MTS in the liver after removal of colorectal cancer. Tactics of managing a patient with metastatic colorectal cancer with isolated liver metastases. Symptoms of cancer with metastases
Any sensation is caused by one or another stimulus, which can be acting from the outside - color, sound, smell, taste; from within - hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation; simultaneously from the outside and from the inside - pain.
According to the nature of the action of the stimulus on the receptors, sensations are divided into three groups: exteroceptive, interoreceptive and proprioceptive.
1 . Exteroceptive sensations. Reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment. These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. visual sensations arise as a result of the action of electromagnetic waves on the human eye. With their help, people are able to distinguish up to 180 tones of color and more than 10,000 shades in between. Auditory Feel
represent a reflection in the mind of a person of the noise emitted by the objects surrounding him. With their help, he perceives the speech of other people, controls many types of work, enjoys music, etc. Olfactory sensations are a reflection of the smells that are inherent in certain objects. They help a person to distinguish between volatile substances and odors common in the air. Flavoring sensations reflect the taste properties of objects: sweet and bitter, salty and sour, etc. They determine the qualitative features of the food taken by a person and are highly dependent on the feeling of hunger. Temperature sensations are sensations of heat and cold. Tactile sensations reflect the impact on the surface of the body, including the external and internal mucous membranes. They, together with musculoskeletal, constitute touch, with the help of which a person determines the qualitative features of objects - their smoothness, roughness, density, as well as the touch of the object to the body, the location and size of the irritated area of the skin.
2 . Interoreceptive sensations. Reflect the state of internal organs. These include the sensation of pain, balance, acceleration, etc. pain sensations signal damage and irritation of human organs, are a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body. The intensity of pain sensations can be different, reaching in some cases great strength, which can even lead to a state of shock. Feel equilibrium ensure the vertical position of the human body. They arise as a result of the functional activity of the vestibular analyzer. Feel acceleration- these are sensations that reflect the centrifugal and centripetal forces developing during the movement of a person.
3. Proprioceptive (muscle-motor) sensations . These are sensations that reflect the movement of our body. With the help of muscle-motor sensations, a person receives information: about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, etc. Musculoskeletal sensations are complex. Simultaneous stimulation of receptors of different quality gives sensations of a peculiar quality: irritation of the receptor endings in the muscles creates a feeling of muscle tone when performing a movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of the receptors of the articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movement.
These sensations are of primary importance in the perception of the movements of one's own body. They represent a complex complex, which includes: a) proper muscle sensations; b) sensations caused by irritation of tendon receptors; c) sensations caused by irritation of receptors located in the articular surfaces. The significance of these three types of sensations in the perception of movements is different.
Muscle sensations signal muscle tone in connection with the metabolic processes occurring in them. Depending on the nature of these sensations during movement, we perceive it as energetic or sluggish, as performed with greater or lesser difficulty.
Sensations emanating from receptors located in the tendons are sources of sensations of tension when we move something, lift, pull, etc., and sensations of effort, when we, while remaining motionless, support some kind of weight.
Articular sensations emanating from receptors located in the joints (these receptors are concentrated mainly on the side of the fold of the articular bag) signal the position and movement of the organ in space.
As a result of the combined action of all three types of sensations listed above, we perceive both the movements we make and the various positions of our limbs, as well as the resistance and heaviness of objects. At the same time, the perceptions of the movement and position of our body in space are based on articular sensations and cannot come only from the muscles, which is proved by the fact that movements of the same size and tension can be performed at various degrees of tendon and muscle tension. This is also evidenced by the fact that we equally well perceive the direction, size and speed of both passive and active movements.
tactile sensations
A distinctive feature of tactile sensations in comparison with muscular ones is their pronounced objective character.
There are the following three groups of tactile sensations:
1. Tactile sensations caused by a soft, rough, weak or sharp touch to one point of our body.
2. Tactile sensations, the distinguishing feature of which is the pressure experienced from the multiplicity of touch points. The cognitive significance of these sensations is very great, since with the help of them we get acquainted with such properties of objects acting on us from the outside, such as the features of their surface, the density of matter, etc.
