 214–129 BC), Sextus Empiricus (2nd half of the 2nd century).

Based on the provisions of Heraclitus on the variability, fluidity of the world, the lack of a clear certainty in it, skeptics come to the conclusion that it is impossible to achieve objective knowledge about the world, and, consequently, the impossibility of rationally substantiating the norms of human behavior. The only correct line of conduct under these conditions is to refrain from judgment (epoch, epοχή) as a means of achieving ataraxia (equanimity in relation to everything external). But since it is practically impossible to live in a state of absolute silence and inaction, a wise person should live in accordance with laws, customs, or prudence, realizing, however, that such behavior is not based on any firm conviction. Greek skepticism was not, unlike cynicism, a practical philosophy of life. It represented only a skeptical philosophical reaction to the teachings of other schools of thought.

The evolution of ancient skepticism

The founder of Greek skepticism was Pyrrho. In his opinion, the knowledge gained by Plato, Aristotle and others was in vain, since no one can be completely sure of their knowledge of the world. Knowledge of the world consists of judgments, but at the same time too strong binding of judgments to the concepts they denote raises doubts about their truth. Therefore, the truth of judgments is unprovable; "things in themselves" exist separately from our attempts to describe them. – In many ways, skepticism can be seen as a return in the next round of development to the philosopher who gave the initial impetus to this development, namely Socrates. Socrates was the first to proclaim that the wisest are those who know that they know nothing. The philosophical enthusiasm of Socrates inspired Plato and Aristotle to create bold theories, so that in a sense, the goal of skeptics can be considered a reminder to posterity of the precepts of the great teacher.

In the future, the skepticism of the Pyrrhonian type fades somewhat, and the so-called “Pyrrhonian” appears in the Platonic Academy. academic skepticism with such representatives as Carneades and Arcesilaus is the 2nd century. BC Pyrrhonian skepticism (Pyrrhonism) is revived by Aenesidemus and Agrippa (I century BC, the works of these philosophers have not been preserved). The philosopher-physician Sextus Empiricus was a representative of late ancient skepticism. In the III-IV centuries. the school still exists, and elements of skepticism can be found in the physician Galen.

General principle of skepticism

The general mode of reasoning of skepticism is, as Sextus Empiricus expresses it, in the ability to show that each of the propositions has the same value and significance as its opposite, and therefore does not contribute anything to a positive or negative belief. Through this arises the abstinence from approval, according to which we choose nothing and deny nothing, and from this abstinence then comes freedom from every movement of the soul. The principle of skepticism is therefore the following proposition: for every reason there is an equally strong opposite reason.

By separating the sensible and the conceivable, skepticism, in a dispute against them, can seem to win; however, the idea is neither one nor the other, and it does not affect the realm of the rational at all. The misunderstanding caused by skepticism in the minds of those who do not know the nature of the idea consists precisely in this, that they believe that the true must necessarily be clothed in one form or another, and that it is therefore either a certain concept or a certain being. In reality, however, skepticism does not fight against the concept as a concept, i.e., against the absolute concept, but, on the contrary, the absolute concept is precisely the weapon of skepticism, and it only does not realize it.

So, although skepticism pursued a seemingly negative goal, it had a positive effect, since it forced us to pay serious attention to the problem of the truth and reliability of knowledge, which was of paramount importance for the development of philosophy.

Skepticism (from the Greek skepticos, literally - considering, exploring) arises as a direction in, obviously, in connection with the collapse of some of the educated people's hopes for the former claims of philosophy. At the core of skepticism is a position based on doubting the existence of any reliable criterion of truth.

Focusing on the relativity of human knowledge, skepticism played a positive role in the fight against various forms of dogmatism. Within the framework of skepticism, a number of problems of the dialectic of knowledge were posed. However, skepticism had other consequences, as unbridled doubt in the possibilities of knowing the world led to pluralism in understanding social norms, to unprincipled opportunism, servility, on the one hand, and disregard for human institutions, on the other.

Skepticism is contradictory in nature, it prompted some to an in-depth search for truth, and others to militant ignorance and immorality.

The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-270 BC). The philosophy of the skeptics has come down to us thanks to the writings of Sextus Empiricus. His works give us an idea of the ideas of the skeptics Pyrrho, Timon, Carneades, Clytomachus, Aenesidemus.

According to the teachings of Pyrrho, a philosopher is a person who strives for happiness. It, in his opinion, consists only in imperturbable calm, combined with the absence of suffering.

Anyone who wants to achieve happiness must answer three questions:

what things are made of;
how they should be treated;
what benefit we are able to get from our relationship with them.

