Medial geniculate body. Medial geniculate bodies - hearing centers Superior frontal gyrus - Gyrus frontalis superior

4) superior mounds of the midbrain

41. ANATOMICAL FORMATION RELATED TO THE ISTHMUS OF THE Rhomboid Brain

1) trapezoid body

loop triangle

3) lateral geniculate bodies

4) handles of the lower colliculus

42. ANATOMICAL FORMATION DIVIDING THE BRIDGE INTO THE TIRE AND THE BASE

1) medial loop

Trapezoidal body

3) spinal loop

4) transverse fibers of the bridge

43. IN THE FRONT (VENTRAL) PART OF THE BRIDGE

Longitudinal fibers of the bridge

2) reticular formation of the bridge

3) the nucleus of the abducens nerve

4) pontine nucleus of the trigeminal nerve

44. CRANIAL NERVES, THE NUCLEI OF WHICH ARE LOCATED IN THE BRIDGE, ARE

1) twelfth pair of cranial nerves

2) ninth pair of cranial nerves

Sixth cranial nerve

4) tenth pair of cranial nerves

45. THE NUCLEI OF THE CERENELS ARE

1) nuclei of the reticular formation

corky nucleus

3) olive kernels

4) posterior nucleus of the trapezoid body

46. DEPARTMENT OF THE BRAIN CONNECTING TO THE CEREBULALE THROUGH ITS MIDDLE LEGS

1) midbrain

2) medulla oblongata

3) diencephalon

Bridge

47. DEPARTMENT OF THE BRAIN CONNECTING WITH THE CEREBULALE THROUGH ITS LOWER LEGS

Medulla

3) diencephalon

4) midbrain

48. THE ROOF OF THE IV VENTRICLE FORMS

Upper medullary velum

2) lower legs of the cerebellum

3) vault of the brain

4) middle legs of the cerebellum

49. THE MOTOR NUCLEUS OF THE SUPPLEMENTARY NERVE IS LOCATED

1) in the midbrain

2) in the diencephalon

in the bridge

4) in the medulla oblongata

50. NUCLEUS OF THE TRIGENETIC NEVER

1) single path core

nucleus of the midbrain tract

3) upper salivary nucleus

4) lower salivary nucleus

51. THE CORE OF A SINGLE PATH IS LOCATED

1) in the midbrain

2) in the diencephalon

3) in the cerebellum

in the medulla oblongata

52. THE CORE OF THE SINGLE PATH IS A COMMON CORE FOR THE FOLLOWING NERVES

Ninth and tenth pairs of nerves

2) eleventh and twelfth pairs of nerves

3) seventh and eighth pairs of nerves

4) fifth and seventh pairs of nerves

53. THE SUPERIOR NUCLEUS IS LOCATED

in the bridge

2) in the diencephalon

3) in the midbrain

4) in the medulla oblongata

54. LOWER SALIVATION NUCLEUS IS LOCATED

1) in the bridge

2) in the midbrain

in the medulla oblongata

4) in the diencephalon

55. RELATED TO THE NUCLEUS OF THE VAGA NEVER

1) lower salivary nucleus

Posterior nucleus

3) the nucleus of the midbrain pathway

4) nucleus of the spinal cord

56. COMMISSIONAL WAYS ARE LOCATED

1) in the inner capsule

2) in the outer capsule

3) in a hooked bundle

In the corpus callosum

57. ASSOCIATIVE NERVE FIBERS CONNECT

Areas of gray matter within one half of the brain

2) similar centers of the right and left halves of the brain

3) basal nuclei with motor nuclei of the spinal cord

4) the cerebral cortex with the nuclei of the spinal cord

58. IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE posterior cords of the spinal cord

1) posterior longitudinal beam

2) posterior (dorsal) spinal-cerebellar path (Flexig's bundle)

Thin beam (Gaulle beam)

4) tectospinal tract

59. IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE LATERAL CORDS OF THE SPINAL CORD

1) wedge-shaped bundle (Burdakh's bundle)