3. Tactile sensations when performing actions with objects. These include sensations of hardness or softness, elasticity, smoothness or roughness of objects with which we act, the pressure exerted by them, resistance, their heaviness - in a word, such tactile sensations that arise in connection with active *) movement and the cost of their accomplishment of a certain muscular energy.
With the help of tactile and muscular-motor sensations in their totality, we perceive and imagine spatial connections and relationships, various shapes of objects, their size, weight, hardness or softness of the surface of objects.
Tactile sensations are the regulator of the movements of the arms, legs, torso, etc. Tactile sensations constantly protect us from mistakes in performing various movements. Without the help of touch, we would often stumble and fall, pick up the wrong objects, etc. Such musculo-motor acts as walking, grasping objects, holding them in hands cannot be learned without the help of touch. , since the tactile sensations are of great controlling importance in all movements. P.F. also spoke about this. Lesgaft, arguing that the sensation of movement of some part of the body becomes more definite through a comparison of tactile sensations received from fixed and moving parts of the body.
Sensitivity is one of the phylogenetically ancient functions of the nervous system. In the process of evolution, it arose as a means of adequate contact of the organism with the environment, as the basis of the feedback mechanism. The sense organs provide the perception of stimuli, the conduction and processing of information that comes from the environment, all organs and tissues of the body. Signal processing is carried out with the help of various nerve formations. Part of the information that is perceived by our senses is transformed into a sensation, an awareness of the really existing external world. Another part of the nerve impulses, which for the most part come from normally functioning internal organs, although they are perceived by the brain, are not recognized by a person by a certain time. All perceptions of the influence of the environment and the internal environment in physiology are commonly referred to as the term "reception".
Sensitivity is part of the broad concept of reception; sensitivity includes only that part of the reception that is perceived by the receptors and is realized by the cortex.
All nervous elements that provide the perception, conduction and processing of information belong to sensory systems (from Latin sensus - sensation) or to the system of analyzers according to I.P. Pavlov. They perceive and process stimuli of different modality.
The analyzer is a functional system, which includes receptors, afferent pathways and the corresponding area of the cerebral cortex.
The cortical end of the analyzer is the primary projection zones of the cortex, for which the characteristic somatotopic principle of structure is characteristic. The analyzer provides perception, conduction and processing of the same type of nerve impulses.
Analyzers are divided into two subgroups: external, or exteroceptive, and internal, or interoceptive.
External analyzers analyze information about the state and changes that occur in the environment. These include visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and analyzer of superficial types of sensitivity. Internal analyzers process information about changes in the internal environment of the body, for example, the state of the cardiovascular system, alimentary canal and other organs. The internal analyzers include a motor analyzer, thanks to which the brain constantly receives signals about the state of the muscular-articular apparatus. It plays an important role in the mechanisms of regulation of movements.
Receptors are specialized peripheral sensory formations that can perceive any changes inside the body, as well as on the outer surface of the body, and transmit these irritations in the form of nerve impulses. In other words, receptors are capable of converting one form of energy into another without twisting the information content. Irritants of the environment or internal environment, transforming into a nervous process, enter the brain in the form of nerve impulses.
According to the location, as well as depending on the functional characteristics, the receptors are divided into extero-, proprio- and interoreceptors.
Exteroreceptors are divided into contact receptors, which perceive irritations during direct contact with it (pain, temperature, tactile, etc.), and distant receptors, which perceive irritations from distant sources (sound, light).
Proprioreceptors perceive irritation that occurs in deep tissues (muscles, periosteum, tendons, ligaments, articular surfaces) and carry information about muscle tone, the position of the body and its parts in space, and the volume of voluntary movements. This determined the name "muscle-articular feeling", or "sense of position and movement (kinesthetic sensation)". Proprioreceptors also include labyrinth receptors, which provide the body with information regarding the position and movements of the head.
Interoreceptors perceive a variety of irritations from internal organs and blood vessels. Their main role is to ensure that information about changes in the internal state of the body enters the central nervous system. Most interoreceptors are polymodal. They respond to chemical (chemoreceptors) and mechanical stimuli (baroreceptors), temperature changes (thermoreceptors), pain (nocireceptors) and are related to the autonomic (vegetative) nervous system.
