The Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary in the 19th century. Outline of a lesson on history (grade 8) on the topic: The Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries

Assuming the throne, Alexander solemnly proclaimed that henceforth politics would be based not on the personal will or whim of the monarch, but on strict observance of laws. The population was promised legal guarantees against arbitrariness. Around the king there was a circle of friends, called the Unspoken Committee. It included young aristocrats: Count P. A. Stroganov, Count V. P. Kochubey, N. N. Novosiltsev, Prince A. D. Czartorysky. The aggressively minded aristocracy dubbed the committee "the Jacobin gang." This committee met from 1801 to 1803 and discussed projects of state reforms, the abolition of serfdom, etc.

During the first period of the reign of Alexander I from 1801 to 1815. much has been done, but much more has been promised. The restrictions imposed by Paul I were lifted. Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg universities were created. Universities were opened in Dorpat and Vilna. In 1804, the Moscow Commercial School was opened. From now on, representatives of all classes could be admitted to educational institutions, at the lower levels education was free, paid from the state budget. The reign of Alexander I was characterized by unconditional religious tolerance, which was extremely important for multinational Russia.

In 1802, the obsolete collegiums, which had been the main organs of executive power since the time of Peter the Great, were replaced by ministries. The first 8 ministries were established: the army, the navy, justice, internal affairs, and finance. Commerce and public education.

In 1810-1811. during the reorganization of the ministries, their number increased, and the functions were even more clearly delineated. In 1802, the Senate was reformed, becoming the highest judicial and controlling body in the system of state administration. He received the right to make "representations" to the emperor about obsolete laws. Spiritual affairs were in charge of the Holy Synod, whose members were appointed by the emperor. It was headed by the chief prosecutor, a person, as a rule, close to the king. From military or civilian officials. Under Alexander I, the position of chief prosecutor in 1803-1824. Prince A. N. Golitsyn, who since 1816 was also the Minister of Public Education. The most active supporter of the idea of ​​reforming the public administration system was the state secretary of the Permanent Council, M. M. Speransky. However, he did not enjoy the favor of the emperor for a very long time. The implementation of Speransky's project could contribute to the start of the constitutional process in Russia. In total, the project “Introduction to the Code of State Laws” outlined the principle of separation of the legislative, executive and judicial powers by convening representatives of the State Duma and introducing elected judicial instances.

At the same time, he considered it necessary to create a State Council, which would become a link between the emperor and the bodies of central and local self-government. The cautious Speransky endowed all the newly proposed bodies only with deliberative rights and by no means encroached on the fullness of autocratic power. The liberal project of Speransky was opposed by the conservative-minded part of the nobility, which saw in it a danger to the autocratic-feudal system and to their privileged position.

The well-known writer and historian I. M. Karamzin became the ideologist of the conservatives. In practical terms, the reactionary policy was pursued by Count A. A. Arakcheev, close to Alexander I, who, unlike M. M. Speransky, sought to strengthen the personal power of the emperor through the further development of the bureaucratic system.

The struggle between liberals and conservatives ended in victory for the latter. Speransky was removed from business and sent into exile. The only result was the establishment of the State Council, in 1810, which consisted of ministers and other high dignitaries appointed by the emperor. He was given advisory functions in the development of the most important laws. Reforms 1802–1811 did not change the autocratic essence of the Russian political system. They only increased the centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. As before, the emperor was the supreme legislative and executive power.

In subsequent years, the reformist moods of Alexander I were reflected in the introduction of a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland (1815), the preservation of the Sejm and the constitutional structure of Finland, annexed to Russia in 1809, as well as in the creation by N.N. Russian Empire" (1819-1820). The project provided for the separation of branches of power, the introduction of government bodies. Equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle of government. However, all these proposals remained on paper.

In the last decade of the reign of Alexander I, a conservative trend was increasingly felt in domestic politics. By the name of her guide, she received the name "Arakcheevshchina". This policy was expressed in the further centralization of state administration, in police-repressive measures aimed at the destruction of free thought, in the "cleansing" of universities, in the planting of cane discipline in the army. The most striking manifestation of the policy of Count A. A. Arakcheev was military settlements - a special form of recruiting and maintaining the army.