Pyrrho believed that no answer could be given to the first question, just as it was impossible to assert that something definite exists. Moreover, any statement about any subject can be countered with equal right by a statement that contradicts it.

From the recognition of the impossibility of unambiguous statements about things, Pyrrho deduced the answer to the second question: philosophical attitude to things consists in refraining from any judgments. This is due to the fact that our sense perceptions, although they are reliable, cannot be adequately expressed in judgments. This answer predetermines the answer to the third question: the benefit and advantage arising from the abstinence from all kinds of judgments consists in equanimity or serenity. This condition, called ataraxia, based on the rejection of knowledge, is considered by skeptics as the highest degree of bliss.

The efforts of the skeptics Pyrrho, Aenesidemus and Agrippina, aimed at fettering human curiosity with doubt and slowing down the movement along the path of the progressive development of knowledge, were futile. The future, which was presented to skeptics as a terrible punishment for believing in the omnipotence of knowledge, nevertheless came and none of their warnings could stop it.

philosophy skeptical knowledge

Antique skepticism as a reaction to the metaphysical dogmatism of previous philosophical schools is represented, first of all, by the founder of the first skeptical school, Pyrrho from Elis (his student is the famous Timon Timon from Phlius, an ancient Greek philosopher, orator, author of satirical poems, a student of Pyrrho, died at the age of almost 90 years in 230 BC in Athens. Thanks to the writings of Timon, we have information about the skepticism of Pyrrho, whose writings have not survived. from Phlius.). Then the second current in skepticism, the so-called Middle (Founded by Arcesilaus from Pitana. The main criterion for practical life, according to Arcesilaus, is probability.) And the New Academy (Its most prominent representative is Carneades from Cyrene. Arcelaus' thesis - "probability" was developed by Carneades. ) And the so-called late skepticism is represented by the third school of ancient skepticism, which was founded by Aenesidemus (He joined the followers of Pyrrho. In ten so-called "Paths" (principles), he outlined the main theses of his teaching: the first six are the difference between living beings; people; sense organs; states of the individual; positions, distances, places; phenomena according to their connections; the last four principles are the mixed being of the perceived object with other objects; relativity in general; dependence on the number of perceptions; dependence on the level of education, customs, laws, philosophical and religious views). Sextus Empiricus also belongs to this trend.

Ancient skepticism went through many changes and phases in its development. At first, it had a practical character, that is, it acted not only as the most true, but also as the most useful and advantageous position in life, and then turned into a theoretical doctrine; initially he questioned the possibility of any knowledge, then criticized the knowledge, but only received by the previous philosophy.

Three periods can be distinguished in ancient skepticism:

The older Pyrrhonism, developed by Pyrrho himself (about 360-270 BC) and his student Timon of Phlius, dates back to the 3rd century BC. At that time, skepticism was of a purely practical nature: its core was ethics, and dialectics was only its outer shell; from many points of view, it was a doctrine analogous to the original Stoicism and Epicureanism.

Academicism. Strictly speaking, during the period when a number of Pyrrho's students were interrupted, a skeptical trend dominated the Academy; it was in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC "in the Middle Academy", the most prominent representatives of which were Arcesilaus (315-240) and Carneades (214-129 BC).

The younger Pyrrhonism found its adherents when skepticism left the walls of the Academy. Studying the works of representatives of the Academy of a later period, one can see that they systematized the skeptical argument. The original ethical position receded into the background, epistemological criticism came to the fore. The main representatives of this period were Aenesidemus and Agrippa. Skepticism found many adherents in this last period among the physicians of the "empirical" school, among whom was Sextus Empiricus.

A.F. Losev calls the earliest stage of skepticism headed by Pyrrho intuitive-relativistic. Later skepticism developed within the Platonic Academy. For the first time, we find a skeptical teaching in the head of the Middle Academy, Arcesilaus. This is the direction of A.F. Losev calls intuitive probabilistic. It was further developed by the head of the New Academy Carneades. This period is called reflective-probabilistic. This academic skepticism gradually weakened and turned into eclecticism, which is known from Philo of Larissa and Antiochus of Ascalon (2nd-1st centuries BC), who headed the so-called Fourth and Fifth Academies. A more firm and consistent position of skepticism is taken by a distant follower and renewer of Pyrrhonism, the skeptic Aenesidemus (1st century BC), whose skepticism is called systematic, or reflective-relativistic.

It was followed by the logical-relativistic skepticism of Agrippa and Menodotus (1st century AD) and already the final completion of ancient skepticism, or absolute skepticism, which borders on nihilism, although far from being reduced to it, is considered the skepticism of Sextus Empiricus and Saturninus (II-III century AD).