Each type of receptor reacts only to its specific type of stimulation. Due to this specialization of receptors, a primary analysis of external stimuli is carried out at the level of peripheral endings of afferent nerve fibers.
The greatest number of receptors is localized in the skin. There are mechanoreceptors (react to touch, pressure), thermoreceptors (perceive cold, heat) and nocireceptors (perceive pain).
Skin receptors include free nerve endings of sensory nerves and encapsulated terminal formations. The simplest in structure are the free nerve endings of the dendrites of sensory neurons. They are located between the epidermal cells and perceive pain stimuli. The tactile bodies of Merkel and Meissner respond to touch. Pressure and vibration are perceived by Vater-Pacini lamellar bodies. Krause's flasks are cold receptors, and Ruffini's bodies are heat receptors.
Receptors are also located in deeper tissues: muscles, tendons, joints. The most important of the muscle receptors are the neuromuscular spindles. They respond to passive stretching of the muscles and are responsible for the implementation of the stretch reflex, or myotatic reflex. There are Golgi receptors in the tendons, which also respond to stretch, but their sensitivity threshold is higher. Special receptors in the body that perceive pleasure are benereceptors.
The receptors of the visual and auditory analyzers, which are concentrated in the retina and in the inner ear, have the most complex structure. The complex morphological structure of these receptors affects their function: for example, retinal ganglion cells respond to electromagnetic radiation of a certain frequency spectrum, auditory - to mechanical vibrations of the air. However, this specificity is relative. The sensation of light occurs not only when a quantum of electromagnetic radiation enters the eye, but also in the case of mechanical irritation of the eye.
Thus, at the level of the receptor, the primary processing of information is carried out, which consists in recognizing the modality of the stimulus. This processing ends with the formation of nerve impulses, which, with a certain frequency, enter the higher parts of the central nervous system.
The impulses that arise in the receptor apparatus are carried to the nerve centers by sensitive fibers at different speeds. The German anatomist Gasser (J. Gasseri, 18th century) divided sensory fibers into three groups depending on structural and functional features: covered with a thick layer of myelin, thin and non-myelinated. The speed of nerve impulse conduction by these three groups of fibers is not the same. Fibers with a thick myelin sheath, or group A fibers, conduct an impulse at a speed of 40-60 m per 1 s; fibers with a thin myelin sheath, or group B fibers, at a speed of 10-15 m per 1 s; unmyelinated, or C-fibers, - at a speed of 0.5-1.5 m per 1 s.
Group A fibers with a high speed of impulse conduction are conductors of tactile and deep sensitivity.
Group B fibers with an average speed of impulse conduction are conductors of localized pain and tactile sensitivity.
Group C fibers, which slowly conduct impulses, are conductors of pain sensitivity, predominantly diffuse, non-localized.
sensitivity classification. There are general (simple) and complex sensitivity. General sensitivity, taking into account the localization of receptors, is divided into exteroceptive, or superficial (skin and mucous membranes), proprioceptive, or deep (muscles, connections, joints), and interoceptive (internal organs).
To exteroceptive, or superficial, sensitivity include pain, temperature (heat and cold) and tactile. Proprioceptive sensitivity includes the sensation of passive and active movements (muscle-articular sensation), vibrational sensation, pressure and mass sensation, kinesthetic sensation - determination of the direction of movement of the skin fold. General, or simple, sensitivity is directly related to the function of individual receptors, analyzers.
Complex types of sensitivity are due to the combined activity of different types of receptors and cortical sections of analyzers: a sense of localization of the injection, with the help of which the location of the applied irritation is determined; stereognosis - the ability to recognize objects by touching them; two-dimensional-spatial sensation - the patient recognizes, with his eyes closed, which figure, number or letter is written on the skin; discrimination - the ability to perceive separately two simultaneously applied irritations at close range. Complex types of sensitivity do not have separate analyzers, they are carried out by general types of sensitivity.
Interoceptive is called sensitivity, which occurs in case of irritation of the internal organs, the walls of blood vessels. As already noted, under normal conditions, impulses from the internal organs are practically not realized. During the irrigation of the interoreceptors, pain of varying intensity and a feeling of discomfort occur.
