General and special methods of clinical research. Study of the respiratory organs of animals

The purpose of the lesson. To master the general methods of studying animals: examination, palpation, percussion, auscultation; master the technique of thermometry; familiarize yourself with special research methods.

Research objects and equipment. Horses, cows, dogs.

Percussion hammers, plessimeters, phonendoscopes, stethoscopes, sheets or towels for auscultation, thermometers.

Common methods of clinical examination include inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation, and thermometry. Mastering these research methods is one of the main conditions that allow a specialist to identify pathology. In most cases, to clarify the diagnosis, along with general methods, it is additionally necessary to apply special research methods: instrumental and laboratory methods.

Inspection (from lat. inspection- examination, inspection). This is the simplest and most affordable method of studying an animal. Inspection is preferably carried out in natural light (daylight) or in good artificial light. Inspection can be performed with the naked eye or with the use of special instruments. The animal is first subjected to a general and then a local examination. General inspection. It involves an examination of the entire body of the animal, regardless of the possible localization of the disease process. At the same time, it is possible to draw conclusions about the position of the body in space, fatness, physique, the condition of the skin and hair, superficially located lesions, discharge from natural openings, the condition of the eyes, identify excitation, depression or other signs characteristic of dysfunctions of organs and systems of the body.

Local inspection. This is an examination of the injuries or parts of the body found during a general examination of the animal, where the disease process is mainly localized.

Local examination can be divided into external, when the outer integuments of the animal's body are examined, and internal, when areas located not on the surface of the body, but in depth, such as the cavity of the larynx, pharynx, etc., are subject to examination.

In the study, various instruments can be used, including those equipped with light sources. With the use of instruments, the following can be examined: oral and nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, vagina, rectum, bladder, etc.

Palpation (from lat. .palpatio- feeling). The method in which groping is applied, i.e. based on the sense of touch. The method of palpation allows you to determine the physical condition of the organs and tissues of the body.

Palpation is carried out with fingertips (pads), without causing pain to the animal. In some cases, palpation can be performed with a fist, hand, back of the hand.

Palpation is divided into superficial and deep.

Superficial palpation is performed by placing the palm or fingertips on the study site, by gently pressing and sliding over the area under study. This method allows you to examine the skin, subcutaneous tissue, lymph nodes, superficial vessels, tendons, muscles, joints, etc. Palpation can determine the local temperature, soreness, configuration and size of the formation, consistency, nature of the surface, etc.

Palpation should always begin with a healthy area of ​​the body, gradually moving to the affected area. The movements of the fingers or palms should be smooth, soft, not causing additional pain to the animal.

Deep palpation is a method by which deeply located organs and foci are examined. Varieties of deep palpation include: penetrating; bimanual; jerky (balloting).

When conducting penetrating palpation with a fist or vertically placed fingers, a gradual but strong pressure is applied through the abdominal wall, reaching the organ under study and determining its physical condition. In this way, the scar, abomasum is examined.

Bimanual palpation(palpation with two hands) is performed on the stomach of small animals. The method consists in simultaneous, gradual pressure with both hands on both sides of the abdominal wall. Research is carried out while standing behind the animal. Bimanual palpation is also used in the study of the pharynx, especially in large animals.

If you suspect the presence of fluid, neoplasms or an enlarged organ in the abdominal cavity, apply jerky (balloting) palpation. With jerky palpation, studies are carried out with jerky movements of the fingers or fist. The palpation technique is as follows: they bring the fingers or fist to the wall of the abdominal cavity and perform a push, while at the end of the push the hand is not taken away from the abdominal wall (this is especially important if ascites is suspected), in the presence of a neoplasm or an enlarged organ, the hand immediately encounters this organ or neoplasm, and in the presence of fluid, a push through the abdominal wall is not felt immediately, but after some time (the return of the fluid that recoiled during the push).

Deep internal palpation allows diagnosing the state of organs located in cavities far from the surface of the body (pharynx, organs of the pelvic and abdominal cavities).

The study of the organs of the pelvic and abdominal cavities through the wall of the rectum is called rectal examination. In large animals, rectal examination is carried out with a hand inserted into the rectum, while in small animals it is possible to examine, at best, the organs of the pelvic cavity, as it is performed with a finger.

Percussion (from lat. percussio- tapping). The method is based on the ability of each tissue or organ to give a characteristic sound during percussion. Depending on the physical state of the organ, this sound can change, and by the nature of the changed sound, one or another state of the organs and tissues of the body is judged.

Percussion is best done indoors, so as not to interfere with extraneous noise. Distinguish between direct and mediocre percussion.

Direct percussion consists in the fact that blows to the place of study are applied directly with a finger or hammer. The maxillary and frontal sinuses are subjected to direct percussion. In other areas of the body, direct percussion is ineffective, since the conditions for the appearance of sounds are negligible.

Direct percussion, carried out with a finger, is called digital, and performed with the help of a percussion hammer - instrumental.

With mediocre percussion, blows to the place of examination are not applied directly to the skin, but through a finger (digital) or a plessimeter (instrumental).

According to the method of striking, topographic and research percussion are distinguished. When, after a blow, a finger or a hammer is slightly delayed on a finger or a plessimeter, this method is called topographic and is used to determine the boundaries of an organ or pathological focus. Jerky percussion, without delay of the hammer or finger, is called staccato and is used to study an organ or focus.

Digital percussion is of particular value in the study of small animals (dogs, cats, small cattle, rabbits, birds, calves, foals, piglets, lean adult pigs). In the study of large animals, digital percussion is not very informative, but can be used in the absence of instruments (plessimeter and hammer).

Digital percussion is carried out by pressing the middle finger of one hand to the place of study and applying short paired blows perpendicular to it with the middle finger of the other hand.

With instrumental percussion, instruments are used - a plessimeter and a percussion hammer. They can be different in shape, mass and performance (Fig. 1.12).

Rice. 1.12. Instruments for percussion of animals of different species: a- percussion hammers; b- plessimeters

The hammer is taken with the thumb and forefinger, and the handle is pressed to the palm with the remaining fingers. The arm is bent at the wrist joint.

Plessimeters with a narrow working platform are most convenient to use, and the size of the malleus depends on the size of the animal. For the study of large animals, large hammers are preferable, for small animals - small ones.

When carrying out instrumental percussion, the plessimeter is pressed tightly against the skin at the place of study (for example, if it is the chest wall, then strictly in the intercostal spaces) and paired blows are applied to it with a percussion hammer with a small gap and always of the same strength. The blows must be directed perpendicular to the plessimeter. The plessimeter during percussion should be moved one step. In the study of small animals or animals of unsatisfactory fatness, the blows should be weaker. Percussion of the same strength is used when determining the boundaries of an organ or a pathological focus. However, it must be remembered that the percussion method can be used to examine the animal's organs to a depth of up to 7 cm from the body surface, i.e. more deeply located organs and their parts, as well as lesions are inaccessible to percussion examination.

When conducting percussion, the following conditions must be observed: silence, the ear of the researcher (doctor) must be at the same level with the place of percussion, the force of impact and pressure of the pessimeter throughout the percussion must be the same, the animal is recommended to be placed at a distance of no closer than 1 m to avoid resonating the sound from the wall.

Percussion determines the boundaries of the organ and focus, which makes it possible to establish their size, as well as to identify changes in the physical properties of organs.

Auscultation (from lat. auscultatio- listening). With the help of auscultation, you can listen to sounds that occur in the organs and cavities of the body of the animal.

Distinguish between direct auscultation, when one or another organ is heard with the ear without instruments, and mediocre, when the organ is used with instruments (phonendoscope, stethoscope, stethophonendoscope) (Fig. 1.13).

Rice. 1.13.

• 1 - pelota; 2 - head of a phonendoscope; 3 - pilot holder;
• 4 - flexible sound duct; 5 - headband; 6 - membrane; 7 - horn of a stethoscope; # - phonendoscope head cover

Direct auscultation is performed as follows: the ear is applied through a sheet or towel (hygienic accessory) to the surface of the animal's body in accordance with the topography of the organs that need to be heard. The advantage of the method is that it can be performed under any conditions; the sounds emitted by the organs are not distorted; allows you to pick up sounds from a relatively large surface of the body (although this possibility is in some cases a disadvantage, since it makes it difficult to accurately determine the source of the sound).

Direct auscultation has found wide application in veterinary practice, especially in the study of large and calm animals.

Mediocre auscultation is carried out using stethoscopes, phonendoscopes, stethophonendoscopes. It allows you to listen to sounds from a more limited area than with direct auscultation. Stethoscopes are used to listen to individual components - heart sounds (for example, with defects), etc.

The narrow end of the cone-shaped extension is applied to the place of study, and the ear is applied to the wide end, the hand is taken away from the stethoscope.

If auscultation is carried out with a phonendoscope with a membrane, then it is necessary to press it tightly against the body of the animal in order to exclude friction of the membrane against the animal's hairline, which can introduce extraneous noise into the main ones coming from the organ under study. This should be especially remembered when examining the valvular apparatus of the heart.

Thermometry. This is a mandatory method of animal research, which is performed when an animal is received, regardless of the goals of the research.

Thermometry is a very important method of clinical research, since most diseases, especially infectious diseases, are initially manifested precisely by a change in body temperature.

To measure body temperature, you can use different thermometers (mercury, electronic). Each thermometer must be checked before use for correct readings. To do this, the tested thermometer is lowered into a vessel with water with a tested control thermometer, after 10 minutes they are removed and the readings of the tested and control thermometers are compared. A thermometer with incorrect readings is discarded.

The internal body temperature of the animal is measured in the rectal cavity. Before the introduction of the thermometer, the readings are checked, disinfected, lubricated with vaseline or vaseline oil. The animal is preliminarily fixed, the tail is lifted and the thermometer is inserted into the rectum with rotational movements, giving it an inclined position so that the tip of the thermometer comes into contact with the mucous membrane, after which it is fixed to the tail with a tail bag, clamp or ribbons.

To measure body temperature in birds, a special “bird thermometer” is used, in which the temperature reading scale is designed for digital values ​​greater than in animals.

Body temperature must be measured both at the initial reception of the animal, and at all subsequent examinations.