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FROM specific but ancient skepticism

Introduction

1. Historical reasons and theoretical background for the emergence of skepticism

1.1 How did skepticism originate?

1.2 The dogma of the ancient skeptic

1.3 Three periods of skepticism

2. Pyrrho - the founder of skepticism

3. Founder of the ancient skeptical school

4. Skepticism as a theoretical justification for individualism

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

antique philosophy is historically the first form of European theoretical thought, which has become the basis for development and the cultural horizon for all subsequent forms of thinking. The philosophy of antiquity is subdivided into the ancient Greek and ancient Roman eras (the end of the 7th century BC - the 6th century AD).

Traditionally, Thales is considered the first ancient philosopher, and Boethius the last. Ancient philosophy was formed under the influence and influence of the pre-philosophical Greek tradition, which can be conditionally considered as an early stage of ancient philosophy itself, as well as the views of the sages of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and ancient Eastern countries.

The relevance of the topic of the control work lies in the fact that at the end of the 4th century. BC. Greek slave-owning democracy is strengthened. This crisis in Athens led to the loss of political independence. As a result, the problems in the sphere of economics and politics of Greece are reflected in Greek philosophy. The efforts directed at the knowledge of the objective world, which manifested themselves among the Greek philosophers, are gradually replaced by the desire to reduce philosophical and scientific questions only to what is sufficient to justify the simple, i.e. able to provide happiness, personal behavior.

Gradually one notices widespread disillusionment in all kinds and forms of social and political life. Philosophy turns from a theoretical system into a state of mind and expresses the self-awareness of a person who has lost himself in the world. Over time, interest in philosophical thinking generally falls sharply. There comes a period of mysticism, fusion of religion and philosophy.

Metaphysics as philosophy predominantly gives way to ethics, the main question of the philosophy of this period is not what things are in themselves, but how they relate to us. Philosophy is increasingly striving to become a doctrine that develops the rules and norms of human life. In this, all three main philosophical trends of the era of early Hellenism are similar - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.

In the era of Hellenism, the main purpose of philosophy is seen in practical wisdom of life. Ethics, oriented not to social life, but to the inner world of an individual person, acquires a dominant importance. Theories of the universe and logic serve ethical purposes: to develop the right attitude towards reality in order to achieve happiness.

Differently understanding the paths to happiness, they all similarly saw the bliss of a person in a serene state of mind, achieved by getting rid of false opinions, fears, inner passions that lead to suffering. The loss of oneself and self-doubt gave rise to such a direction of Hellenistic philosophy as skepticism.

The purpose of the work is to identify the specifics of ancient skepticism and establish its place, role and significance in the history of philosophy and philosophical thinking. The set goal involves the solution of the following tasks: to trace the philosophical and historical prerequisites for the emergence of ancient skepticism, and who was its founder; find out what is the special worldview of skepticism.

1. Historical reasons and theoretical background for the emergence of skepticism

Skepticism (from Greek origin skeptics, literally - examining, investigating). This is a philosophical position based on the doubt that there is any reliable criterion of truth. The extreme form of Skepticism, based on the assertion that in our knowledge there is nothing corresponding to reality and reliable knowledge is in principle unattainable, is agnosticism.

In ancient Greek philosophy, Skepticism was represented by a special school, in the development of which they distinguishthree periods :

1. Early Skepticism, whose founder was Pyrrho;

2. Skepticism, which developed at the Platonic Academy under its leaders Arcesilaus and Carneades;

3. Late Skepticism, represented by Aenesidemus, Agrippa, Sextus the Empiricist, and others.

The skeptics had their own point of view on religion, explaining their position by general philosophical judgments, the basis of which was " hope for equanimity" . Skeptics insisted on refraining from any final judgments, seeing in this the fundamental guarantee of equanimity. They developed ways, or, in other words, paths of refraining from judgments.

The meaning of these paths is as follows:

1. The futility of attempts to find a criterion of truth, both sensory knowledge and thinking.

2. Emphasizing the differences in moral standards among different peoples.

3. Variety of religious beliefs.

4. Finding out how different theories refute each other.

5. The idea that every truth is proved by another, and this leads either to a vicious circle in the proof, or to an arbitrary choice of axioms, or to an infinite regress.

6. Arguments showing that the existence of causality is unprovable.

7. The need to act, making certain decisions, forces the ancient skeptics to recognize that although there may be no criterion for truth, there is a criterion for practical behavior. This criterion should be based on " reasonable probability" (Arkesilaus).