Sensory systems in the process of evolution experience an improvement that predetermines the emergence of a special sensation: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch.
In the clinic, another classification has become widespread, which is based on biogenetic data. In accordance with these ideas and, distinguish between protopathic and epicritical sensitivity.
Protopathic sensitivity is phylogenetically older. It serves to perceive and conduct strong nociceptive stimuli that can cause tissue destruction or threaten the life of the organism. These irritations are mostly non-localized and cause a general generalized reaction. The center of protopathic sensitivity is the thalamus. Therefore, this system also has the name of vital, nociceptive, thalamic, unmitigated feeling.
Epicritical sensitivity is a phylogenetically new kind of sensitivity. It provides a fine quantitative and qualitative differentiation of stimuli, their localization, which allows the body to accurately navigate in the environment, to adequately respond to irritation. Epicritical sensitivity is caused by sensations that arise in the cerebral cortex. It is in it that subjective sensations of pain are formed. Therefore, this system of sensitivity is called epicritical, cortical, gnostic, it is able to soften the sensation of pain.
Feel - the simplest mental process, consisting in the reflection of individual properties of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the corresponding receptors
Receptors - These are sensitive nerve formations that perceive the impact of the external or internal environment and encode it in the form of a set of electrical signals. These signals are then sent to the brain, which decodes them. This process accompanies the emergence of the simplest mental phenomena - sensations.
Some human receptors are combined into more complex formations - sense organs. A person has an organ of vision - the eye, an organ of hearing - the ear, an organ of balance - the vestibular apparatus, an organ of smell - the nose, an organ of taste - the tongue. At the same time, some receptors do not combine into one organ, but are scattered over the surface of the entire body. These are receptors for temperature, pain and tactile sensitivity. A large number of receptors are located inside the body: receptors for pressure, chemical sensations, etc. For example, receptors that are sensitive to the content of glucose in the blood provide a feeling of hunger. Receptors and sense organs are the only channels through which the brain can receive information for further processing.
All receptors can be divided into distant that can perceive irritation at a distance (visual, auditory, olfactory) and contact (gustatory, tactile, painful).
Analyzer - the material basis of sensations
Feelings are a product of activity analyzers person. An analyzer is an interconnected complex of nerve formations that receives signals, transforms them, adjusts the receptor apparatus, transmits information to the nerve centers, processes and decrypts it. I.P. Pavlov believed that the analyzer consists of three elements: sense organ ,pathway and cortical department . According to modern concepts, the analyzer includes at least five sections: receptor, conduction, tuning unit, filtration unit and analysis unit. Since the conductor section is essentially just an electrical cable that conducts electrical impulses, the four sections of the analyzer play the most important role. The feedback system allows you to make adjustments to the work of the receptor section when external conditions change (for example, fine-tuning the analyzer with different impact forces).
Thresholds of sensation
In psychology, there are several concepts of the threshold of sensitivity.
Lower absolute threshold of sensitivity defined as the smallest stimulus force that can cause a sensation.
Human receptors are distinguished by a very high sensitivity to an adequate stimulus. So, for example, the lower visual threshold is only 2-4 quantums of light, and the olfactory one is equal to 6 molecules of an odorous substance.
Stimuli that have a strength less than the threshold do not cause sensations. They're called subthreshold and are not realized, however, they can penetrate into the subconscious, determining human behavior, and also forming the basis of its dreams, intuitions, unconscious desires. Psychological research shows that the human subconscious can respond to very weak or very short stimuli that are not perceived by consciousness.
Upper absolute threshold of sensitivity changes the very nature of sensations (most often - to pain). For example, with a gradual increase in water temperature, a person begins to perceive not heat, but already pain. The same thing happens with a strong sound and or pressure on the skin.
Relative threshold (discrimination threshold) is the minimum change in the intensity of the stimulus that causes changes in sensations. According to the Bouguer-Weber law, the relative threshold of sensations is constant, if measured as a percentage of the initial value of irritation.