Anterior dorsal tract

3) pre-door-spinal path

4) anterior cortical-spinal tract

60. IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE ANTERIOR CORDS OF THE SPINAL CORD

1) red nuclear-spinal path

2) anterior dorsal tract

3) posterior spinal cerebellar path

Vestibulo-spinal tract

61. PATHWAY PASSING THROUGH THE TIRE OF THE MIDBRAIN

1) pyramidal

2) reticulospinal

3) proprioceptive path of the cerebellar direction

The Path of Pain and Temperature Sensitivity

62. IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE LOWER CEREBELLAR PEGES PASS

Fibers of the posterior spinal cord

2) posterior longitudinal bundle

3) internal arc fibers

4) fibers of the red nuclear-spinal tract

63. VENTAL CROSSIA OF THE MIDBRAIN LEPELLA IS FORMED BY FIBERS

1) posterior longitudinal beam

2) cortical-spinal tract

Red nuclear-spinal tract

4) medial loop

64. DORSAL CROSSIA OF THE MIDBRAIN LEPELLA IS FORMED BY FIBERS

1) red nuclear-spinal tract

Covering-spinal tract

3) pyramidal path

4) ways of pain and temperature sensitivity

65. PASSING THROUGH THE KNEE OF THE INTERNAL CAPSULE

1) anterior spinal thalamic pathway

2) cortical-thalamic path

3) frontal-bridge path

Cortico-nuclear pathway

66. THROUGH THE BACK LEG OF THE INNER CAPSULE

1) cortical-nuclear pathway

2) pre-door-spinal path

3) occlusal-spinal tract

Lateral dorsal thalamic pathway

67. FIBER

Long associative

2) commissural

3) projection

4) short associative

68. FIBERS OF THE ANTERIOR CEREBELLULAR WAY PASS

1) in the upper legs of the cerebellum

2) in the lower legs of the cerebellum

3. centers in the hypothalamus :

- thermoregulation;

- hunger and thirst;

- pleasures and displeasures;

- regulation of metabolic processes;

- stimulation of the anterior nuclei of the hypothalamus

causes parasympathetic effects;

- stimulation of the posterior nuclei of the hypothalamus causes

sympathetic effects.

The hypothalamus is closely related to the endocrine gland pituitary gland, forming a single hypothalamic-pituitary system. The hypothalamus produces hormones from the posterior pituitary gland. vasopressin and oxytocin, as well as substances that regulate the production of hormones of the anterior lobe - liberals and statins. The former increase the secretion of pituitary hormones, the latter inhibit it.

RETICULAR FORMATION

Reticular formation is a cluster of special neurons that form a kind of network with their fibers.

Neurons of the reticular formation were discovered in the region of the brainstem by the German scientist Deiters. V.M. Bekhterev found similar structures in the region of the spinal cord. The neurons of the reticular formation form clusters or nuclei. The dendrites of these cells are relatively long and slightly branched; on the contrary, the axons are short and have many branches. This feature causes numerous synaptic contacts of neurons of the reticular formation.

The reticular formation of the brain stem occupies a central position in the medulla oblongata, pons varolii, midbrain and diencephalon.

Meaning of the reticular formation:

1. Regulates the activity of the respiratory and cardiovascular centers.

2. It has an activating effect on the cerebral cortex, maintaining the state of wakefulness and concentrating attention.

3. Irritation of the reticular formation, without causing a motor effect, changes the existing activity, inhibiting or enhancing it.

FINAL BRAIN

The telencephalon consists of two hemispheres connected corpus callosum.

The corpus callosum is located in the depth of the longitudinal fissure of the brain, it is a thick plate of white matter. It distinguishes the front knee, middle part - body and back- corpus callosum. White matter fibers form three types of pathways:

1. Associative - connect sections within the same

hemisphere.

2. Commissural - connect parts of different hemispheres.

3. Projection- connect the hemispheres with other parts of the central nervous system.

The cerebral hemispheres are covered with gray matter on the outside, which forms bark about 4mm thick. On the bark there are furrows and convolutions, which significantly increase its area. The largest furrows divide each hemisphere into five lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital and hidden. Under the cortex in the white matter are accumulations of gray matter - basal nuclei. These include: striatum, fence, amygdala.