Based on the foregoing, it should be noted that everyone knows that the same things in different people cause unequal sensations. A person in different states in relation to the same object receives different ideas. Objects appear different according to position, distance, and place; their quality changes with quantity.

It is no less significant that the difference in judgments about objects is determined by whether they are rare or common and particular. For example, a comet strikes us more than the sun, thunder in winter more than thunder in summer, etc. This depends on the fact that our perception is mixed with imagination, which represents the thing together with the activity of the mind, and not in its pure form.

The paths of skeptics also fix the dependence of human judgments " from behavior, customs, laws, fabulous beliefs and dogmatic provisions" . Not wanting to recognize the complex nature of knowledge, moreover, considering in this complexity itself a proof of the impossibility of true knowledge, they called for refraining from judging the nature of things, they even argued that the best thing is " restraint in research" .

Seeking not truth, but intellectual equanimity, peace, skeptics sacrificed everything except for all-consuming irony and criticism. Skepticism had a restraining effect on the development of scientific knowledge. But at the same time, it was precisely with this property that skepticism had a corrupting effect on religious thinking, casting doubt on the reality of the existence of gods and belief.

Ancient skepticism calls to follow what sensations and feelings lead us to (eat when we feel hungry, etc.). Follow the laws and customs of the country, engage in certain activities (including scientific), etc. Leaving a position that equally distrusts sensation and thinking, ancient skepticism gives preference to feelings, knowledge, coming close to empiricism and experimental science.

1.1 How did skepticism originate?

The period of the highest rise in the material and spiritual culture of Athens is the "golden age" of Pericles, the 5th century BC. This is the time of vigorous activity of the state representative of Athens, Pericles, who initiated the construction of the Parthenon, Propylaea, Odeon and Acropolis. The astounding successes achieved by the Greeks instill in the thinkers who witness these successes the confidence that almost limitless possibilities open up before the human mind.

However historical reason for skepticism lies in the fact that in the III century BC, the decline and decomposition of the social relations that existed in Greece began. The upheavals experienced by Greek society cause deep disappointment in the existing socio-political institutions and the views and ideals associated with them. At the same time, it remains not at all clear what orders, views, ideals are not only necessary, but also possible to replace those that have become obsolete.

As we can see, this historical moment favored the emergence of skepticism as an independent philosophical trend. The Hellenistic era, which began with Alexander's campaign to the East, was characterized by extreme instability of both economic, political, social, and cultural realities. Historical life and individual existence were characterized at this time, above all, by gloomy unpredictability and the loss of all previous guarantees and guidelines.

Such historical conditions have contributed to the emergence of skepticism in two ways.

Firstly, the general relativity and instability of life naturally caused pessimism, unbelief, doubt, that is, gave rise to the so-called everyday skepticism or mood skepticism. And any state or mood inevitably begins to create a theoretical justification and confirmation for itself. Thus, mood skepticism, provoked by a specific historical situation, gave rise to or stimulated philosophical skepticism.

Secondly, already known historical realities, in the ethical sphere, characterized by the loss of any external, generally significant foundations, guidelines, principles and guarantees for the individual, inevitably forced him to look for postulates no longer outside, but within himself, turned human thought, mainly, to ethical issues, causing to life, the need for a theoretical substantiation of subjectivism, the ethical and philosophical search for individual happiness.

The philosophical schools that appeared at that time went in different ways to the same cherished goal. Self-sufficient happiness (eudaimonia) among the Epicureans is the result of deviation from the world, among the Stoics, on the contrary, it is the result of following it, among the skeptics it is neither one nor the other, but a decisive doubt in everything.

The emergence of skepticism is also closely connected with the fact that, as a result of the crisis experienced by society, the focus of the interests of thinkers, who had previously been engaged in the theoretical study of being and thinking, nature and society, is now practical and ethical problems. What should be the behavior of a person so that he is protected from everything that can disturb him?

The search for an answer to this question and its theoretical substantiation is given the most attention. Interest is falling not only in social life, but also in a comprehensive study of all reality in general, in the knowledge of the world. This is one of the most important circumstances that contributed to the emergence and spread of skepticism.

The emergence and spread of skepticism is due to another very important circumstance. - the speculative nature of the doctrines developed in Greece in the VI-III centuries. BC. Creating their systems long before the emergence of experimental natural science, the great Greek thinkers relied on extremely meager material accumulated through rather primitive observations.

" The highest achievements of ancient philosophy are bold brilliant guesses, none of which, at the then level of knowledge, could be convincingly substantiated by the data of experimental science, since the level of industrial, practical activity achieved at this stage of history did not provide conditions for the experimental study of nature." (Boguslavsky V. M. "At the origins of French atheism and materialism." - M., 1964).