Bouguer-Weber law: “The discrimination threshold for each analyzer has
constant relative value":
DI/I = const, where I is the strength of the stimulus
Classification of sensations
1. Exteroceptive sensations reflect the properties of objects and phenomena of the external environment (“five senses”). These include visual, auditory, taste, temperature and tactile sensations. In fact, there are more than five receptors that provide these sensations, and the so-called "sixth sense" has nothing to do with it. For example, visual sensations arise when excited sticks(“twilight, black and white vision”) and cones("daylight, color vision"). Temperature sensations in a person occur with separate excitation cold and heat receptors. Tactile sensations reflect the impact on the surface of the body, and they occur when excited or sensitive touch receptors in the upper layer of the skin, or with a stronger effect on pressure receptors in the deep layers of the skin.
2. Interoreceptive sensations reflect the state of internal organs. These include the feeling of pain, hunger, thirst, nausea, suffocation, etc. Pain signals damage and irritation of human organs, is a kind of manifestation of the protective functions of the body. The intensity of pain sensations can be different, reaching in some cases great strength, which can even lead to a state of shock.
3. proprioceptive sensations (musculoskeletal). These are sensations that reflect the position and movement of our body. With the help of muscle-motor sensations, a person receives information about the position of the body in space, about the relative position of all its parts, about the movement of the body and its parts, about contraction, stretching and relaxation of muscles, the state of joints and ligaments, etc. are of a complex nature. Simultaneous stimulation of receptors of different quality gives sensations of a peculiar quality: irritation of the receptor endings in the muscles creates a feeling of muscle tone when performing a movement; sensations of muscle tension and effort are associated with irritation of the nerve endings of the tendons; irritation of the receptors of the articular surfaces gives a sense of direction, shape and speed of movement. To the same group of sensations, many authors include the sensations of balance and acceleration, which arise as a result of excitation of the receptors of the vestibular analyzer.
Properties of sensations
Feelings have certain properties:
adaptation,
the contrast,
sensation thresholds,
sensitization,
consecutive images.
Imagination- this is a process of creative transformation of ideas that reflect reality, and the creation on this basis of new ideas that were previously absent. In addition to this, there are other definitions of imagination. For example, it can be designated as the ability to represent an object that is absent (at the moment or in general in reality), hold it in consciousness and mentally manipulate it. Sometimes the term “fantasy” is used as a synonym, which refers to both the process of creating something new and the end product of this process. Therefore, in psychology, the term “imagination” is adopted, denoting only the procedural side of this phenomenon. Imagination differs from perception in two ways: - the source of emerging images is not the external world, but memory; - it corresponds less to reality, as it always contains an element of fantasy. Imagination Functions: 1 Representation of reality in images, which makes it possible to use them by performing operations with imaginary objects. 2 Formation of an internal action plan (creating an image of the goal and finding ways to achieve it) in the face of uncertainty. 3 Participation in the arbitrary regulation of cognitive processes (management of memories). 4 Regulation of emotional states (in auto-training, visualization, neuro-linguistic programming, etc.). 5 The basis for creativity - both artistic (literature, painting, sculpture) and technical (invention) 6 Creating images that match the description of the object (when a person tries to imagine something that he heard or read about). 7 Production of images that do not program, but replace activity (pleasant dreams that replace boring reality). Types of imagination: Depending on the principle underlying the classification, different types of imagination can be distinguished (Fig. 10.1): 
Imagination classification Characteristics of certain types of imagination Active imagination (intentional) - the creation by a person of his own free will of new images or ideas, accompanied by certain efforts (the poet is looking for a new artistic image to describe nature, the inventor sets the goal of creating a new technical device, etc.). Passive imagination (unintentional) - in this case, a person does not set himself the goal of transforming reality, but images spontaneously arise on their own (this type of mental phenomena includes a wide range of phenomena, ranging from dreams to an idea that suddenly and unplanned arose in the mind of the inventor). Productive (creative) imagination - the creation of fundamentally new ideas that do not have a direct sample, when reality is creatively transformed in a new way, and not just mechanically copied or recreated. Reproductive (recreating) imagination is the creation of an image of objects or phenomena according to their description, when reality is reproduced from memory in the form that it is. Characteristics of certain types of imaginations:
dreams can be attributed to the category of passive and involuntary forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, they can be either reproductive or productive. Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov called dreams "an unprecedented combination of experienced impressions", and modern science believes that they reflect the process of transferring information from operational to long-term memory. Another point of view is that in a person's dreams many vital needs are expressed and satisfied, which, for a number of reasons, cannot be realized in real life.