1. striatum consists of two cores caudate and lenticular separated by a layer of white matter internal capsule. The caudate nucleus is located near the thalamus, arcuately curved and consists of heads, body and tail. The lenticular nucleus lies outside the caudate nucleus and is divided into three parts by thin layers of white matter. One part that has a darker color is called shell, and the two lighter parts are combined under the name pale ball. The nuclei of the striatum are subcortical motor centers that regulate complex automated acts. When they are damaged, they develop Parkinson's disease. Its symptoms are: tremor of the limbs, increased muscle tone, while the head and torso are tilted forward and unbent with difficulty, the fingers are bent and tremble, walking is difficult, the face has a mask-like expression.

2. Fence , is a thin layer of gray matter, located lateral to the lenticular nucleus, and separated from it by a septum of white matter - outer capsule.

3. amygdala located in the anterior part of the temporal lobe, is a subcortical olfactory center and is part of limbic system.

The cavities of the telencephalon are cerebral ventricles I and II, interventricular openings they communicate with III. In each ventricle, located in the depths of the parietal lobe, central part, from which three horns depart: anterior horn- in the frontal lobe rear horn- in the occipital lobe and lower horn- in the temporal lobe. In the central part and lower horn there is a villous proliferation of blood vessels - choroid plexus of the lateral ventricle. Its cells actively produce cerebrospinal fluid - liquor from blood plasma. Liquor constantly circulates through the system of cavities of the brain and spinal cord, as well as in the subarachnoid space. Liquor is the internal environment of the brain, maintains the constancy of its salt composition and osmotic pressure, and also protects the brain from mechanical damage.

FUNCTIONAL AREAS

CORTAS OF THE GREAT HEMISPHERES

In the cerebral cortex, the following functional zones are distinguished.

I. Motor or motor zone, located in the precentral gyrus. When it is irritated, various muscle contractions occur on the opposite side of the body. With damage to the precentral gyrus, either paralysis or paresis is observed.

II. sensitive or sensory areas.

1. Zone of musculocutaneous sensitivity, located in the postcentral gyrus. Cells in this area receive impulses from skin receptors and muscle proprioceptors. With the defeat of the zone, there is a loss of sensitivity - anesthesia.

2. The visual zone is located in the occipital lobe. This is where the impulses from the photoreceptors of the eyes go. If the zone is damaged, visual impairment up to blindness is observed.

3. Auditory zone, located in the temporal lobe. Receives impulses from the receptors of the organ of Corti in the inner ear. If the zone is damaged, blindness develops.

4. Taste zone, located in the hippocampal gyrus. It receives impulses from the taste buds of the tongue. If the zone is damaged, taste sensation is disturbed.

5. Olfactory zone, located in the hook of the hippocampus. It receives impulses from the olfactory receptors of the nasal mucosa. If the zone is damaged, there is a loss of smell - anosmia.

III. Association zones, occupy the remaining areas of the cortex, participate in the analysis and synthesis of stimuli entering the CBP. They provide such human qualities as consciousness, thinking, speech, writing, and memory.

Speech centers include:

1. Motor Speech Center or Broca's center. It is located in the frontal lobe, in right-handers on the left. When the center is damaged, a person loses the ability to speak.

2. sensory center speech or Wernicke's center, located in the temporal lobe. When it is damaged, a person speaks, but does not understand speech.

3. Visual Speech Center, located in the occipital lobe. When it is damaged, a person does not understand what is written.

With the defeat of the associative zones, the following are observed:

1. Agnosia - Disorders of recognition. With auditory agnosia, a person does not recognize objects by the sounds they make. With visual agnosia, a person sees, but does not recognize objects. With stereoagnosia, objects are not recognized by touch.