The inability to conduct experimental experiments, the thinking and views of philosophers on the surrounding nature have advanced amazingly far, but thereby ensured the weakness of their construction without a scientific foundation. Putting forward various philosophical judgments, skepticism appeared.

Criticism of various philosophical schools occupied a particularly large place in the reasoning of skeptics, the essence of which is that one cannot adhere to any of the opinions defended by them. The comparison and opposition of various currents of Greek philosophy, their research and criticism, done by the Pyrrhonists and "Academicians", largely determines the significance that Greek skepticism really had in the history of ancient philosophy.

" Skeptics are scientists among philosophers. Their work is to oppose, and, consequently, to collect various previously expressed statements. They took a leveling, smoothing scientific look at the old systems and thus discovered a contradiction and opposition." (Marx K., Engels F. From early works. - M., 1956).

Skepticism was preceded by the Sophists, led by Protagoras. They prepared skepticism with their relativism and conventionalism. The Sophists, according to skeptics, provided examples of argumentation. But other philosophers prepared skepticism as a critical part of their theories. Democritus, who portrays sensuously perceived qualities as subjective, and even Plato, the stern critic of sensuous knowledge, have placed weapons in the hands of skeptics.

1.2 The dogma of the ancient skeptic

The skeptic rejected the knowability of life. To maintain inner peace, a person needs to know a lot from philosophy, but not in order to deny something or, conversely, to affirm (every affirmation is a negation, and, conversely, every negation is an affirmation). The ancient skeptic is by no means a nihilist; he lives as he wants, avoiding in principle the need to evaluate anything. He is in constant philosophical search, but he is convinced that true knowledge is, in principle, unattainable. Being appears in all the diversity of its fluidity. In this regard, the skeptic points to time itself, it is, but it is not there, it is impossible to "grab" it. There is no stable meaning at all, everything is fluid, so live the way you want, take life in its immediate reality.

He who has learned a lot cannot adhere to strictly unambiguous opinions. A skeptic can neither be a judge nor a lawyer. The skeptic Carneades, sent to Rome to petition for the abolition of the tax, spoke before the public one day in favor of the tax, and another day against the tax. It is better for the wise skeptic to be silent. His silence is the philosophical answer to the questions put to him.

Refraining from certain judgments, the skeptic remains imperturbable. The silence of the skeptic can be considered a wise way out of the situation, but it is impossible not to see the emptiness of thought in it.

We list the main provisions of ancient skepticism:

a) the world is fluid, it has no meaning and clear definition;

b) every affirmation is at the same time a negation, every "yes" is at the same time a "no"; the true philosophy of skepticism is silence;

in) follow the "world of phenomena".

1.3 Three periods of skepticism

Practical and radical skepticism was proclaimed by the Pyrrhonists, while theoretical and critical by the representatives of the Academy.

Three periods can be distinguished in ancient skepticism:

1. Early Skepticism or Elder Pyrrhonism - developed by Pyrrho himself and his student Timon from Phlius, this period dates back to the 3rd century BC. BC.

At the time, skepticism was purely practical. Ethics was its core, and dialectics was only its outer shell; from many points of view, it was a doctrine analogous to the original Stoicism and Epicureanism; however, Pyrrho, who was older than Zeno and Epicurus, came forward with his teachings before them and, most likely, he influenced them, and not vice versa.

2. Academicism - during this period, when a number of students of Pyrrho interrupted, a skeptical trend dominated the Academy; it was in the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC e .. "In the Middle Academy", the most prominent representatives were Arcesilaus (315-240) and Carneade (214-129 BC). skeptic criterion truth individualism

3. Late Skepticism or Younger Pyrrhonism- found its supporters when skepticism left the walls of the Academy. Studying the works of representatives of the Academy of a later period, one can see that they systematized the skeptical argument. The original ethical position receded into the background, epistemological criticism came to the fore. The main representatives of this period were Aenesidemus and Agrippa. Skepticism gained many adherents in this last period among the physicians of the "empirical" school, among whom was Sextus-empiricus.

2. Pyrrho - the founder of skepticism

The founder of ancient skepticism is the Greek philosopher Pyrrho. Originally from Elis, he lived approximately in 376-286. BC e. At first, Pyrrho was engaged in painting, even a picture was preserved, written rather mediocrely, and only after that, in adulthood, he took up philosophy.