In cases where it is not possible to examine the body temperature in the rectum, the thermometer is inserted into the vagina, remembering that the temperature in the vagina is 0.3-0.5 ° C higher than the rectal one.

Special research methods. Special methods include: studies conducted in laboratories (laboratory) and performed using special tools and equipment (instrumental). Laboratory studies are subjected to body fluids and tissues. Among instrumental studies, electrocardiography (ECG), ultrasound examination of the heart (EchoCG), X-ray diagnostics, ultrasound examination (ultrasound), endoscopy (many types), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), etc. are most often performed.

Special methods in any necessary combination are additional research methods and allow you to clarify the diagnosis.

Special research methods are described in the relevant chapters of this workshop.

Part 2

Conclusion

Laboratory research

Study of the endocrine system

Musculoskeletal system

The setting of the limbs is anatomically correct, x-shaped, barrel-shaped, close; one or both thoracic pelvic limbs are laid out, back, brought forward, brought under the body, half-bent, holding on weight, frequent stepping from foot to foot.

Lameness - leaning, suspended limb and mixed - weak, moderate and strong.

Movement - free, cautious, connected gait. When the animal moves, it is determined (when viewed from the side) the possible lengthening or shortening of the step, the rotation of the limbs inward, outward,

strong or insufficient bending in the joints, high raising of the chest limbs (cock move, supporting move).

The state of the hooves - rests at rest and in motion on the whole hoof, on the toe, on the "heels"; the condition of the corolla - swelling, deepening, detachment of the horn, bone growths, ulcers, wounds. The surface is smooth, rough, crusty, ringed, with cracks, creases; hoof shape - normal, oblique, compressed, crooked; horn - dense, fragile, flabby, overgrown; pain sensitivity - natural, increased, decreased.

Soles, their shape (flat, convex, detachment of the horns, fistulas), symmetry of the crumbs, the presence of swelling.

The condition of the tendon-ligamentous apparatus - swelling, violation of integrity, temperature, soreness. The skeleton is even, smooth, rough, bumpy, deformed, the presence of fractures, softening (specify where exactly), resorption of the vertebrae: one, two or more; soreness of the bones - limbs, general.

By examination and palpation of the thyroid gland, the location, size, shape, degree of enlargement, consistency, presence (seals, nodes, soreness, local temperature, mobility of the skin over the gland; correspondence of physical development to age, the presence of acromegaly, infantilism, nymphomania and external signs indicating endocrine disorders.

Conduct a laboratory study of blood, urine and feces. Analyze the received data.

In the blood, the hemoglobin content, the number of erythrocytes, leukocytes, ESR are determined, the leukocyte formula is calculated. Determine the physico-chemical properties of urine and feces, examine the sediment.

Based on the established symptoms and leading pathognomonic signs, the student draws up an epicrisis (Epicrisis) - a brief medical report, where he notes the particular disease, makes an analysis of the observed case. The following questions should be reflected in the epicrisis: diagnosis and its justification, etiology and pathogenesis.

If found 1 -2 symptoms that do not characterize any disease, then the student explains the origin of each sign or symptom, and then makes a conclusion about the health of the animal.

This part of the course work describes the methods of research of the animal. Common research methods include inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation and thermometry. These methods are used in the study of each animal, after which the doctor can decide which of the additional methods should be used to recognize the disease.

Inspection. Indicate under what lighting the examination was carried out, which organs and tissues were examined, where the researcher was, examining a certain area, etc.

Inspection is best done during the day, in natural light, as artificial light creates less illumination, especially in the lower parts of the body. Start with the head, then examine the neck, chest, abdomen, pelvic part of the trunk and limbs. Inspection is carried out alternately on the right and left sides, as well as in front and behind.

Inspection can be group and individual. In an individual examination, first a general, then a local, t.e. examination of the area of ​​the disease process.

Examination gives an idea of ​​the habitus, the condition of the mucous membranes, hairline and skin, the behavior of the animal, etc.

Palpation. Describe which organ, where and how was palpated. Palpation is based on the senses of touch and stereometry. It is used to study the physical properties of tissues and organs (size, shape, consistency, temperature, etc.), topographic relationships between them, as well as to detect tangible trembling.

During palpation, it is necessary to follow the general rules, which boil down to ensuring that the palpation itself does not cause pain to the animal or does not resemble tickling.

Palpation is carried out with light and sliding movements of the hands, starting from healthy areas, and then gradually moving to the affected areas, comparing the results of the study of these areas with the data obtained in symmetrical areas.

Distinguish between superficial and deep palpation. Superficial palpation is carried out with one or both palms laid freely, feeling the area with almost no pressure. Examine the skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscles, cardiac impulse, chest movements, blood and lymphatic vessels. One of the types of superficial palpation is stroking the tissues, while the hand slides smoothly over the area under study. Stroking is carried out to determine the shape of bones, joints, to diagnose fractures, to identify "beads" on the ribs, etc.

Deep palpation is used to examine the internal organs located in the abdominal and pelvic cavity. With its help, you can evaluate the physical properties of organs (size, shape, texture), their location, pain. To establish the degree of pain, palpation is carried out with gradual and increasing pressure until the animal responds. Depending on the applied force, the degree of pain, the norm and pathology are judged.

Palpation can be external and internal. Deep external palpation is an examination of the internal organs through the abdominal wall. Its varieties include penetrating, bimanual, jerky and sliding.

Sliding palpation is used to examine the organs of small animals located deep in the abdominal and pelvic cavities. The fingertips penetrate deeper gradually, during the relaxation of the muscle layer that occurs with each breath, and upon reaching a sufficient depth they glide, consistently feeling the area under study.

Penetrating palpation is carried out with vertically placed fingers, gradually increasing pressure in a limited area. It is used to determine pain points, mainly in the abdominal cavity. It can also be performed with a fist to determine the degree of filling of the scar, pain sensitivity of the mesh in cattle.

Bimanual palpation (palpation with both hands) is used to examine the pharynx, larynx, trachea, and mammary gland. In small animals, due to the softness and mobility of the abdominal walls, it is possible to grasp the organ from both sides and explore its properties. With both hands, you can grasp the pregnant uterus, bladder, intestines, kidney, tumor and determine the size, pain, shape, consistency and mobility.

Ballot palpation is used to detect accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity, feel for an enlarged liver, spleen, large tumors in the abdominal cavity, determine pregnancy in cows.

Deep internal palpation is carried out in large animals through the wall of the rectum to obtain data on the state of the abdominal and pelvic organs.

Percussion is a research method carried out by percussion of any part of the body. Indicate the method of percussion, for what purpose, where and how it was carried out.

Percussion allows you to establish the boundaries of the organ and thereby determine its size and the quality of the percussion sound, the nature of which makes a conclusion about the physical state of the organ.

The sounds obtained during percussion are differentiated by strength (loudness), duration, height and shade (timbre). Dense organs (liver, kidneys, heart), accumulation of effusion in the serous cavities give a sound with a small amplitude - quiet. A loud sound can be obtained by percussion of organs and cavities containing air (lungs, scar).

The duration of the percussion sound depends on the density and tension of the tissue. The larger the amplitude value, the longer the sound. If a loud sound with a large amplitude occurs during percussion of the lung, then its duration will be significant. When percussion over a dense organ, the sound will be quiet, with a smaller amplitude and duration.

Percussion is mediocre and direct.

Direct percussion is carried out with the tips of 1-2 (index, middle) fingers bent in the second phalanx. Apply short, jerky blows directly to the surface of the skin of the area under study. This produces relatively weak and fuzzy sounds. This type of percussion is used to study the maxillary and frontal sinuses.

With mediocre percussion, blows are applied not to the surface of the skin, but to a finger pressed to it or a plessimeter (digital and instrumental).

Instrumental percussion is more convenient for examining large animals; it is carried out using a plessimeter and a percussion hammer. The plessimeter, held by the fingers of the left hand, is pressed against the part of the body to be examined and it is struck with a percussion hammer, which is held with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand so that the handle can be slightly movable, and the blows are applied due to the movement of the brush. The blows should be short, jerky, they should be made perpendicular to the surface of the plessimeter. They strike two blows one after the other, after which they make a short pause, then again strike two blows and again pause. In the same place, 1-2 pairs of blows are applied.

The strength of percussion sounds varies depending on the purpose of the percussion and the thickness of the chest or abdominal wall. There are deep (strong) and superficial (weak) percussion.

According to the technique of execution, staccato and legato percussion are distinguished. Staccato is characterized by jerky, short but strong hammer strokes. This type of percussion is used to detect pathological changes in organs. Legato percussion is carried out with slow movements of the hand, with a delay of the percussion hammer on the plessimeter. It is used for topographic research.

Auscultation - listening to sounds generated in functioning organs (heart, lungs, intestines), as well as in cavities (thoracic, abdominal). They note which organ, where and how it was listened to.

Sounds are distinguished by strength, duration and height. There are two types of auscultation: direct and mediocre. For direct auscultation, the ear is tightly applied to the body of the animal. The auscultated part of the body is covered with a sheet or towel for hygienic purposes, as well as to eliminate sounds that occur when the doctor's auricle touches the animal's coat. With direct auscultation, the sound is not weakened and does not change its properties. The wide surface of the auricle allows you to collect sounds from a large surface of the chest, which greatly speeds up the study. With direct auscultation, side effects (the sound of wool friction) are easier to eliminate.

Mediocre auscultation is a research method using stethoscopes and phonendoscopes. It is more hygienic and allows you to isolate sounds from limited areas. A stethoscope (from the Greek stethos - chest, skopeo - look) can be solid and flexible.

A solid stethoscope is an elastic tube with a funnel-shaped extension at the ends: a narrower extension - for installation on the skin of an animal, a wider one - for applying to the ear. The acoustic properties of the skin change with pressure: with increasing pressure, high-frequency sounds are better transmitted, with strong pressure, tissue vibrations are inhibited. When listening, the stethoscope should not be strongly pressed against the skin, otherwise the vibration will be weakened.

A flexible stethoscope consists of a tube with a socket attached to the part of the body to be auscultated, and rubber tubes connecting it with the help of ear olives to the researcher's ears. This stethoscope is convenient for examination, but it changes the properties of sounds, since the tubes conduct low sounds better than high ones, and pass extraneous noises that change the nature of the sound.