2. Apraxia - inability to reproduce learned movements.

3. Aphasia - speech disorder.

4. Agraphia- writing violation.

5. Amnesia - memory disorder.

LIMBIC SYSTEM

limbic system is a collection of formations of the brain, located in the form of a ring around the diencephalon. These structures include: olfactory bulbs, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, insula, parahippocampal gyrus, mastoid bodies, amygdala nuclei.

The limbic system performs the following functions:

1. Regulates autonomic functions through the hypothalamus.

2. Regulates the behavioral reactions of the body.

3. Participates in the formation of emotions.

4. Participates in the formation of GNI processes.

5. Manifestation of memory.

MEATHERS OF THE BRAIN

The brain has the same membranes as the dorsal one, but the hard shell forms two sheets, the spaces between which are called cerebral sinuses, in which venous blood drains. The largest sinuses are:

1. transverse cerebral sinus, formed by an outgrowth of the meninges between the occipital lobes and the cerebellum - cerebellum.

2. Upper and inferior sagittal sinus, formed by an outgrowth of the hard shell between the cerebral hemispheres - sickle brain.

3. Occipital sinus, lies at the base falx cerebellum- an outgrowth of the hard shell located between the hemispheres of the cerebellum.

LECTURE

SPINAL NERVES AND THEIR PLEXES

CRANIAL NERVES

A person has 31 pairs of spinal nerves, corresponding to 31 segments of the spinal cord: 8 pairs of cervical, 12 pairs of thoracic, 5 pairs of lumbar, 5 pairs of sacral and a pair of coccygeal nerves.

The spinal nerves are mixed in function. They are formed by connecting the anterior (motor) and posterior (sensitive) roots. After leaving the intervertebral foramen, each nerve divides into four branches. The anterior branches innervate the anterior regions of the neck, trunk, and limbs. The posterior branches innervate the posterior regions of the neck and trunk. Meningeal branches innervate the membranes of the spinal cord. Connecting branches go to the sympathetic nodes.

The anterior branches of the spinal nerves (with the exception of the thoracic) form plexuses: cervical, brachial, lumbar and sacral. Nerves depart from the plexuses, each of which has its own name and innervates a certain area. The anterior branches of the thoracic nerves are called intercostal and innervate the muscles and skin of the anterior and lateral walls of the chest cavity and abdomen.

NECK PLEXUS

Location: under the sternocleidomastoid muscle.

Formed by the anterior branches of the four upper cervical nerves.

Branches extending from the plexus and the region of innervation.

1. Sensory branches: small occipital nerve, large ear nerve, transverse nerve of the neck, supraclavicular nerves innervate the skin of the corresponding areas.

2. The motor branches innervate the muscles of the neck.

3. The mixed branch is the phrenic nerve, its motor fibers innervate the diaphragm, and the sensitive ones innervate the pericardium and pleura.

brachial plexus

Location: in the interstitial space, continues into the axillary fossa.

Formed by the anterior branches of the four lower cervical nerves and partly by the first thoracic spinal nerve.

Branches extending from the plexus and the region of innervation. In the plexus, short and long branches are distinguished.

Short branches innervate the muscles and skin of the chest, muscles of the shoulder girdle and back muscles. The largest short branch is the axillary nerve.

Long branches of the brachial plexus innervate the skin and muscles of the free upper limb. These include the following branches:

1. Medial cutaneous nerve of the shoulder.

2. Medial cutaneous nerve of the forearm.

3. Musculocutaneous nerve.

4. Median nerve.

6. Radial nerve.

LUMBAR PLEXUS

Location: in the thickness of the psoas major muscle.

Formed by the anterior branches of the three upper lumbar nerves and partly by the branches of the twelfth thoracic and fourth lumbar nerves.

The short branches include the iliac-hypogastric nerve, iliac-inguinal nerve, pudendal nerve. They innervate the muscles of the lumbar region, abdominal muscles, skin of the lower abdominal wall and genital organs.

Long branches innervate the skin of the lateral, medial and anterior surfaces of the thigh and lower leg, the anterior and medial group of thigh muscles. These include:

1. Lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh.

2. Femoral nerve.

3. Obturator nerve.

sacral plexus

Location: in the pelvic cavity on the anterior surface of the piriformis muscle.