Pyrrho lived in seclusion, rarely appearing even at home. The inhabitants of Elis respected him for his intelligence and elected him high priest. Moreover, for his sake they decided to free all philosophers from taxes. More than once he left the house without saying anything to anyone, and wandered around with anyone. Once his friend Anaxarchus fell into a swamp, Pyrrho passed by without shaking his hand, everyone scolded him, but Anaxarchus praised him. He lived with his sister and midwife, took chickens and piglets to the market to sell.

From the history of the formation of the ancient Greek philosopher, there is a story that tells how once Pyrrho sailed on a ship with his companions and got into a storm, then everyone began to panic, only Pyrrho, pointing to the ship's pig, which serenely slurped from its trough, said, what is the right way to behave true philosopher.

The formation of views, Pyrrho, was most influenced by the teachings of Democritus (an ancient Greek philosopher), then he was influenced by Indian magicians and ascetics, whom he met when he took part in the campaign of Alexander the Great in Asia.

In the indifference of these philosophers to life and suffering, Pyrrho saw the best means for achieving happiness. He developed this idea not only in theory, but was also guided by it in his own life. The attitude of indifference, the basis of the wisdom of the East, was that alien motive which, with the help of Pyrrho, was introduced into the philosophy of the Greeks.

Pyrrho refrained from any judgment, because he had doubts about the knowability of the world. Being a consistent philosopher, he strove throughout his life to be a supporter of this doctrine. Pyrrho did not move away from anything, did not shun anything, did not avoid any danger, in nothing, without being exposed to a sense of danger.

He considered sensations to be reliable (if something seems bitter or sweet, then it will be a true statement). A delusion arises when we try to move from a phenomenon to its basis, essence. However, any assertion about an object (its essence) can be countered with equal right by an assertion that contradicts it. One must refrain from final judgments - (skepticism). Pyrrho carried his doubts to the limit, to the maximum conceivable limit. Neither representations nor concepts are possible.

Like Epicurus (the ancient Greek philosopher, the founder of epicureanism in Athens), Pyrrho sought the secret of happiness, understanding it as freedom from the shackles of the world. Recognizing that feelings do not give a true picture of being, and the mind is not capable of providing indisputable evidence, skeptics raised doubt to principles, completely denying the objective value of any theoretical statement.

The skeptics believed that we are doomed to live by "opinions" alone, that there is no rational criterion that would be a sufficiently solid foundation for a worldview. This is the indisputable merit of the Pyrrhonists in the history of thought.

3. Founder of the ancient skeptical school

Pyrrho was of the opinion that nothing in reality is either beautiful or ugly, neither just nor unjust, because everything is the same in itself, and therefore it is no more one than the other. Everything that is not the same, different is human institutions and customs.

Things are inaccessible to our knowledge - this is the basis of the method of refraining from judgments. As a practical-moral ideal method, “equanimity”, “serenity” (ataraxia) is derived from this.

An important place in Pyrrhonic skepticism was occupied by the ethical area. There are a number of terms that, with the light hand of Pyrrho, have become very widespread in all subsequent philosophy. For example:

· term "epoch" denoting "refraining" from all judgment. Since we do not know anything, then, according to Pyrrho, we must refrain from any judgments.

· term "adiaphoron", as Pyrrho said, for all of us everything is "indifferent". As a result of abstaining from all judgment, we must act only as everyone usually does, according to the mores and orders in our country.

· term "ataraxia"- "equanimity", and "apatheia"- "insensitivity", "dispassion". This is exactly what should be the inner state of a sage who has renounced a reasonable explanation of reality and a reasonable attitude towards it.

Pyrrhonism - the teachings of Pyrrho, the Pyrrhonists are followers of the teachings of Pyrrho. The name Pyrrhonism is synonymous with skepticism. Skeptics doubted everything, refuted the dogmas of other schools, but they themselves did not assert anything. Skeptics denied the truth of any knowledge and rejected any evidence.

Pyrrhonists come to the conclusion that feelings in themselves do not carry truth. Feelings cannot judge themselves, and therefore they cannot determine whether they are true or false. That is, we can say that this or that object is red or green, sweet or bitter, but we do not know what it really is. He is only for us.

According to Piron, any of our assertions about any subject can be countered with equal right, with equal force, by an assertion that contradicts it.

From the impossibility of making any statements about any objects, Pyrrho concludes that the only way of relating to things proper to a philosopher can only consist in abstaining from any judgments about them.

According to Pyrrho - if we refrain from any judgments about things, then we will achieve equanimity (ataraxia), which is the highest degree of happiness accessible to the philosopher.