A phonendoscope is an instrument that amplifies sound through a membrane and a resonating chamber. A phonendoscope with a pelota can catch sounds originating in a small area, which is important in the differential diagnosis of heart murmurs, as well as in the study of small animals. The stethoscope, which combines a flexible stethoscope and a phonendoscope, reflects sound by vibrating the membrane and the walls of the rubber tubes.

Animal diagnostics is a major clinical discipline in veterinary medicine, providing basic material based on common subjects for further study of specialization. As a science, clinical diagnostics considers the methods of laboratory analysis, instrumental examination of a sick animal.

In clinical diagnostics, it is customary to distinguish three main sections:

• syndromatics and the basis of diagnosis;
• animal research methods;
• features of medical thinking and veterinary deontology.

Veterinary ethics and deontology

Deontology largely regulates the professional behavior of a veterinarian. This science includes:

• principles of veterinary work aimed at increasing the therapeutic effect and minimizing complications;
• veterinary ethics - the principles of interaction between specialists, clients and other objects and subjects of work.

Fundamentals of diagnostics and general methods of animal research

• inspection- visual perception of the general condition;
• percussion- study of the body by the characteristic changes in sound when tapping;
• palpation- diagnostics using the senses of touch and stereometry;
• auscultation- listening to sounds in the internal organs and cavities;
• thermometry- determination of body temperature of the animal.

In addition to thermometry, all these methods are related to physical, or physical. On their basis, a general picture of the state of the animal is compiled, as well as clinical changes in individual organs and systems are revealed. Having a detailed clinical picture, the veterinarian should proceed to an in-depth study of the area of ​​the pathological process using laboratory, instrumental methods or using functional tests.

Any method of studying an animal is aimed at identifying characteristic symptoms diseases, symptom complexes and syndromes for compiling a clinical picture - a set of signs of a disease in an animal, taking into account special studies.

The collected clinical picture, anamnestic data and information from functional studies allow us to put diagnosis- a veterinary report on the condition of the animal and its illness.

Symptoms, syndromes and diagnoses have a complex structure with a multi-level hierarchy and a large list of nomenclature subdivisions. The structure, which is complex at first glance, has a logical system that allows using a combination of various research methods to treat an animal.

Study of individual systems and organs

At this stage of studying clinical diagnostics, a veterinary student gets acquainted with the characteristic syndromes of damage to organ systems. Functional and specific methods of studying pathologies are also studied here.

Laboratory diagnostics of animals

Laboratory research helps to assess the general condition of the animal, as well as focus on a particular pathological process. The development of medicine makes it possible to largely rely on this research method, especially in the process of disease prevention.

In the course of laboratory diagnostics, students get acquainted with:

• the study of blood and plasma;
• animal urine diagnostics;
• the study of feces and the contents of the stomach and pancreas;
• study of pathological secretions.

Instrumental research in veterinary medicine

Instrumental diagnostics of animals makes it possible to identify pathological conditions in many organs and systems, provide more accurate information about the disease and monitor the course of treatment over time.

In practice, veterinarians use various methods and methods of instrumental diagnostics:

• radiography;
• ultrasound procedure;
• tomographic diagnostics.

The urinary bladder of animals is subject to many pathologies, among which the most common are: urolithiasis, cystitis, bladder rupture and tumors. According to the objectivity and informativeness of the study, the first place is occupied by ultrasound diagnostics, which makes it possible to identify deviations in the work and anatomy of this organ.
The mouth is an excellent indicator of the animal's health - with many pathologies, various changes occur in the oral cavity - hyperemia, overlays, unpleasant odor, expiration.

fever(febris) is a complex of protective and adaptive reactions of the body, characterized by a violation of thermoregulation, an increase in body temperature.
The development of fever is due to the effect of pyrogens on chemoreceptors.

The udder (uber) or mammary gland (mamma, glandula lactifera, mastos) of a cow is a complex glandular organ, represented by quarters consisting of glands, milk canals, cisterns, nipples and other parts.

A very common disease among domestic rabbits iseimeriosis. This disease is caused by a group of protozoa of the genus Eimeria. More than 15 species are known in rabbits, 12 species are registered in our country. Usually, several types of eimeria are infected at once.
Celiac enteropathy is a chronic intestinal malabsorption associated with hereditary hypersensitivity to gluten that occurs in Irish Setters.

A general study begins after registration and anamnesis. It includes the determination of habitus, skin, lymph nodes, mucous membranes and measurement of body temperature.

Definition of habitus. Under the habitus understand the appearance of the animal at the time of the study: the position of the body in space, fatness, physique, constitution and temperament.

The position of the body in healthy animals can be naturally upright or naturally recumbent, in some diseases it is forcedly recumbent or upright. A forced position is characterized by the fact that animals cannot quickly change it in accordance with the changing situation. Thus, a forced recumbency is noted in certain febrile diseases, when dogs and cats lie huddled in a corner and do not rise or rise when shouted.

Under the physique understand the degree of development of muscles and bones. When assessing it, the age and breed of the animal are taken into account. Distinguish between weak, medium and strong physique.

With a strong physique in animals, the chest is wide and deep, the legs are strong, strong, the ribs are steep with wide intercostal spaces.

With an average build, the muscles of the shoulder, thigh, limbs are well defined, the backbone is strong.

A weak physique is characterized by poor muscle development, a thin and long neck, a narrow chest, and long, thin limbs.

Fatness of dogs and cats determined by inspection and palpation. In short-haired animals, fatness is determined by examining the external forms of the body, and in long-haired animals, by palpation. Distinguish good, satisfactory and unsatisfactory fatness. With good fatness, the animals have rounded body contours, with unsatisfactory fatness - angular, with satisfactory - the muscles are moderately developed, the deposition of subcutaneous fat is palpable at the base of the tail, in the knee crease.

animal constitution- this is a set of anatomical and morphological features of the body, which are based on hereditary and acquired properties, which determine both its functional and reactive capabilities under the influence of environmental factors. There are four types of constitution: rough, tender, dense and loose. The definition of types is based on the development of the skeleton, muscles, skin and subcutaneous connective tissue.

When assessing temperament, attention is paid to the speed and degree of the animal's reaction to external stimuli, the behavior of dogs, the expression of the eyes, movements, ears and tail are observed. Depending on these factors, animals are distinguished with a lively and phlegmatic temperament. Dogs and cats with a lively temperament actively respond to external stimuli by playing with their ears, tail, changing the expression of their gaze, and head position. Their movements are fast and energetic. But with such animals, certain precautions should be observed, as they can be aggressive. Dogs and cats with a phlegmatic temperament are inactive and lazy.

Skin studies of dogs and cats

The skin is examined by inspection and palpation, determining the condition of the coat, skin moisture, its smell, temperature and elasticity. Inspection on non-pigmented areas establishes the color of the skin, its integrity, the nature of the lesions, as well as the condition of the coat (cleanliness, shine, tightness, density and uniformity).

Palpation determines the temperature of the skin, its moisture content and elasticity. To determine the temperature of the skin, the nose and tip of the tail are palpated and compared with the temperature on the lateral surfaces of the chest. Skin moisture is determined by stroking with the palm of your hand on various parts of the animal's body. Shedding of scales of the epidermis at the same time, the absence of greasy deposits on the fingers indicates dry skin. Wetness of the fingers after palpation indicates sweating, and the presence of greasy plaque on the crumbs of the fingers indicates moderate skin moisture. To determine the elasticity of the skin on the back, it is gathered into a fold, pulled, and then released, trying to hold the hair between the fingers. In healthy animals, straightening of the fold occurs immediately. Loss or decrease in elasticity is accompanied by a delay in this process, and if there are no or less than 10 hairs left between the fingers, it is considered that the hair is well kept in the skin.

Examination of mucous membranes. In dogs and cats, the conjunctiva, the mucous membrane of the nose and mouth are examined. At the same time, attention is paid to their color, integrity, the presence of overlays, hemorrhages and secretion.

In carnivores, the conjunctiva is pale pink, but when animals are excited, it turns pink-red. The mucous membrane of the oral cavity is pale pink, very often has dark pigmentation. The study of the nasal mucosa is difficult due to the narrow nasal openings and the slight mobility of the wings of the nose, therefore, if necessary, they resort to the help of a rhinoscope.

For examination of the conjunctiva, the thumb of one hand is placed on the upper eyelid, and the other on the lower. Then press on the lower, while pulling up the upper eyelid. To study the mucous membrane of the lower eyelid, pressure is applied to the upper one, and the lower one is pulled down.

When analyzing the mucous membrane of the oral cavity, the lips, cheeks, gums, tongue and hard palate are examined. To do this, the dog's mouth is opened with the help of two ribbons applied to the upper and lower jaws behind the fangs, or the owner of the dog puts his hand under the lower jaw, covers it, pressing his fingers on the cheeks. The cheeks are pressed between the molars, the dog opens its mouth and cannot close it.

Measuring the body temperature of dogs and cats

Thermometry is an objective research method that facilitates the diagnosis of diseases.

Measure body temperature in dogs and cats with a maximum mercury thermometer. Before the introduction, it is shaken, holding the mercury reservoir with the index finger, after which it is lubricated with oil or petroleum jelly. The best place for measuring body temperature is the rectum, where the thermometer is inserted with a slight rotational movement, then fixing it on the tail with the help of a tail pulp. Animals during this procedure are held by the head Measurement time - 8-10 minutes.

Normal body temperature in dogs fluctuates between 37.5-39.0 ° C, and in cats 38-39.5 ° C. It should be borne in mind that it depends on age, sex, breed, and external temperature. Puppies, kittens, bitches and cats have higher temperatures than adults and males. Its minimum indicators are noted in the second half of the night, and the maximum are recorded in the evening hours.

Examination of the circulatory organs of dogs and cats

The cardiovascular system is examined by inspection, palpation, percussion and auscultation.

Heart study. The heart of carnivores is located between the 3rd and 7th ribs, with 3/7 of the heart located on the right side of the chest. The anterior border runs along the anterior edge of the 3rd rib, the upper border is 2-3 cm below the horizontal line of the scapular-shoulder joint, and the posterior border reaches the 7th rib.