Formed by the anterior branches of the fourth (partial) and fifth lumbar nerves and the four superior sacral nerves.

The main branches and areas of innervation. Short and long branches depart from the plexus.

The short branches include the pudendal nerve and the superior gluteal nerve. They innervate the muscles and skin of the perineum, external genitalia, muscles of the pelvis and gluteal region.

The long branches of the sacral plexus include:

1. Posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh.

2. The sciatic nerve, which in the popliteal fossa is divided into the tibial and peroneal nerve.

They innervate the skin of the perineum, gluteal region, posterior thigh, posterior thigh muscles, muscles of the lower leg and foot, and the skin of these sections (with the exception of the medial surface of the lower leg).

CRANIAL NERVES

The cranial nerves are nerves that originate from the brain stem.. They in it either start from the corresponding nuclei, or end. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Each pair has a serial number, denoted by a Roman numeral, and a name. The sequence number reflects the sequence in which the nerves exit.

According to their functions, the cranial nerves are divided into three groups: sensitive (I, II and VIII pairs); motor (III, IV, VI, XI and XII pairs); mixed (V, VII, IX and X pairs). As part of III, VII, IX and X pairs of nerves are parasympathetic fibers.

I couple – olfactory nerves, sensitive, are formed by processes of olfactory receptors of the mucosa of the upper nasal passage. These nerves enter the cranial cavity through the holes of the cribriform plate and go to the olfactory bulbs, from which the olfactory tracts begin. When the nerves are damaged, the sense of smell is disturbed.

II pair – optic nerve, sensitive, is formed by processes of ganglion cells of the retina. Through the optic canal penetrates into the cranial cavity. If the nerve is damaged, vision is impaired up to blindness.

III couple – oculomotor nerve, motor, contains parasympathetic fibers. The fibers of the oculomotor nerve originate from the motor nucleus and the accessory parasympathetic nucleus of Yakubovich, which are located in the midbrain. The nerve exits the cranial cavity through the superior orbital fissure into the orbit. The motor fibers innervate five muscles of the eye: the superior, inferior, and medial rectus, inferior oblique, and levator levatoris. Parasympathetic fibers innervate the ciliary muscle and the muscle that narrows the pupil. When the nerve is damaged, the following are observed: ptosis (drooping of the upper eyelid), strabismus, lack of pupillary reflex, disturbance of accommodation.

IV couple – trochlear nerve, motor. It starts from the nucleus of the midbrain. The nerve passes into the orbit through the superior orbital fissure. Innervates the superior oblique muscle of the eye.

V pair – trigeminal nerve, mixed, the thickest of all cranial nerves. Sensitive fibers are the dendrites of the trigeminal node, which is located at the top of the pyramid of the temporal bone. These dendrites form three branches of the nerve:

1. The ophthalmic nerve - enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure, innervates the skin of the forehead, upper eyelid, eye membranes, mucous membrane of the paranasal sinuses, and the dura mater of the brain.

2. Maxillary nerve - exits the cranial cavity through a round hole, innervates the skin of the middle part of the face, nasal mucosa, upper lip, gums, palate, upper teeth, hard shell of the brain.

3. Mandibular nerve - exits the cranial cavity through the foramen ovale, innervates the skin of the lower lip, chin, temporal region, the mucous membrane of the lower lip, gums, cheeks, tip of the tongue, lower teeth.

The motor fibers of the trigeminal nerve are the axons of the neurons of its motor nucleus located in the bridge. These fibers, after exiting the cranial cavity, join the mandibular nerve and innervate the masticatory muscles, the muscles of the palate, and the suprahyoid muscles.

When a nerve is damaged by the herpes virus or its inflammation, severe pain (neuralgia) occurs, pathological changes in the cornea, leading to blindness.

VI couple – abducens nerve, motor, its nucleus is located in the bridge, exits the cranial cavity through the superior orbital fissure and innervates the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. When the nerve is damaged, convergent strabismus is observed.