4. Skepticism as a theoretical justification for individualism

The search for individual happiness leads to the fact that ethics begins to dominate and becomes philosophy par excellence, as a moral teaching, the science of happiness, of true life. Responding to the practical, moral needs of society, philosophy is popularized.

Philosophers form a special class, which in the era of the empire everywhere receives special rights, privileges and distinctions. The rich, noble ladies, kings and cities contain philosophers and sophists - sworn teachers of "virtue and education." The moral crisis, which aggravated already in the era of Hellenism and was caused by the deep decomposition of ancient customs, state and religion, aroused the need for a morality based on true knowledge.

Is the nature of things knowable, what is it, and how should we behave in accordance with the true nature of things? - these are the three main questions of logic, physics and ethics, which have the highest practical significance. Speculative creativity has weakened, authoritative morality presupposes either a resolute dogmatic teaching about the nature of things, or complete skepticism in relation to any kind of knowledge.

The extreme development of individualistic subjectivism in morality is represented by the most ancient skeptics of the school of Pyrrho, who, in contrast to the Stoics and Epicureans, tried to substantiate the rules of behavior on the consciousness of the absolute impossibility of objective knowledge. Skeptical abstinence from any judgment about things, actions and their goals, lead us gradually to true wisdom, that is, to the same complete indifference and indifference.

In the philosophical system of Pyrrho, as in the systems of the Stoics and Epicureans, theory was subordinate to practice, although there was also a fundamental difference between these teachings. While the Stoics and Epicureans regarded science or positive knowledge as a means of achieving peace of mind, the skeptics sought to achieve the same by denying knowledge and distrusting science.

Skepticism and the resulting distrust of judgment extended to the practical life of people. Nothing in itself can be ugly or beautiful, right or wrong, or at least we cannot be sure of anything - all external things in our life are completely indifferent to us.

The purpose of the life of a sage is to achieve peace of mind and try to keep it.

According to Pyrrho's disciple Timon, neither sensory perception nor reason can be trusted. Therefore, we must be suspicious of all judgments, not allow ourselves to believe in any theoretical statement, and then we can achieve true ataraxia or equanimity.

Pyrrho's skepticism has a decidedly practical rather than a dialectical interest. He tries to give a person complete independence from knowledge. Little value is attributed to knowledge, because it can be erroneous, and therefore, the use of knowledge for the happiness of people - this goal of life - is doubtful. It is impossible to learn how to live correctly, there are no definite rules for the art of living.

The most expedient is a greater limitation in knowledge and its role in life, but it is impossible to completely get rid of knowledge. As long as he lives, a person experiences coercion from the side of sensations, from external nature and society. All the "paths" of the skeptics, therefore, have no meaning in themselves, but are only indirect indications.

The purpose of Pyrrho's philosophy -- establish itself in a state of complete indifference, absolute independence, inner freedom, dispassion, such a state Pyrrho considers divine. For him, everything is indifferent, except for indifference to indifferent things, which, in the final analysis, is a virtue and, therefore, an absolute value. To achieve such indifference is not an easy task: for this, according to Pyrrho, it is necessary " completely renounce human properties" , i.e. completely abandon the human point of view.

Perhaps these words imply that " eschew human nature" , the philosopher radically changes his worldview, overcoming the limitations of the human point of view and rising to a comprehensive view.

Shortly after Pyrrho, Arcesilaus developed theoretical skepticism at the Academy, developing skeptical elements of Platonic and Socratic dialectics in a polemic against the Stoics. A century later, Carneades gave a new luster to this reformed Academy, as a powerful dialectician and philosophical critic. His destructive work contributed greatly to the disintegration of dogmatic teachings and the development of eclecticism. His critique of rational theology cleared the way for the religious speculation of later centuries.

Conclusion

Summing up the control work, it should be added that during the period of Hellenism, the worldview orientation of philosophy changes, its interest is increasingly focused on the life of an individual.

Skeptics justify the principles of their philosophy only by a critical analysis of sensations, emotions, concepts, judgments, conclusions, evidence, various philosophical and scientific theories. All the attention of skeptics, all their research is focused on the consideration of the phenomena of our consciousness.

Antique skeptics, refuting the dogmas of other schools, strove not to express their own judgments, they argued that theoretical constructions on absolute truth are unjustified, and the truth of all knowledge of antiquity is only probable and relative. Obviously, these ideas are worthy of the attention of philosophers of all times. Ancient skepticism, with its exploratory, searching aspiration and disappointment in the results, invites the knower to be imperturbable, to refrain from judgments about truth, theory, to follow experience, customs, common sense and prudence.