Animal heart study begin with examination and palpation of the cardiac region in order to determine the cardiac impulse, when examining the region of which, oscillatory movements of the chest are noticed. By palpation, the heart impulse is examined in the standing position of the animal. Determine its rhythm, strength, localization and distribution. The most intense cardiac impulse is felt in the region of the 5th intercostal space in the lower third of the chest. On the right, it is felt weaker and is fixed in the 4-5th intercostal space.

Percussion of the heart area is carried out in order to establish the boundaries of the organ. The upper border is determined by the rear vertical line of the anconeus. Percussion starts from the edge of the scapula and leads down to the transition of the pulmonary (atympanic) sound into a dull one. This line is the upper clinical border of the heart. Normally, it is 1-2 cm below the shoulder joint. Below the upper cardiac border is an area of ​​absolute cardiac dullness. The posterior border is determined along the line connecting the ulnar tubercle and the maklok, while the plessimeter is moved to the next intercostal space stepwise up and back until the sound passes into the pulmonary one. Normally, the posterior border of the heart in dogs reaches the 7th rib. In addition, when the animal is in a sitting position, the part of the heart region covered with the sternum is also percussed.

In various diseases, there may be an increase, decrease and displacement of the boundaries of the heart. An increase in the boundaries is observed with hypertrophy of the heart, cardiac dropsy, pericarditis, expansion of the heart, and a decrease in alveolar emphysema, pneumothorax.

Auscultation of the heart determines the strength and clarity of tones, frequency and rhythm, as well as the presence or absence of noise. Auscultation is carried out in the region of the 4-6th intercostal space on the left and 4-6th on the right. In carnivores, the tones are loud, clear, it should be borne in mind that they normally have respiratory arrhythmia, and sometimes embryocardia, characterized by heart tones of the same strength and timbre with equal pauses. When diagnosing heart defects by auscultation, you should know the points of best audibility. Such a point for the bicuspid valve in dogs is the 5th intercostal space in the middle of the lower third of the chest, for the aortic semilunar valves - the 4th intercostal space under the horizontal line from the humeral tubercle, and the pulmonary artery - on the left in the 3rd intercostal space along the upper edge of the sternum. The best place to hear the right AV valve is the 3rd-4th intercostal space in the lower half of the third of the chest.

In various diseases, changes in heart sounds can be noted in the form of their amplification, weakening, accentuation, rhythm of heart tones, and murmurs associated with cardiac activity.

Study of the arterial pulse of animals

The arterial pulse is examined by palpation with crumbs of 2-3 fingers of superficially located arteries, under which there is a solid base. Pay attention to the frequency, rhythm and quality of the pulse. To determine the pulse, examine the femoral artery in the groin, the brachial artery on the medial surface of the humerus above the elbow joint, or the saphenous artery immediately above the hock joint between the Achilles tendon and the deep flexor of the fingers. In newborn puppies pulse rate per minute is 180-200. In adult dogs- 70-120, at cats- 110-130. When determining the quality of the pulse, the filling of the arteries, the magnitude of the pulse wave, its shape, and the tension of the vascular wall are taken into account. Depending on the filling, a full pulse is distinguished (the diameter of the vessel during the filling period is twice the thickness of its two walls) and an empty pulse (the lumen of the artery is less than the thickness of its two walls).

According to the magnitude of the pulse wave, the blood filling of the artery and the tone of the vascular wall are judged. Depending on the size, a large pulse is distinguished, characterized by good filling of the arteries, and a small pulse, in which the artery is poorly filled, its expansion is almost not expressed and is felt by the fingers in the form of weak jolts.

The rhythm of the pulse is judged by the periodicity in time and the correctness of the alternation of its phases in accordance with the rhythm of the heart. Based on this, there are rhythmic and arrhythmic pulses.

Respiratory studies of dogs and cats

The respiratory system is examined by methods of examination, palpation, auscultation, percussion. If necessary, they resort to special methods: radiography, fluoroscopy, fluorography, plegaphony, rhinography, etc. The upper respiratory tract and chest are examined.

The study of the upper respiratory tract begins with an examination of the nasal openings. Pay attention to the condition of the wings of the nose, the nature of the exhaled air, nasal discharge, examine the accessory cavities of the nose. When examining exhaled air, attention is paid to its smell, which in some diseases can be putrid, sweetish, etc. In the presence of nasal discharges, their nature (mucous, serous, purulent, putrefactive, etc.), quantity (abundant, scarce,) frequency (constant or periodic), color, symmetry are determined.

Studies of the adnexal cavities are carried out by inspection, palpation and percussion. On examination, a change in the configuration of the sinuses is established. Palpation determines the sensitivity and softening of the bones of the maxillary and frontal sinuses. Percussion of the sinuses is carried out with the butt of a percussion hammer without a plessimeter. At the same time, they cover the eyes of the animal with the palm from the side from which the study is carried out. With the help of percussion, the nature of the sound is determined, by which the presence of exudate in the cavities is judged. In healthy animals, the adnexal cavities are filled with air and the sound during percussion is boxy, and during inflammatory processes (due to the presence of exudate), it becomes dull and dull.

The larynx and trachea are examined by inspection, palpation and auscultation.

On examination, the presence of deformation and a change in the volume of these organs are revealed. In some diseases, edema is found in the larynx. An internal examination of the anterior parts of the larynx can be carried out through the oral cavity.

Palpation of the larynx begins from the lower part of the neck, moving the fingers forward to the intermaxillary space, feeling the larynx. At the same time, its soreness, temperature, and the presence of swelling are determined.

Then, fingers are moved down from the larynx, feeling the trachea in order to establish changes in its integrity, sensitivity, and temperature.

Auscultation of the larynx and trachea is performed using a phonendoscope. In healthy dogs, inhalation and exhalation are heard, phonetically reproduced as the sound "x", called laryngeal breath sounds. In the region of the trachea, it is called tracheal breathing.

Chest examination of dogs and cats

The study of the chest begins with its examination, while establishing the shape and size, type, frequency, strength, symmetry and rhythm of respiratory movements. The shape of the chest in healthy dogs and cats is moderately round. With atelectasis of the lungs, it decreases in volume, becomes flat, and with emphysema - barrel-shaped.

The type of breathing is mixed-thoracic, although in some breeds it is predominantly chest. A disease of the respiratory system and related organs entails a change in the type of breathing. In animals with a mixed type of breathing, the thoracic type may be the result of a disease of the diaphragm, thoracic dropsy; with an injury or fracture of the ribs, the type of breathing becomes abdominal.

The respiratory rate is determined by the number of breaths per minute. In dogs, it ranges from 12 to 24, and in cats - 20-30. The number of respiratory movements is counted by the number of inhalations and exhalations according to the fluctuations of the chest or during auscultation of the trachea. The respiratory rate is influenced by the age, breed, constitution and physiological state of the animal. Females and young dogs breathe faster than older and males.

Depending on the strength, breathing can be moderate, deep and shallow.

The determination of the symmetry of respiratory movements is carried out by comparing the excursions of the left and right chest walls. To do this, they stand in front of the animal so that both sides of the chest can be clearly seen. Uniform chest excursion on both sides indicates the symmetry of breathing.

Under the rhythm of breathing understand the sequential alternation of the phases of inhalation and exhalation. At the same time, inhalation, as an active phase, is shorter than exhalation and the ratio between them is 1:1.6. The most common rhythm disturbance is shortness of breath. At the same time, if it is caused by a violation of inspiration, they speak of inspiratory dyspnea, exhalation - expiratory, and if difficulty in breathing occurs in both phases, then they speak of mixed dyspnea.

Palpation of the chest carried out in order to establish temperature, sensitivity, tangible vibration noise. Sensitivity is determined by pressing the knuckles along the intercostal spaces. In case of pain, the animals avoid palpation and show aggressiveness.

The temperature and tangible vibrations of the chest are determined by placing the palm on various parts of it. Local temperature increase is most often observed with pleurisy. With fibrinous pleurisy, pericarditis, when the surface of the pleura or pericardium becomes rough, a peculiar vibration of the chest is palpated.

Percussion of the chest carried out in order to establish the topographic boundaries of the lungs, to detect pathological changes in them or the pleura. For percussion, it is better to put the dog on the table, using the digital method. To do this, the finger of one hand is pressed tightly against the chest wall in the intercostal space, and a medium-strength blow is applied with the finger of the other. Percussion determines the posterior border of the lungs along the lines of the maklok, ischial tuberosity and scapular-shoulder joint. Percussion from front to back. The posterior percussion border along the maklok line reaches the 12th rib, along the line of the ischial 11th tubercle - up to the 11th, and the scapular-shoulder joint - up to the 9th. Most often, an increase in the boundaries of the lung occurs with alveolar or interstitial emphysema, and a decrease occurs with intestinal flatulence, hypertrophic cirrhosis of the liver, and some other diseases.

: 1 - along the line of maklok; 2 - along the line of the ischial tuberosity; 3 - along the line of the scapular-shoulder joint.

Pathological changes in the lungs or pleura are detected by percussion from top to bottom along the intercostal spaces within the established boundaries of the lung. At the same time, in healthy animals, an atympanic or clear pulmonary sound is established. With pneumonia, pulmonary edema and other pathological conditions, accompanied by filling the lungs with fluid or the accumulation of the latter in the pleural cavity, the sound becomes dull or dull. With a significant expansion of the lungs due to an increase in residual air in alveolar emphysema, the percussion sound becomes boxy, and when air cavities are formed in the lung tissue, which is noted in interstitial emphysema, it becomes tympanic.

Auscultation of the chest carried out in order to establish the nature of respiratory noise. For this, two methods are used: direct and instrumental. With the direct method, auscultation is carried out with the naked ear through a sheet or towel. Mediocre - carried out using a phonendoscope or stethoscope.

Auscultation should be carried out in a certain sequence: starting with listening to areas with the best audibility of breath sounds, followed by moving to places with poorer ones. To comply with this rule, it is recommended that the chest of the animal on each side be conditionally divided into three parts: upper, middle and lower. Then the upper and middle parts are divided into two halves by a vertical line. It turns out five zones of listening. Auscultation in them is carried out in the following order: anterior middle area, posterior middle, anterior superior, posterior superior and inferior.