VII couple – facial nerve, mixed. All nuclei of the facial nerve lie in the bridge. The nerve leaves the cranial cavity through the stylomastoid foramen. Its motor fibers innervate the mimic muscles of the face; sensitive - the mucous membrane of the tongue (anterior two-thirds); parasympathetic - submandibular and sublingual salivary glands. Bell's palsy develops when the nerve is damaged. It is characterized by paralysis or paresis of facial muscles, while the palpebral fissure does not close, tears constantly flow, the corner of the mouth is lowered.

VIII couple – vestibulocochlear nerve, sensitive. Consists of two parts - vestibular and cochlear. The cochlear nerve is formed by the processes of the auditory receptors of the organ of Corti in the cochlea. The vestibular nerve is formed by processes of receptors of the vestibular apparatus. The nerve nuclei are located in the bridge. The nerve leaves the cranial cavity through the internal auditory meatus. If the nerve is damaged, dizziness, tinnitus, and so on are observed.

IX couple – glossopharyngeal nerve, mixed. Its nuclei are located in the medulla oblongata. The nerve exits the cranial cavity through the jugular foramen. Motor fibers innervate the muscles of the pharynx; sensitive - the mucous membrane of the pharynx, tympanic cavity, tongue (rear third); parasympathetic fibers - parotid salivary gland. When the nerve is damaged, swallowing and taste sensation are disturbed.

x pair – nervus vagus, mixed, is the longest of the cranial nerves. The nuclei of the vagus nerve are located in the medulla oblongata. The nerve exits the cranial cavity through the jugular foramen. Its motor fibers innervate the muscles of the palate, pharynx, larynx; sensitive receive impulses from visceroreceptors of internal organs; parasympathetic fibers innervate the organs of the neck, thoracic and abdominal cavities.

XI couple – accessory nerve, motor, has a nucleus in the medulla oblongata, exits the cranial cavity through the jugular foramen. Innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles. In case of damage, it is difficult to turn the head, the shoulder drops.

XII couple – hypoglossal nerve, motor. Its nucleus is located in the medulla oblongata. It leaves the cranial cavity through the hyoid canal. Innervates the muscles of the tongue and sublingual muscles. When damaged, weakness of the muscles of the tongue is observed, which makes swallowing and speech difficult.

PATHWAYS OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD

The projection nerve fibers connecting the underlying parts of the central nervous system with the basal ganglia and the cerebral cortex and vice versa are called pathways of the brain and spinal cord

Distinguish ascending (afferent, sensory) and descending (efferent), motor) conducting paths.

ascending paths serve to transmit information from the receptors of the body to the cerebral cortex, to the cerebellar cortex and other centers of the brain. The ascending pathways to the cerebral cortex have a three-neuron structure:

1. The bodies of the first neurons are located in the spinal ganglia

2. The bodies of the second neurons are located in the nuclei of the posterior horns of the spinal cord or in the nuclei of the cranial nerves of the brain stem

3. The bodies of the third neurons are located in the nuclei of the thalamus

The ascending pathways to the cerebellum do not pass through the thalamus and are therefore bineuronal. Ascending paths include:

I. Ascending pathways of skin sensitivity, they conduct impulses from skin receptors to the thalamus, and then to the cerebral cortex.

1. Anterior dorsal thalamic pathway(conducting path of touch and pressure). It begins with skin receptors that perceive the sense of touch and pressure. From them, the nerve impulse travels along the sensitive fibers of the spinal nerves to the spinal ganglia, where the bodies of the first neurons are located. From them, the nerve impulse through the posterior root of the spinal nerve enters the posterior horn of the spinal cord, where the bodies of the second neurons are located. Axons start from them, which pass to the opposite side of the spinal cord (form a decussation) and rise as part of the anterior cords through the medulla oblongata, the bridge, the brain stems to the thalamus, where the bodies of the third neurons are located. From the thalamus, nerve impulses are transmitted to the postcentral gyrus of the cortex, where the corresponding sensations arise.