Today there is an increasing number of people to whom the word "skeptic" can be applied. The immorality of society, crime, the growth of epidemics, wars, the economic crisis, the neglect of spiritual values encourage many to take the path of skepticism. These people believe that in this way they protect themselves from uncomfortable and unsightly reality. The ancient Greeks also suffered from similar questions, one of the famous philosophical schools of which was called" skeptics" .

Literature

1. Zeller E. "Essay on the history of Greek philosophy". - M., 1996

2. Pereverzentsev S.V. "Workshop on the history of Western European philosophy (Antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance)". - M., 1997

3. Asmus V.F. "Ancient Philosophy". - M., 1998

4. Gaidenko P.P. "History of Greek philosophy in its connection with science". - M., 2000

5. Losev A.F. "History of Ancient Aesthetics". - M., 2000

6. V. M. Boguslavsky. "Skepticism in Philosophy". - M.: Nauka, 1990

7. Gusev D.A. "Ancient skepticism and the philosophy of science: a dialogue through two millennia". - St. Petersburg: Prometheus, 2015

8. Asmus V.F. "Ancient Philosophy". - M.: Higher school, 1996

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Skepticism of Pyrrho

The founder of ancient skepticism, Pyrrho (365-275 BC), considered the philosopher who strives for happiness. But happiness consists in equanimity and the absence of suffering. Whoever wants to achieve happiness, so understood, must answer three questions: What are things made of? How should one treat these things? What benefit will we get from this relationship with them? To the first question, according to Pyrrho, no answer can be obtained: every thing "is no more this than that." Therefore, nothing should be called either beautiful or ugly, neither just nor unjust. Any statement about any subject: can be opposed with equal force and with equal right to contradict it. Since no true statements are possible about any objects, Pyrrho calls the only attitude to things appropriate for a philosopher to abstinence (“Epoche”) from any judgments about them. But such abstaining from judgment is not perfect agnosticism; Unconditionally Reliable, according to Pyrrho, sensory perceptions or impressions and judgments like "It seems to me bitter or sweet" will be true. A fallacy arises only where the person making the judgment tries to move from what appears to be to what exists "in truth", that is, starting from the phenomenon, he concludes about its true basis (essence): only the one who claims that this thing is not only seems to him bitter (sweet), but that she is in truth what she seems to be. The answer to the second question of philosophy is determined, according to Pyrrho, and the answer to its third question is determined by the result, or benefit, from the obligatory abstinence for the skeptic from any judgments about the true nature of things, equanimity follows, serenity, which skepticism sees as the highest goal of happiness accessible to the philosopher. However, refraining from dogmatic judgments does not at all mean the complete practical inactivity of the philosopher: whoever lives must act, and the philosopher, just like everyone else. But the skeptical philosopher differs from all people in that he does not attach to the way of thinking and actions (which he, like all people, learned from customs and mores), the meanings of unconditionally true.

Philosophy of Epicurus

Epicurus (342--271 BC), who created the materialistic doctrine (later named after him), also understood under philosophy an activity that allows people through reflection and research to achieve a serene life free from suffering: “Let no one in youth does not postpone philosophy, and in old age does not get tired of doing philosophy ... Whoever says that the time has not yet come or has passed for philosophy, he is like the one who says that there is either not yet, or there is no time for happiness. The main section (“part”) of philosophy, therefore, is ethics, which is preceded by physics (according to Epicurus, it reveals its natural beginnings and their connections in the world, thereby freeing the soul from faith in divine forces, in rock or fate gravitating over a person), and it, in turn, is preceded by the third "part" of philosophy - the canon (knowledge is the criterion of truth and the rules of its cognition). Ultimately, Epicurus concludes that sensory perceptions and general representations based on them serve as the criteria for knowledge; in epistemology, this orientation is called sensationalism (from Latin sensus feelings).

The physical picture of the world, according to Epicurus, is as follows. The universe consists of bodies and space, "that is, the void." Bodies represent either compounds of bodies, or that from which compounds are formed, and these are indivisible, inseparable dense bodies - atoms; which differ not only, as in Democritus, in shape and size, but also in weight. Atoms are always moving at the same speed for all and, unlike the views of Democritus, can spontaneously deviate from the trajectory of what is happening due to the need for rectilinear motion. Epicurus introduces the hypothesis of self-rejection of atoms to explain collisions between atoms and interprets this as a minimum of freedom, which must be assumed in the elements of the microworld - in atoms, in order to explain the possibility of freedom in human life.

Summary: Skepticism as a direction of ancient philosophy. D. A. GusevAncient skepticism and the philosophy of science: a dialogue through two millennia Philosophy of ancient skepticism periods of development

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