On auscultation of the chest of healthy dogs, an intense and loud breath noise is heard during the inspiratory phase and partly at the beginning of the exit. This type of breathing is called vesicular. Immediately behind the scapular-shoulder girdle during the inhalation and exhalation phase, a loud respiratory noise is heard, phonetically resembling the letter "x" and called bronchial breathing.

In various diseases, the nature of physiological respiratory sounds may change and pathological ones may occur. This manifests itself in the form of an increase or decrease in vesicular respiration, the appearance of bronchial respiration in areas that are not characteristic of it, the appearance of pathological noises (various wheezing, friction and pleural noises, etc.).

Examination of the digestive organs of dogs and cats

In the study of the digestive organs, methods of examination, examination, palpation, auscultation, percussion are used. If necessary, they resort to probing the esophagus and stomach, radiography and fluoroscopy, laboratory studies of gastric juice, feces, etc.

Studies of the digestive system are carried out according to the following scheme: the act of taking food and water, the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, abdomen, stomach and intestines, monitoring the act of defecation.

When examining the act of taking food and water, special attention is paid to appetite and the act of swallowing.

Appetite is examined by observing the animal while eating. It is influenced by the physiological state of the animal, the environment, the quality and type of food, feeding time. There may be a lack, decrease, increase, perversion of appetite. It decreases or is absent in various pathologies of infectious, invasive and non-infectious origin. An increase in appetite accompanies some pathologies that occur with metabolic disorders (diabetes mellitus), and is also observed in the recovery stage after a disease. Perversion of appetite, characterized by eating inedible objects, is noted with a deficiency in the body of mineral salts, increased acidity in the stomach, rabies, etc.

In diseases of the central nervous system, lesions of the tongue, lips, teeth, chewing muscles, there is a disorder in the intake of food and water, which manifests itself in an unusual form of this process.

With lesions of the pharynx and esophagus, the act of swallowing is disturbed. This phenomenon is characterized by pain during swallowing food. Animals squeal, worry, sometimes there may be ejection of food masses through the nose (regurgitation). The complete impossibility of swallowing is noted with paralysis of the pharynx, rabies, botulism, encephalitis.

Vomiting may be the result of overfeeding. In this case, it is most often single, the vomit corresponds to the normal contents of the stomach. Frequent vomiting is characteristic of lesions of the gastric mucosa, poisoning, diseases of the central nervous system, liver and other organs. In these cases, pay attention to the color and smell of vomit.

Examination of the oral cavity, pharynx and esophagus of dogs and cats

Oral cavity researched mainly by inspection. For internal examination, the upper jaw is captured between the thumb and forefinger, squeezing the lip between the teeth, and the lower jaw is somewhat pulled with the fingers of the other hand. For the same purpose, the Baicher mouth wedge or animal mouth fixator (FPZh-1) is used in dogs. Pay attention to the mucous membrane of the oral cavity, its color, moisture, integrity. Examine the tongue, teeth, determine the nature of salivation. When examining teeth, attention is paid to the correctness of their erasure, integrity, condition of the gums.

Throat examined by inspection and palpation. For examination, after setting the yawner, the base of the tongue is pressed against the lower palate with a spatula, after which the condition of the walls of the pharynx and tonsils is established. Palpation of the pharynx is carried out by squeezing the region of the upper edge of the jugular groove slightly above the larynx with the fingers of both hands, while paying attention to the soreness of the pharynx, the presence of tissue infiltration in its region and foreign bodies in its cavity.

Esophagus are examined by inspection, palpation, and also by setting the probe. By inspection, the patency of the food coma is established. Palpation - sensitivity of the esophagus, the presence of pathological infiltrates, tumors, foreign bodies. To detect narrowing and blockage of the esophagus, they resort to probing it. For this purpose, a set of Sharabrin rubber probes or medical probes of various numbers are used in dogs, depending on the size of the dog. For setting the probe or "x"-shaped yawn of the Sharabrin system. With the help of these yawns, the working end of the probe is directed along the hard palate, then its end bends down, then falling into the cavity of the pharynx and esophagus.

Examination of the abdomen, stomach, intestines and liver of dogs and cats

When researching belly methods of examination, palpation, percussion and auscultation are used, and, if necessary, a test puncture of the abdominal wall.

Inspection determines the volume and shape of the abdomen, the symmetry of its walls. An increase in the volume of the abdomen is observed with intestinal flatulence, gastric overflow, coprostasis, abdominal dropsy, enlarged liver, bladder. Local violations of the shape of the abdomen are observed with umbilical and mesenteric hernias, abscesses of the abdominal wall. A decrease in the volume of the abdomen occurs with exhaustion, prolonged diarrhea.

Palpation of the abdominal walls is carried out immediately on both sides with both hands. Soreness, tension of the abdominal wall, the state of some organs of the abdominal cavity are determined. Increased tension of the abdominal walls and severe soreness give rise to suspicion of peritonitis. In addition, palpation can establish an increase in the liver, the presence of intussusception and intestinal coprostasis.

Percussion examines the stomach, intestines, liver, and auscultation determines the nature of the peristalsis of the stomach and intestines.

The puncture of the abdominal wall is carried out in order to diagnose peritonitis and ascites. It is done in the lower abdomen in the area of ​​the last two pairs of nipples, departing from the white line of the abdomen 1-1.5 cm.

Examination of the stomach carried out by inspection, palpation, auscultation, percussion, and, if necessary, radiography. The stomach is located in the left half of the abdominal cavity and in dogs reaches the abdominal wall near the 12th rib. With strong filling, it goes beyond the costal arch, lies on the abdominal wall and reaches the umbilical region. Inspection determines the shape and volume of the abdomen. Palpation of the stomach is carried out in a standing position, pressing with the fingers of both hands, applied behind the costal arches on both sides, inward and forward. At the same time, the position of the stomach, its filling and soreness are determined.

When examining the intestines use auscultation, external palpation and examination in the abdomen. It should be borne in mind that the small intestine occupies mainly the right half of the abdominal cavity, and the thick one - the left.

On examination, pay attention to the abdominal wall in the region of the right and left hungry pits. A protrusion in the region of the left hungry fossa is usually characteristic of flatulence of the large intestine, and in the region of the right - of the small intestine.

The most important method for examining the intestines of animals is palpation. It is carried out in a standing position of the animal, evenly squeezing the lateral surfaces of the abdomen on both sides. At the same time, the degree of fullness and sensitivity of the intestine is established. Auscultation of the intestine makes it possible to judge the nature of peristalsis.

When examining the act of defecation, pay attention to its frequency (in animals on a meat diet, once a day). The disorder of the act of defecation is manifested in the form of diarrhea, constipation, pain during defecation.

Liver examined by palpation and percussion. Palpation is carried out by placing the animal on its right side, as a result of which the liver is displaced to the abdominal wall. After that, they bring their hand to the right under the last rib and feel for the edge of the liver. Percussion of the organ is carried out with the animal in a standing position, immediately behind the posterior border of the lung. On the right side, the area of ​​hepatic blunting in dogs is located within the 10-13th rib, and on the left - in the 11th intercostal space.

Study of the urinary system of animals

Includes the study of the process of urination, the study of the kidneys and bladder, if necessary, conduct a study of the urine of animals.

When examining the process of urination, attention is paid to the posture of the animal at this moment, duration, frequency, as well as the total amount of urine and its appearance. The posture during urination depends on the sex: males raise the pelvic limb, females - the tail and squat. The number of urination depends on the conditions of detention. Usually dogs urinate 3-4 times a day, but in free keeping much more often.

kidneys are examined mainly by the method of external palpation through the abdominal wall. At the same time, attention is paid to the location of the kidneys, their size, shape, sensitivity, consistency, surface condition. For palpation, both thumbs are placed on the lumbar region, the rest on the stomach on both sides behind the last rib. Then move the fingers up the abdominal wall to the last thoracic vertebra, evenly pressing them towards each other. The left kidney is found in the anterior left corner of the hungry fossa under the 2nd-4th lumbar vertebrae. The right kidney is examined in the anterior corner of the hungry fossa under the first and third lumbar vertebrae. With various diseases, it is possible to establish an increase and decrease in the kidneys, a change in their surface, sensitivity. An increase can be observed with pyelonephritis, hydronephrosis, a decrease - with cirrhosis, pain - with inflammation and urolithiasis.

The main research method bladder in dogs and cats is palpation through the abdominal wall. The bladder is located in its lower region in front of the pubic fusion. The study is carried out with the animals in a sitting position, for which the fingers are placed on the abdominal wall in the area of ​​​​the bladder and light pressure towards each other is probed. In decorative breeds of dogs and cats, the bladder is examined through the rectum. To do this, after appropriate treatment of the index finger, it is inserted into the rectum, and the opposite hand is pressed against the abdominal wall. The study of the bladder makes it possible to judge its filling, sensitivity. With inflammation, pain is noted during palpation, tumors are detected by the presence of dense bodies, and urinary stones are in the form of solid formations that move during palpation.

Study of the nervous system of dogs and cats

In the study of the nervous system, the behavior of the animal, the state of its skull and spinal column, sensory organs, skin sensitivity, motor sphere, and reflex activity are studied.

The behavior of an animal is judged by the results of observations of its reaction to external stimuli (a call, the approach of a stranger, giving food, etc.). Violation of behavior is manifested in excitation, depression, soporous or coma. The most characteristic increase in excitability in rabies, which turns into a riot. Dogs break loose from the chain, run away from home, cats attack people and animals. Oppression is accompanied by a delay in the functions of nervous activity. Animals are inactive, the reaction to stimuli is sharply reduced. With stupor, animals are in a state of deep sleep, from which they can be awakened only when exposed to strong stimuli. A characteristic sign of a coma is the loss of reflexes and consciousness.

Research methods skull and spinal column are inspection, palpation and percussion.

During the examination, the shape and volume of the skull, its symmetry, as well as the presence of spinal deformities are determined.

On palpation, sensitivity, temperature of local tissues, hardness of bone formations, and their deformation are established. The spinal column is palpated, starting from the cervical vertebrae and ending with the vertebrae of the tail root.

The skull is percussed with a finger, and in large dogs with the butt of a percussion hammer for small animals. At the same time, attention is paid to the nature of the sound and the reaction of the animal to percussion. In the presence of exudate in the sinuses, dullness of the sound is noted. The spinal column is percussed with a hammer without a plessimeter from the slope of the withers to the root of the tail, paying attention to the presence of pain.