2. Lateral (lateral) dorsal-thalamic pathway(path of pain and temperature sensitivity). It begins with pain and temperature receptors in the skin. Nerve impulses from them pass in the same way as in the previous path, but along the lateral cords of the spinal cord.

II. Ascending pathways of proprioceptive sensitivity conduct impulses from the proprioreceptors of the trunk and extremities to the cerebral cortex.

1. Thin beam starts from the proprioceptors of the lower extremities. Nerve impulses from them along the sensitive fibers of the spinal nerves reach the spinal ganglion, where the bodies of the first neurons are located. From them, along the posterior spinal roots, the impulses go along the axons as part of the posterior cords of the spinal cord, the thin bundle of the medulla oblongata and reach the nuclei of the thin bundle, in the medulla oblongata, where the bodies of the second neurons are located. The axons of the neurons of the opposite nuclei form a cross and go through the bridge, the legs of the brain to the thalamus, where the bodies of the third neurons are located. From them, nerve impulses reach the precentral gyrus of the cerebral cortex.

2. Wedge-shaped bundle starts from the proprioceptors of the upper half of the trunk and upper limbs. From them, the impulses go as in the previous path, but along the sphenoid bundle of the medulla oblongata through its nuclei.

III. Ascending spinocerebellar tracts transmit information from proprioceptors to the cerebellum, which ensures coordination of movements and muscle tone.

1. Anterior spinal tract includes proprioreceptors, sensory fibers of the spinal nerves, spinal nodes (where the bodies of the first neurons are located). Back roots. The posterior horns of the spinal cord (where the bodies of the second neurons are located), the axons of the lateral cords of the spinal cord, the medulla oblongata, the bridge, the legs of the brain, the upper legs of the cerebellum. Axons cross twice: through the intermediate gray matter of the spinal cord and at the level of the bridge. End in the cortex of the cerebellar vermis.

2. Posterior spinocerebellar tract includes the same structures, but from the medulla oblongata through the lower cerebellar peduncles immediately reaches the cerebellum. The axons of this pathway do not cross anywhere.

Descending pathways serve to transmit impulses from the CBP or subcortical nuclei, to the motor nuclei of the brain stem and spinal cord, and from them to the organs of the body.

I. Pyramidal pathways have a two-neuron structure.

1. The bodies of the first neurons (pyramidal cells) are located in the motor cortex.

2. The bodies of the second neurons are located in the nuclei of the cranial nerves of the brain stem and the motor nuclei of the anterior horns of the spinal cord.

1. The anterior cortical-spinal tract starts from the precentral gyrus of the CBP, where the pyramidal cells (the first neurons) are located. From them, the nerve fibers through the legs of the brain, the bridge, the pyramids of the medulla oblongata reach the anterior cords of the spinal cord, where they cross and reach the motor neurons (second neurons) of the anterior horns of the spinal cord. From them, impulses are transmitted along the anterior roots and motor fibers of the spinal nerves to the muscles of the trunk and limbs.

2. Lateral (lateral) cortical-spinal path: impulses go along the same structures as in the previous path, but along the lateral cords of the spinal cord. Crossing of the fibers occurs at the level of the pyramids.

3. Cortico-nuclear pathway. The bodies of the first neurons are represented by pyramidal cells of the precentral gyrus. From them, the fibers go to the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves of the legs of the midbrain, bridge, medulla oblongata, where the bodies of the second neurons are located. Near these nuclei, the fibers form a decussation. From the motor nuclei of the cranial nerves, impulses are sent to the muscles of the head, neck, tongue, pharynx, and larynx.

II. Extrapyramidal pathways conduct nerve impulses from the subcortical nuclei to the muscles, which regulates their coordination and tone.

1. Rubrospinal path(red-nuclear-spinal) starts from the red nuclei of the midbrain, where the bodies of the first neurons are located. The fibers extending from them cross in the legs of the brain. Then they follow through the bridge, the medulla oblongata, the lateral cords of the spinal cord and reach the motor neurons in the anterior horns of the spinal cord. From them impulses go to the muscles.