Hallucination- passive and involuntary forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, they are most often productive. Hallucinations are called fantastic visions that do not have a clear connection with the reality surrounding a person. Usually hallucinations are the result of some kind of mental disorder or exposure to drugs or drugs on the brain.
dreams unlike hallucinations, they are a completely normal mental state, which is a fantasy associated with a desire, most often a somewhat idealized future. This is a passive and productive type of imagination.
Dream differs from a dream in that it is more realistic and more feasible. Dreams belong to the type of active forms of imagination. According to the degree of transformation of reality, dreams are most often productive. Features of a dream: - When dreaming, a person always creates an image of what he wants. - It is not included directly in human activity and does not immediately give practical results. - The dream is directed to the future, while some other forms of imagination work with the past. - The images that a person creates in his dreams are distinguished by emotional richness, vivid character, and at the same time - a lack of understanding of specific ways to make dreams come true. Dreams and dreams of a person take up quite a large part of the time, especially in youth. For most people, dreams are pleasant thoughts about the future. Some also have disturbing visions that give rise to feelings of anxiety, guilt, aggressiveness. Mechanisms for processing representations into imaginary images. The creation of images of the imagination is carried out using several methods: Agglutination- “folding”, “gluing” various parts that are not connected in everyday life. An example is the classic character of fairy tales - the centaur, the Serpent-Gorynych, etc.
hyperbole- a significant increase or decrease in an object or its individual parts, which leads to qualitatively new properties. The following fairy-tale and literary characters can serve as an example: the giant Homeric Cyclops, Gulliver, Boy-with-Thumb. accentuation- highlighting a characteristic detail in the created image (friendly cartoon, caricature).
2.Perception - a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.
Perception is always a set of sensations, and sensation is an integral part of perception. However, perception is not a simple sum of sensations received from one or another object, but a qualitatively and quantitatively new stage of sensory cognition.
Scheme of the formation of mental images during perception:
Physiological basis of perception is the coordinated activity of several analyzers, proceeding with the participation of the associative sections of the cerebral cortex and speech centers.
In the process of perception, perceptual images , with which attention, memory and thinking operate in the future. The image is the subjective form of the object; it is a product of the inner world of a given person.
For example, the perception of an apple is made up of the visual sensation of a green circle, the tactile sensation of a smooth, hard, and cool surface, and the olfactory sensation of a characteristic apple smell. Added together, these three sensations will give us the ability to perceive the whole object - an apple.
Perception must be distinguished from representations, that is, the mental creation of images of objects and phenomena that once affected the body, but are absent at the moment.
In the process of image formation, it is affected by attitudes, interests, needs, and motives personality. So the image that arises at the sight of the same dog will be different for a casual passerby, an amateur dog breeder and a person who has recently been bitten by some kind of dog. Their perceptions will differ in completeness and emotionality. A huge role in perception is played by a person's desire to perceive this or that object, the activity of his perception.
Perceptual Properties
Human perceptions differ from sensations in a number of specific properties. The main properties of perception are:
The constancy
integrity.
The selectivity
objectivity,
apperception,
· meaningfulness,
Types of perception
There are three main classifications of perception processes - according to the form of existence of matter, according to the leading modality and according to the degree of volitional control.
According to the first classification , there are three types of perception
Perception of space- this is the perception of the distance to or between objects, their relative position, their volume, remoteness and the direction in which they are located.
Movement perception- this is a reflection in time of changes in the position of objects or the observer himself in space.
Perception of time- the least studied area of psychology. So far, it is only known that the assessment of the duration of a time interval depends on what events (from the point of view of a particular person) it was filled with. If time was filled with many interesting events, then time passes quickly, and if there were few significant events, then time drags on slowly. When remembering, the opposite phenomenon takes place - a period of time filled with interesting things seems to us longer than “empty”. The material basis of human time perception is the so-called "cellular clock" - a fixed duration of some biological processes at the levels of individual cells, according to which the body compares the duration of large periods of time.