Investigation of the sense organs of dogs and cats includes the study of vision, hearing, smell, taste.

The state of vision is judged by its organs (eyelids, eyeball), the reaction of the pupil to a light stimulus. The latter is determined by closing the examined eye for 2-3 minutes. In this case, in healthy animals, the pupil dilates and quickly returns to normal after the eye is opened. To test for a decrease or loss of vision in dogs, their eyes are alternately closed and led to an obstacle. With the loss of vision, the animal does not notice them.

Hearing is examined by closing the eyes of the animals and then reproducing the usual sound stimuli: whistling, shouting. With damage to the nervous auditory apparatus, these sounds are perceived worse.

The sense of smell is also checked after the elimination of visual analyzers. Dogs and cats are brought objects or food, the smell of which they are well aware of. With a decrease in the sense of smell, animals do not react to these odors.

Taste is determined based on the reaction of animals to various feeds and unusual substances.

Study of skin sensitivity. In the study of skin sensitivity, attention is paid to the reaction of the skin when exposed to tactile, pain and temperature stimuli.

The study of tactile sensitivity is carried out after closing the eyes of the animal. Then, with a light touch, individual hairs in the withers, abdomen, auricle or nostrils are irritated. When tactile nerve endings are stimulated, a response of animals occurs in the form of contraction of the corresponding skin areas. Lack of reaction indicates the disappearance of tactile sensitivity.

Pain sensitivity is determined by tingling the skin with the tip of the needle. It starts from the distal parts of the limbs and goes up to the region of the croup or scapula, and then the spinal column and ends on the neck of the animal. Healthy dogs and cats look around, tuck their ears in, fan their tails, bite, scratch.

Temperature sensitivity is determined by touching different parts of the skin with test tubes filled with hot or cold water, which are applied alternately.

Study of the motor sphere of dogs and cats

The study of the motor sphere includes the determination of the activity of movements, muscle tone and coordination of movements.

The determination of the activity of movements is carried out by the method of inspection. In this case, partial (paresis) or complete loss of motor function (paralysis) may be noted.

Muscle tone is examined by palpation. Depending on muscle tension, it can be moderate, low or high. With reduced tone, the muscles are flabby, the range of motion of the limbs is wide, and the joints are often bent; with increased - there is a strong muscle tension, they become dense, and passive movements are made with difficulty.

In a clinical examination of the nervous system, superficial and deep reflexes are checked. Superficial reflexes include skin and mucous membranes. From the skin, a tail reflex is determined, accompanied by pressing the tail to the body.

The abdominal reflex is also indicative, characterized by a strong contraction of the abdominal muscles in response to a light touch, as well as the anal reflex, which is manifested by contraction of the anal sphincter when touching the skin in the anus. Of the reflexes of the mucous membranes in dogs, the most indicative is sneezing. It is checked by irritating the nasal mucosa with a light object (feather, match).

CLINICAL INVESTIGATION METHODS

For the study of animals, various diagnostic methods are used, which are divided into general and additional, or special (instrumental, laboratory).

GENERAL METHODS

Common, or basic, methods of clinical examination of animals include inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation, and thermometry. After completion of such studies, the doctor forms and substantiates a preliminary diagnosis. The first four methods are called physical, or physical. Then, if necessary, the veterinarian can decide which of the additional methods (instrumental, laboratory) should be used to clarify the diagnosis of the disease.

Inspection. Inspection (inspectio) - a method of diagnostic research based on visual perception. Through examination, it is possible to determine the general condition of the animal and identify a number of anomalies in the position of its body and in the condition of the hairline, skin, mucous membranes, etc. Moreover, in some cases, one examination can accurately recognize the disease, for example, tetanus in horses by the retraction of the third century, epilepsy - when observing epileptic convulsions. At the same time, it should be remembered that it is possible to obtain valuable and reliable results by the method of inspection only if certain rules are observed. It is better to examine in daylight or in good artificial light.

The contours of the body and its individual parts are examined with side lighting. In some cases, you can use lighting devices (mirror, reflector, etc.). Under artificial lighting, it is difficult to capture changes in the color of the skin and mucous membranes, which can be the cause of an incorrect conclusion. There are general, local, individual and group examinations. The examination begins with a general examination, and then proceeds to the local one.

General inspection. This is a complete examination of the animal. Any research begins with it, regardless of the alleged localization of the disease process; at the same time, the body composition, fatness of the animal, the position of its body in space, the condition of the mucous membranes, hairline and skin are determined, identifying the places of damage, excitation, depression, etc. are noted. These data are indicative, they are refined during further research.

Local inspection. It consists in examining the area that corresponds to the localization of the disease process. It can be external and internal.

External inspection - method by which the appearance and position of the examined body part is established. For example, they note the elongated position of the head and neck with pharyngitis, the outflow of exudate from the nasal cavity, etc.

internal inspection, especially hollow organs, a method that requires lighting devices. The pharynx is examined using a spatula-illuminator Gabriolavichyus SHOG-1, the mucous membrane of the larynx (laryngoscopy) - a laryngoscope, etc.

Individual inspection. It is subject to every sick or suspicious animal admitted for outpatient or inpatient treatment.

Group inspection. It is used to examine herds, flocks, herds, herds, in order to obtain information about the general condition of the corresponding groups of animals.

Palpation. Palpation (from Latin palpatio - to feel, stroke) is a research method based on the sense of touch, stereometry. This method is used to study the physical properties of tissues and organs, the topographic relationships between them, their sensitivity, and also detect some functional phenomena in the body. With the help of palpation, objective data can be obtained when comparing a healthy part of the body with a diseased one.

It is better to start palpation from healthy areas and from the healthy side, and then move on to the diseased side and to the diseased area. There are superficial, deep and internal palpation.

Superficial palpation. It is performed with one or two palms laid freely, slightly pressing on the palpated surface. With light sliding movements, the entire area is examined in stages. The method of superficial palpation determines the strength of the heart impulse, the temperature and moisture of the skin, examines the movements of the chest, the abdomen, joints, and reveals the pain reaction. The consistency and soreness of tissues is determined by pressing on them with your fingertips. If at the same time it is necessary to establish the degree of pain, then palpate gradually, with increasing pressure until a pain reaction occurs in the animal. Depending on the applied force, the degree of pain, the norm or pathology is judged.

Deep palpation. This method more accurately determines the localization of pathological changes under the skin, in the muscles or organs of the abdominal and pelvic cavities. It is performed with fingers (four, three, one), sometimes with a fist, with more or less significant pressure. With deep palpation, the physical properties of organs are assessed: size, shape, consistency. Varieties of deep palpation include sliding, penetrating, bimanual and jerky.

sliding palpation examine organs located deep in the abdominal and pelvic cavities in small animals. The fingertips penetrate deeper gradually, during the relaxation of the muscle layer that occurs with each breath and, upon reaching a sufficient depth, glide, gradually feeling the entire area under study.

At penetrating palpation vertically placed fingers gradually, but strongly press on a limited area. Usually, this method reveals pain points, especially in the abdominal cavity. Palpation with a fist is also referred to penetrating: in this way, the filling of the scar, the pain sensitivity of the mesh in cattle are determined.

Bimanual palpation(palpation with both hands) is used in small animals. In this case, with one hand, the area or organ under study is held in a certain position or served towards the other - the palpating hand. In this way, you can palpate the larynx, pharynx, esophagus. With both hands, you can cover the pregnant uterus, intestines, kidney, udder and determine their size, shape, consistency, mobility, etc.

Jerky (balloting) palpation used to detect the accumulation of fluid in the cavities, as well as in the study of the liver and spleen. For this purpose, a fist or fingers pressed to each other are placed on the areas under study, and then several short and strong pressing movements (shocks) are made.

Internal palpation. Most often it is used in the study of large animals. By palpation through the wall of the rectum, it is possible to obtain very valuable information about the state of the organs located in the abdominal and especially the pelvic cavities. With a hand inserted into the oral cavity, you can feel the tongue, teeth, pharynx, larynx, and the initial part of the esophagus.

Percussion. Percussion (from Latin percussio - percussion, tapping) is an objective method of research, which consists in percussion of parts of the animal's body in order to judge the boundaries and physical properties of the organ located under the percussion surface by the nature of the resulting sound. The ability of various bodies to vibrate is not the same and depends on their elasticity, i.e., the ability to restore their original, original position.

The famous physician of antiquity, Hippocrates, with the help of percussion, distinguished the accumulation of liquid or gas in the abdomen. However, the development of this method and its publication in 1761 is the merit of the Viennese physician JT. Auenbrugger. He suggested percussion, striking with the fingers of his right hand on the chest.

In 1808, a professor at the University of Paris Corvizor (Napoleon Bonaparte's life physician) improved the techniques of JI. Auenbrugger, laying the foundation for the scientific substantiation of percussion. In 1827, the French clinician Piori proposed a plessimeter for percussion (from the Greek plessio - I hit, metron - measure) - a plate that is applied to the body and then it is struck. In 1839, the Viennese clinician Skoda gave a theoretical justification for the percussion method, explaining the various properties of percussion sounds with the laws of acoustics. Barry proposed the percussion hammer, and Wintrich improved it in 1841. This contributed to the spread of mediocre percussion with the help of a percussion hammer and a plessimeter.

Percussion was introduced into veterinary clinical diagnostics by Dupua (Alfort) in 1824.

General characteristics of percussion sound. The human ear perceives sounds with a frequency of 16 to 20,000 vibrations per second (Hz). Percussion refers to the sound produced by percussion. Its character mainly depends on the amount of air in the organ, elasticity and density of the latter. Percussion sounds are differentiated by strength (loudness), duration, height and shade (timbre).

By strength Distinguish between loud (clear) and quiet (dull) sounds. The strength of the percussion sound depends on the amplitude of sound vibrations, which is determined by the ability to make oscillatory movements, and on the force of impact. The amplitude of sound vibrations is inversely proportional to the density of the body being percussed. Bones, muscles, fluids in the cavities, liver, spleen, heart have a high density. Percussion in the area of ​​​​the location of these organs gives a sound with a small amplitude of oscillation, that is, quiet (dull). Tissues or organs of low density include those that contain a lot of air (lungs, scar, larynx, etc.). Percussion of the lungs with normal airiness gives a low, fairly long and loud sound, which is called a clear lung. With pneumonia, the lung tissue becomes denser, less airy, as a result of which the normal loud sound percussed over these areas is replaced by a quieter one - dull or dull.