2. Vestibulo-spinal tract. It starts from the nuclei of the VIII pair of cranial nerves located in the region of the bridge. The bodies of the first neurons are located there. Further, the fibers of the white matter as part of the anterior funiculus of the spinal cord transmit excitation to the bodies of the second nerves located in the anterior motor horns of the spinal cord.

From them impulses go to the muscles.

Metathalamus (metathaiamus, foreign tuberosity) consists of medial and lateral geniculate bodies located under the posterior part of the thalamus cushion, above and lateral to the superior colliculus of the quadrigemina. The medial geniculate body (corpus geniculatum medialis) contains a cell nucleus, in which the lateral (auditory) loop ends. Nerve fibers that make up the lower handle of the quadrigemina (brachium coUiculi inferioris), it is connected with the lower colliculus of the quadrigemina and together with them forms a subcortical auditory center. Axons of cells laid down in the subcortical auditory center, mainly in the medial geniculate body, are directed to the cortical end of the auditory analyzer, located in the superior temporal gyrus, more precisely in the cortex of the small Geschl gyrus located on it (fields 41, 42, 43, according to Brodmann), while auditory impulses are transmitted to the projection auditory field of the cortex in the tonotopic order. The defeat of the medial geniculate body leads to hearing loss, more pronounced on the opposite side. The defeat of both medial geniculate bodies can cause deafness in both ears. If the medial part of the metathalamus is affected, the clinical picture of Frankl-Hochwart syndrome may appear, which is characterized by bilateral hearing loss, increasing and leading to deafness, and ataxia, combined with paresis of the upward gaze, concentric narrowing of the visual fields and signs of intracranial hypertension . This syndrome was described by the Austrian neuropathologist L. Frankl-Chochwart (1862-1914) with a tumor of the epiphysis. The lateral geniculate body (corpus geniculatum laterale), like the superior tubercles of the quadrigemina, with which it is connected by the upper handles of the quadrigemina (brachii coUiculi superiores), consists of alternating layers of gray and white matter. The lateral geniculate bodies make up the subcortical visual center. They mainly terminate the optic tracts. The axons of the cells of the lateral geniculate bodies pass compactly in the posterior part of the posterior femur of the internal capsule, and then form visual radiance (radiatio optica), along which visual impulses reach the cortical end of the visual analyzer in a strict retinotopic order - mainly the region of the spur sulcus on medial surface of the occipital lobe (field 17, according to Brodman). On issues related to the structure, function, methods of examination of the visual analyzer, as well as the significance of the pathology detected during its examination, for topical diagnosis, one should dwell in more detail, since many structures that make up the visual system are directly related to the intermediate brain and in the process of ontogenesis are formed from the primary anterior cerebral bladder.

3. centers in the hypothalamus :

- thermoregulation;

- hunger and thirst;

- pleasures and displeasures;

- regulation of metabolic processes;

- stimulation of the anterior nuclei of the hypothalamus

causes parasympathetic effects;

- stimulation of the posterior nuclei of the hypothalamus causes

sympathetic effects.

RETICULAR FORMATION

Reticular formation is a cluster of special neurons that form a kind of network with their fibers.

The reticular formation of the brain stem occupies a central position in the medulla oblongata, pons varolii, midbrain and diencephalon.

Meaning of the reticular formation:

1. Regulates the activity of the respiratory and cardiovascular centers.

2. It has an activating effect on the cerebral cortex, maintaining the state of wakefulness and concentrating attention.

3. Irritation of the reticular formation, without causing a motor effect, changes the existing activity, inhibiting or enhancing it.

FINAL BRAIN

The telencephalon consists of two hemispheres connected corpus callosum.

1. Associative - connect sections within the same

hemisphere.

2. Commissural - connect parts of different hemispheres.

3. Projection- connect the hemispheres with other parts of the central nervous system.

2. Fence , is a thin layer of gray matter, located lateral to the lenticular nucleus, and separated from it by a septum of white matter - outer capsule.

3. amygdala located in the anterior part of the temporal lobe, is a subcortical olfactory center and is part of limbic system.

FUNCTIONAL AREAS