Second classification of perception (according to the leading modality) includes visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile perception, as well as the perception of one's body in space.
In accordance with this classification in neuro-linguistic programming (one of the areas of modern psychology), all people are usually divided into visual, auditory and kinesthetic. For visuals, the visual type of perception predominates, for auditory - auditory, and for kinesthetics - tactile, gustatory and temperature.
3. Memory - the ability (of a living system) to record the fact of interaction with the environment, store the result of this interaction in the form of experience and use it in behavior.
memory is a complex mental process, consisting of several private processes associated with each other. Memory is necessary for a person. It allows him to accumulate, save and subsequently use personal life experience. Human memory is not just some single function. It involves many different processes. There are three completely different types of memory: 1) as a "direct imprint" of sensory information; 2) short-term memory; 3) long-term memory.
Direct imprint of sensory information . This system holds a fairly accurate and complete picture of the world, perceived by the senses. The duration of saving the picture is very short - 0.1-0.5 s. Close your eyes, then open them for a moment and close them again. Watch how the sharp, clear picture you see lasts for a while, and then slowly disappears.
short term memory holds material of a different type. In this case, the retained information is not a complete reflection of the events that occurred at the sensory level, but a direct interpretation of these events. For example, if a phrase was uttered in front of you, you will remember not so much the sounds that make it up as the words. Usually only 5-6 words are remembered. By making a conscious effort to repeat the material over and over again, you can keep it in short-term memory for an indefinitely long time. Direct sensory memory imprints cannot be repeated, they last only a few tenths of a second and there is no way to extend them.
long term memory . There is a clear and compelling difference between the memory of an event that has just happened and the events of a distant past. Long-term memory is the most important and most complex of the memory systems. The capacity of the first named memory systems is very limited: the first consists of a few tenths of a second, the second - several units of storage. The capacity of long-term memory is practically unlimited. Anything that is retained for more than a few minutes must be in the long-term memory system. The main source of difficulties associated with long-term memory is the problem of information retrieval.
AT memory there are three processes: memorization(entering information into memory), preservation(hold) and reproduction. These processes are interrelated. The organization of memorization affects retention. The quality of the save determines the playback.
The memorization process can proceed as an instant imprint - imprinting. The state of imprinting in a person occurs at a time of high emotional stress. Its connection with the periods of sensitive development of mental functions is probable. With repeated repetition of the same stimulus, it is imprinted without a conscious attitude to it. The intention to keep the material in memory characterizes random memory.
The organized repetition of material in order to memorize it is called memorization. A significant increase in the ability to memorize falls at the age of 8 to 10 years and especially increases from 11 to 13 years. From the age of 13 there is a relative decrease in the rate of memory development. New growth begins at age 16. At the age of 20-25, the memory of a person engaged in mental work reaches the highest level.
According to the mechanism, they are isolated logical and mechanical memorization. As a result - verbatim and semantic.
By itself, the focus on memorization does not give the desired effect. Its absence can be compensated for by high forms of intellectual activity, even if this activity in itself was not aimed at memorization. And only the combination of these two components creates a solid foundation for the most successful memorization, makes memorization productive.
What is best remembered is what arises as an obstacle, difficulty in activity. The memorization of material given in finished form is carried out with less success than the memorization of material found independently in the course of vigorous activity. What is remembered, even if involuntarily, but in the process of active intellectual activity, is retained in memory more firmly than what is remembered arbitrarily.
The result of memorization is higher when relying on visual, figurative material. However, the productivity of memorization when relying on words increases with age than when relying on pictures. Therefore, the difference in the use of these and other supports decreases with age. With independent inventing, verbal supports become a more effective means of memorization than ready-made pictures.
In a broad sense, the support of remembering can be everything with which we associate what we remember or what itself "emerges" in us as connected with it. The semantic support is a certain point, i.e. something short, concise, serving as a support for some broader content that replaces it with itself. The most detailed form of semantic strong points are abstracts, as a brief expression of the main idea of each section. Most often, section headings serve as a reference point.