Duration percussion sound depends on the density and tension of the tissue. The larger the initial amplitude, the longer it takes for it to decrease and become equal to zero and, therefore, the longer the sound. If during percussion of a healthy lung a loud percussion sound with a large amplitude of sound vibrations occurs, then its duration will be significant. If you percuss an area over a dense organ that does not contain air, then the sound will be quiet, with a smaller amplitude, and, consequently, a shorter duration. When the lung is compacted (bronchopneumonia, tuberculosis), the percussion sound in this place, due to the less airiness of the lung tissue, will be dull or dull and at the same time short.

Pitch depends on the frequency of oscillation of the sound wave: the higher the frequency, the higher the sound, and vice versa. During percussion of the lungs, the sound is normally quite low (110 ... 130 Hz), over caverns and emphysematous areas it is much lower, and above compacted areas it is higher.

By shade (timbre) distinguish sounds tympanic, non-tympanic (atympanic) and with a metallic tinge. Tympanic sound (tympanon, Greek - drum) is characterized by more regular periodic oscillations, as a result of which it approaches the tone. A non-tympanic sound, unlike a tympanic one, contains many additional periodic oscillations and, therefore, is noise.

If the body is homogeneous in its composition, then all its particles upon impact make oscillations of the same duration and their number per unit time remains constant; such oscillations are called periodic, and the resulting sound is called a tone. If the body is heterogeneous in its composition, then for parts of the body that are different in structure, vibrations of different duration are characteristic. The number of the latter per unit time is also different in this case; such oscillations are called non-periodic. Complex sounds with non-periodic fluctuations, with an indefinite pitch, but with a certain loudness, are called noises.

Tympanic percussion sound occurs during percussion of organs or cavities containing air, when the tension of their walls decreases. In healthy animals, tympanic sound is noted during percussion of the stomach, intestines, larynx, and in patients - over caverns in the lungs, with pneumothorax, loss of lung elasticity (atelectasis, inflammation and pulmonary edema in a certain phase).

Over a large smooth-walled cavity in the lung, the percussion sound will be tympanic, reminiscent of the sound when hitting a metal plate. It is called a sound with a metallic tinge.

With percussion of an area not covered by the lungs, liver, muscles, the percussion sound is quiet, short and high, or dull. In the region of the gluteal muscles or muscles of the limbs, it is called the sound of the hip.

percussion technique. There are direct and mediocre percussion, as well as topographic and comparative.

direct percussion. Short blows are applied to the area under study with one or two fingers folded together and slightly bent. In this case, relatively weak and fuzzy sounds arise, the assessment of which presents considerable difficulties. Such percussion is used to a limited extent, mainly when percussion of the accessory cavities of the facial skull (maxillary and frontal sinuses).

Mediocre percussion. It can be digital and instrumental.

Digital is as follows: with a slightly bent middle finger of the right hand, strikes are struck on the back of the middle phalanx of the index or middle finger of the left hand, tightly attached to the corresponding part of the body (it acts as a plessimeter). The remaining fingers of the left hand are spread apart and do not touch the surface of the body with them. Short, jerky blows are applied strictly perpendicular. In this case, the sound impression is combined with the tactile one, and the sound itself is clear, without the background that is created during instrumental percussion.

The disadvantages of digital percussion include a relatively low sound intensity and a shallow spread of vibrations. This type of percussion is often used in the study of small animals and young animals of large animals, in which the outer covers are thin and are not an obstacle to the study of internal organs.

Instrumental percussionpercussion with the help of a percussion hammer and a plessimeter (Fig. 1.1). The mass of percussion hammers for small animals is from 60 to 75 g, and for large ones - from 100 to 250 g. The rubber pad in the percussion hammer should be of medium elasticity, lie tightly in the screw head and protrude above the metal surface by 5 ... 6 mm. A hammer with worn, cracked rubber is unsuitable for work. A rattling metallic sound when the hammer hits the plessimeter indicates that the hammer head has turned away and should be screwed in tightly.

Plessimeters are flat plates of various shapes and sizes made of metal, bone, wood, and plastic. During percussion, the plessimeter is held in the left hand and pressed tightly with the entire plane of the platform to the part of the body being examined; on the chest, it is installed in the intercostal space parallel to the ribs. The width of the plessimeter should not exceed the distance between the ribs. The plessimeter is displaced either by the length of its platform, or by the width of the rib. The percussion hammer is held with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand so that the handle can be slightly movable. Blows are applied only due to the movement of the hand in the wrist joint. In this case, the hammer bounces off the plessimeter more easily. Hammer blows should be short, jerky; they are applied perpendicular to the surface of the plessimeter, while the examiner's ear should be at the same level as the place of percussion. Percuss only indoors at a distance of at least 1.5 m from the wall.

On the plessimeter, 2 strokes are applied one after the other, after which a short pause is made, then 2 strokes are again applied and a pause is made again. One or two pairs of such blows are applied in the same place, then the plessimeter is moved to another area and percussed in the same way. According to the technique of execution, staccato and legato percussion are distinguished.

Staccato method - beats are short and jerky; the hammer after the second blow does not linger on the plessimeter. In this way, pathology in the organs is detected.

The legato method - after the second blow, the hammer lingers on the plessimeter for a while. In this way, the dimensions (boundaries) of the organs are determined.

Percussion should be moderately fast: so that a pause between pairs of beats makes it possible to compare the tonality of one sound with the tonality of another. In other words, it is necessary that the sound from one place is superimposed on the sound from another.

The strength of the percussion blow may vary depending on the purpose of percussion, the thickness of the chest or abdominal wall, and the depth of the location of the pathological focus. In this regard, there are deep (strong) and superficial (weak) percussion. With strong (deep) percussion, tissue vibrations occur to a depth of up to 7 cm, on an area of ​​4 ... 6 cm 2; with a weak one, up to 4 cm in depth and on an area of ​​3 cm 2. To reveal deeply located foci in the lungs, deep percussion is used, and superficially located - superficial; through the latter, the boundaries and sizes of organs are also determined. A variation of weak percussion is "percussion at the threshold of auditory perception." It is used to establish the boundaries of organs, for example, to determine the area of ​​\u200b\u200babsolute dullness of the heart.

Topographic and comparative percussion. Topographic percussion can distinguish between anatomical structures (lungs, heart, liver, spleen). It is based on the difference in sounds obtained by percussion of various organs, which is associated with their unequal elasticity and degree of airiness. Comparative percussion is as follows: symmetrical parts of the body are tapped, for example, on the chest, and the sound received on them is compared.

Auscultation. Auscultation (from Latin auscultatio - to listen) - listening to sound phenomena that occur during the work of internal organs and cavities. In tissue structures, as a result of the functioning of the respiratory organs, heart, stomach and intestines, elastic vibrations arise, some of which reach the surface of the body. These vibrations can be heard by placing the ear against the body of the animal (direct, or direct, auscultation), as well as using various instruments or devices for auscultation (mediocre, or indirect, auscultation).

Auscultation has been used in medicine for a very long time. Hippocrates also described the friction noise of the pleura, which he compared with the “creaking of a leather belt”, and moist rales with the sounds of boiling vinegar. Later learned to listen to heart murmurs. However, great merit in the use of auscultation as a method of clinical research belongs to the French doctor R. Laennec, who in 1816 first invented the stethoscope (from the Greek stethos - chest, skopeo - I look, I explore).

In Russia, the method of auscultation was introduced in 1825 by P. A. Charukovsky at the Medico-Surgical Academy. The physical justification for auscultation was given by Skoda in 1839. On the issues of auscultation of animals, Marek's works published in 1901 should be considered the most valuable.

Sounds perceived during auscultation, as well as percussion, are characterized by strength, height, timbre, duration. The features of the sound perceived by the ear depend largely on the properties of the tissues that separate the human ear from the organ, and above all on sound permeability and resonating ability. Dense homogeneous bodies conduct sounds well (for example, compacted lung tissue); soft airy tissues have poor sound transmission. In practice, direct and mediocre methods of auscultation are widely used.

direct auscultation. The animal is covered with a sheet or towel for hygienic purposes, and also to eliminate sounds that occur when the researcher's ear comes into contact with the animal's hairline. With this method, sounds are perceived without distortion from a larger surface of the animal's body.

The anterior part of the body of large animals on the right side is heard with the left ear, and on the left side with the right. To do this, you need to stand on the side of the animal, facing its head, place your hand on the withers or back and attach your ear to the desired area. When examining organs located in the back of the body, they become facing the rear of the animal, placing their hand on its back. It is necessary to listen carefully, preventing the possibility of hitting the pelvic limb. In restless horses, for this purpose, they raise the thoracic limb and hold the head of the animal well. Aus - it is better to cultivate small animals on the table.

Mediocre auscultation. With this type of auscultation, stethoscopes, phonendoscopes or a stethophonendoscope are used. It is more hygienic and convenient for the doctor, especially when auscultating small animals and when a seriously ill animal is forced to lie down. Flexible stethoscopes and phonendoscopes somewhat distort the natural character of the sounds that occur during the work of the lungs, heart, or digestive organs.

To obtain reliable results, silence in the room is necessary during auscultation. When listening to animals on the street, the noise of the wind, the rustle of grass or foliage, and other extraneous noise interfere. It is necessary that the socket of the stethoscope is moderately tight and completely adjacent to the listening surface. A stethoscope can be rigid or flexible.

solid stethoscope is a tube made of wood, plastic or metal with funnel-shaped extensions at the ends: a narrower extension is applied to the animal's skin, a wider one - to the doctor's ear. A solid stethoscope is a closed system designed to transmit vibrations through the air column and the solid part of the stethoscope to the examiner's temporal bone (bone conduction). Therefore, it is better to use a wooden stethoscope.

An important condition for the use of a stethoscope is the preservation of a closed acoustic system, which is achieved by close contact of the stethoscope with the body of the animal and the ear of the researcher. The skin to which the funnel of a stethoscope is attached acts as a membrane; the acoustic properties of the skin change with pressure: with an increase in the pressure of the funnel on the skin, high-frequency sounds are better transmitted and, conversely, if the pressure is too strong, the vibrations of the underlying tissues are inhibited. During auscultation, the stethoscope should be pressed with the head to the skin of the animal, but not strongly, otherwise the vibration of the tissue in the area of ​​​​the stethoscope will weaken and the sounds will be less audible. It should also be borne in mind that since the sound travels along the wall of the stethoscope, at the time of auscultation, the hand is removed from it and held slightly lower than the instrument in order to prevent its possible fall when the animal is disturbed. Solid stethoscopes are especially valuable for auscultation of the heart.

Flexible stethoscope consists of a small hard (metal, celluloid, etc.) tube with a bell, attached to the auscultated part of the body, and rubber tubes connecting it with the help of olives to the doctor's ears. Such a stethoscope, although convenient for research, however, somewhat changes the nature of the sounds heard, since rubber tubes conduct low sounds better than high ones; in addition, they pass extraneous noise, which somewhat changes the nature of the sounds heard, which cannot be said about solid stethoscopes.

Phonendoscope(from the Greek phone - sound, endon - inside and skopeo - I look, explore) - a listening device that amplifies sound due to a membrane and a resonating chamber. A phonendoscope with a pelota can catch sounds originating in a very small area, which is important in the differential diagnosis of heart murmurs, as well as in the study of small animals. The phonendoscope, to a greater extent than a flexible stethoscope, distorts the sound, which is usually mixed with extraneous noise caused by the vibration of the membrane and the walls of the rubber tubes.

Stethofendoscope is a combination of a flexible stethoscope (it distinguishes between a funnel and elastic tubes, the ends of which are inserted into the external auditory meatus) and a phonendoscope, consisting of a sound-catching chamber and a sound-amplifying membrane (Fig. 1.2).

Also developed polyurea phonendoscope, thanks to which several people can listen to the organ at the same time. They also use electronic devices that significantly amplify the sounds during individual auscultation ( electrophonendoscope) or group listening through the speaker (cardiophone).

With the advent of modern devices, the auscultation method continues to improve and acquire even greater diagnostic value.

To master this method, as well as those listed above, systematic exercises of the researcher's sense organs are necessary. Only an experienced doctor will notice and correctly assess the changes.

Thermometry. Thermometry (from the Greek therme - heat and metreo - I measure) is mandatory when examining a sick animal and has an important diagnostic value. Thermometry was first proposed by de Gaen in 1758. In some internal diseases, an increase or decrease in body temperature is noted even before the appearance of other signs; according to the indicators of thermometry, the course of the disease is monitored and the results of the treatment taken are judged, and in many infections, universal thermometry is used as a method of early detection of diseased animals. In veterinary practice, a maximum Celsius thermometer is used. Body temperature is also measured by electrothermometers (see Chapter 3).

DEFINITION OF HABITUS

Habitus (from Latin habitus - appearance, appearance) is determined by a combination of external signs that characterize the position of the body (posture), fatness, physique, constitution and temperament of the animal at the time of the study.

The definition of habitus is a necessary element of a general study, with help which reveal diagnostically important signs of the disease, get an idea of ​​the general condition of the animal. However, one cannot limit oneself to this first impression and neglect a thorough and exhaustive study of the animal.

Body position. In healthy animals, the position of the body is naturally upright or naturally recumbent; in sick animals, it can be forced to stand or forced to lie down. In some painful conditions, animals take unnatural postures or make forced movements, which may be due to loss of consciousness, weakness, various pains, dizziness, nerve or muscle paralysis, etc.

Healthy horses lie relatively rarely (mostly on their sides with their limbs extended), and healthy cattle and pigs often, especially after eating, rest lying down (even during the day). Cattle lie on their stomachs with bent limbs.

A forced lying or forced standing position (unnatural posture), when the animal cannot easily change it, indicates a disease. However, it should be borne in mind that healthy animals sometimes, for a number of reasons (fatigue, high external temperature, etc.), do not want to change their posture that is comfortable for them. A forced lying position can be considered if all the measures of influence and assistance provided to the animal in its attempt to rise are ineffective.

For the veterinarian, the patient is in a comfortable standing position. Some studies, such as determining the nature of respiratory disorders (ataxia, paralysis, etc.), are associated with animal observation. Small animals are usually seated on a table or given a recumbent position. In the study of the liver, spleen, bladder, the recumbent position in small animals is most convenient.

Forced lying position observed in many diseases, in particular, occurring with loss of consciousness. This posture is a very valuable symptom, but only in a limited number of diseases of large animals, while in small animals it is found in many diseases. Cows sometimes lie for a long time before and after calving, as well as with puerperal paresis and severe ketosis; horses - with paralytic myoglobinuria, severe forms of infectious encephalomyelitis, traumatic lesions of the spinal cord.

In many animals, a forced lying position is observed much more often. It is characteristic of the severe course of most diseases. Small cattle, pigs and carnivores prefer to lie down in severe feverish conditions; pigs usually burrow deep into the litter, while cats and dogs hide in a corner. When called or when trying to raise the animal, it reluctantly gets up and, after taking a few steps, tries to lie down again.

Forced standing position observed mainly in horses with tetanus, pleurisy, with all diseases that occur with severe dyspnea (acute alveolar emphysema), with some brain lesions (chronic dropsy of the ventricles of the brain).

Unnatural postures animals easily attract attention and serve as valuable symptoms of a number of pathological conditions of the body. The position of the body in horses with tetanus is very characteristic: they stand with widely spaced limbs, with an elongated and raised head; the ears are erect, the back is tensely straightened, the tail is raised high, the palpebral fissures are somewhat narrowed, partially covered by a prolapsed third eyelid. An elongated position of the head occurs in horses and with pharyngitis. In severe febrile illnesses, horses usually stand with their heads down, eyes half closed, indifferent to everything around them. In cattle, a forced standing position is observed with traumatic pericarditis: the head of such animals is extended forward, the elbows are turned outward, the pelvic limbs are brought under the stomach, the back is hunched.

Involuntary, or forced, movements are characterized by great diversity and are of great diagnostic value in studying the disease process and assessing the patient's condition. These include: aimless wandering, ma-

gentle and rotational, as well as directed forward, backward and roll-like.

aimless wandering observed in animals in a state of oppression: they wander aimlessly for hours, constantly changing place; weakly or completely unresponsive to external stimuli; coordination of movements is disturbed, animals stumble, climb walls, fences and stop in a stupor or change the direction of movement only in front of insurmountable obstacles. There are cases when an animal, having stopped in front of an obstacle, continues to make habitual movements on the spot. Aimless wandering occurs with brain lesions and its functional disorders - encephalomyelitis, acute cerebral meningitis, infectious encephalomyelitis of horses, with cattle ketosis, sheep coenurosis.

Manege movements in most cases, they represent a long coordinated movement in a circle in a certain direction. The diameter of the circle may gradually decrease, so that the animal eventually begins to rotate, arching its back, around itself and suddenly falls. Sometimes the diameter of the circle increases or remains unchanged, and then the animals make circular movements for hours.

The causes of playpen movements are different: disorders of consciousness, unilateral damage to the cerebellum, the middle part of the striatum or the posterior thalamus, as well as a partial violation of the conduction of the central motor pathways.

Rotational movements- rotation of the animal's body around one of the limbs, more often clockwise, less often in the opposite direction. They occur with damage to the cerebellum, paralysis of the vestibular nerve.

Movement back, observed in infectious encephalomyelitis and cerebrospinal meningitis, are accompanied by tilting the head, strong contractions of the occipital muscles and spinal spasms. The coordination of movements is disturbed, the pelvic limbs bend, the animal quickly falls and even capsizes.

rolling movements, or movement of the body of a lying animal around the longitudinal axis, indicate a unilateral lesion of the vestibular nerve, cerebellar peduncles or their surrounding parts. They are often accompanied by rotation of the head around its longitudinal axis and stretching of the limbs. In this case, movements can be limited to only one turn or even half a turn, and sometimes continue until they are stopped by some obstacle encountered on the way. Rolling movements are often observed in dogs, cats and birds.

Fatness. By fatness, they judge the intensity of metabolism in the body, the correctness and usefulness of feeding the animal. To characterize fatness, inspection and palpation are used. There are good, satisfactory, unsatisfactory (bad) fatness, exhaustion, or cachexia (from the Greek kakos - bad, hexis - condition), obesity.

On examination at well-fed animals mark rounded contours; bony protrusions on their bodies are flattened. In animals with satisfactory fatness muscles are moderately developed, the shape of the body is angular; the spinous processes of the dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, ischial tubercles and makloks protrude indistinctly, the deposition of subcutaneous fat is palpated at the base of the tail, on the ischial tuberosities and in the knee crease. At unsatisfactory fatness in animals, the angularity of the contours is pronounced; trunk bones, ribs, spinous processes, ischial tubercles are sharply marked. The extreme degree of unsatisfactory fatness is called exhaustion; excessive deposition of fat with signs of functional disorders - obese.

In cattle, in order to determine the degree of fat deposition in the subcutaneous tissue, the region of the base of the tail, makloks, ischial tuberosities, the last two ribs and the knee crease are palpated.

Assessing the fatness of horses, pay attention to the croup area: if the slopes of the croup form a convex surface, then the fatness is considered good. With satisfactory fatness, the contour of the slopes of the croup is a straight line, with poor fatness it is concave.

In sheep and goats, the region of the maklok, back, shoulder joint, last ribs and knee folds are palpated. In well-fed animals, an elastic fat pad is palpable. In fat-tailed sheep, attention is paid to the size and elasticity of the fat tail.

In pigs, fat deposits are palpated on the processes of the dorsal vertebrae.

Body type. Under the physique understand the degree of development of the skeleton and muscle tissue. Physique is determined by inspection, sometimes with the help of measuring instruments. Evaluating the indicator, take into account the age and breed of the animal. They take into account the degree of development of the skeleton and muscle tissue, as well as the proportionality of individual parts of the body and the exterior features of the animal. There are strong (correct, good), average and weak (wrong, bad) physique.