The material is remembered better and forgotten less in those cases when the strong points were highlighted in the process of memorization. The strength of a strong point depends on how deeply and thoroughly we comprehend the content of the section thanks to it. The semantic strong point is the strong point of understanding. For us, it is not the strong points that are most important, but the semantic activity that is necessary for highlighting.
4. Thinking - this is the highest form of human cognitive activity, a socially conditioned mental process of mediated and generalized reflection of reality, the process of searching for and discovering something essentially new.
The main features of the thinking process are:
Generalized and indirect reflection of reality.
Communication with practical activities.
Inseparable connection with speech.
The presence of a problem situation and the absence of a ready-made answer.
Generalized reflection reality means that in the process of thinking we turn to that common thing that unites a similar series of objects and phenomena. For example, when we talk about furniture, we mean tables, chairs, sofas, armchairs, cabinets, etc. by this word.
indirect reflection Reality can be seen in the example of the arithmetic problem of adding several apples or determining the speed of two trains moving towards each other. "Apples", "trains" are only symbols, conditional images, behind which there should not be specific fruits or compositions at all.
Thinking arises from practical activities, from sensory knowledge, but goes far beyond its limits. In turn, the correctness of thinking is tested in the course of practice.
Thinking is inextricably linked to speech. Thinking operates with concepts, which in their form are words, but, in essence, are the result of mental operations. In turn, as a result of thinking, verbal concepts can be refined.
Thinking takes place only when there is problem situation. If the old methods of action can be dispensed with, then thinking is not required.
1.2 Qualitative characteristics of thinking
Thinking, like other human cognitive processes, has a number of specific qualities. These qualities are present to varying degrees in different people, and to varying degrees are important in solving various problem situations. Some of these qualities are more significant in solving theoretical problems, some - in solving practical issues.
Examples of qualities (properties) of thinking:
Quickness of thinking - the ability to find the right solutions in the face of time pressure
Flexibility of thinking - the ability to change the planned action plan, when the situation changes or the criteria for the right decision change
Depth of thinking - the degree of penetration into the essence of the phenomenon under study, the ability to identify significant logical connections between the components of the problem
1.3 Thinking and intelligence
Intelligence- a set of human mental abilities that ensure the success of his cognitive activity.
In a broad sense, this term is understood as the totality of all cognitive functions of an individual (perception, memory, imagination, thinking), and in a narrow sense - his mental abilities.
In psychology, there is a concept intelligence structures However, the understanding of this structure varies widely depending on the views of a particular psychologist. For example, the famous scientist R. Cattell singled out two sides in the structure of intelligence: dynamic, or fluid ( "fluid"), and static or crystallized ( “crystallized”). According to his concept, fluid intelligence manifests itself in tasks, the solution of which requires quick and flexible adaptation to a new situation. It depends more on the genotype of the person. Crystallized intelligence is more dependent on the social environment, and manifests itself in solving problems that require appropriate skills and experience.
You can use other models of the structure of intelligence, for example, highlighting the following components in it:
· Ability to learn (rapid mastering of new knowledge, skills and abilities);
· Ability to successfully operate with abstract symbols and concepts;
· Ability to solve practical problems and problem situations.
· The amount of available long-term and random access memory.
Accordingly, intelligence tests include several groups of tasks. These are tests that reveal the amount of knowledge in a certain area, tests that evaluate the intellectual development of a person in connection with his biological age, tests that determine a person’s ability to solve problem situations and intellectual tasks. In addition, there are special tests for intelligence, for example, for abstract-logical or spatial thinking, for verbal intelligence, etc. The most famous intelligence tests include:
Stanford-Binet test: evaluates the intellectual development of the child.
Wechsler test: evaluates the verbal and non-verbal components of intelligence.
Raven test: non-verbal intelligence.
Eysenck test (IQ)-determines the general level of intelligence development
In the study of intelligence in psychology, there are two approaches: intellectual abilities are innate or intellectual abilities develop in the process of individual development, as well as their intermediate version.