The purpose of creating military settlements is to achieve self-support and self-reproduction of the army. To ease for the country's budget the burden of maintaining a huge army in peaceful conditions. The first attempts to organize them date back to 1808-1809, but they began to be created en masse in 1815-1816. State-owned peasants of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev and Kharkov provinces were transferred to the category of military settlements. Soldiers were also settled here, to whom their families were registered. Wives became villagers, sons from the age of 7 were enlisted as cantonists, and from the age of 18 into active military service. The whole life of the peasant family was strictly regulated. For the slightest violation of the order, corporal punishment followed. A. A. Arakcheev was appointed chief commander of the military settlements. By 1825, about a third of the soldiers had been transferred to the settlement.

However, the idea of ​​the self-sufficiency of the army failed. The government spent a lot of money on the organization of settlements. The military settlers did not become a special class that expanded the social support of the autocracy, on the contrary, they were worried and rebelled. The government abandoned this practice in subsequent years. Alexander I died in Taganrog in 1825. He had no children. Due to the ambiguity in the issue of succession to the throne in Russia, an emergency situation was created - an interregnum.

The years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas I (1825-1855) are rightly regarded as "the apogee of autocracy". The Nikolaev reign began with the massacre of the Decembrists and ended in the days of the defense of Sevastopol. The replacement of the heir to the throne by Alexander I came as a surprise to Nicholas I, who was not prepared to rule Russia.

On December 6, 1826, the first Secret Committee was created by the emperor, headed by the chairman of the State Council, V.P. Kochubey. Initially, the committee developed projects for the transformation of higher and local government and the law "on states", that is, on the rights of estates. It was supposed to consider the peasant question. However, in fact, the work of the committee did not give any practical results, and in 1832 the committee ceased its activities.

Nicholas I set the task of concentrating in his hands the solution of both general and private affairs, bypassing the relevant ministries and departments. The principle of the regime of personal power was embodied in His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery. It was divided into several branches that interfered in the political, social and spiritual life of the country.

The codification of Russian legislation was entrusted to M. M. Speransky, returned from exile, who intended to collect and classify all existing laws, to create a fundamentally new system of legislation. However, conservative tendencies in domestic politics limited him to a more modest task. Under his leadership, the laws adopted after the Council Code of 1649 were summarized. They were published in the Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire in 45 volumes. In a separate "Code of Laws" (15 volumes), the current laws were placed, which corresponded to the legal situation in the country. All this was also aimed at strengthening the bureaucratization of management.

In 1837-1841. under the leadership of Count P. D. Kiselev, an extensive system of measures was carried out - the reform of the management of state peasants. In 1826, a committee was set up to set up educational institutions. Its tasks included: checking the statutes of educational institutions, developing uniform principles of education, determining academic disciplines and manuals. The committee developed the basic principles of government policy in the field of education. They were legally enshrined in the Charter of lower and secondary educational institutions in 1828. Estate, isolation, isolation of each step, restriction in the education of representatives of the lower classes, created the essence of the created education system.

The reaction hit the universities as well. Their network, however, was expanded due to the need for qualified officials. The charter of 1835 liquidated university autonomy, tightened control over the trustees of educational districts, the police and local government. At that time, S.S. Uvarov was the Minister of Public Education, who, in his policy, sought to combine the “protection” of Nicholas I with the development of education and culture.

In 1826, a new censorship charter was issued, which was called "cast iron" by contemporaries. The Main Directorate of Censorship was subordinate to the Ministry of Public Education. The fight against advanced journalism was considered by Nicholas I as one of the top political tasks. One after another, bans on the publication of magazines rained down. 1831 was the date of the termination of the publication of A. A. Delvich's Literary Gazette, in 1832 P. V. Kirievsky's The European was closed, in 1834 the Moscow Telegraph by N. A. Polevoy, and in 1836 " Telescope” by N. I. Nadezhdin.

In the domestic policy of the last years of the reign of Nicholas I (1848-1855), the reactionary-repressive line intensified even more.

By the mid 50s. Russia turned out to be "an ear of clay with feet of clay." This predetermined failures in foreign policy, the defeat in the Crimean War (1853-1856) and caused the reforms of the 60s.

At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. two directions in Russia's foreign policy were clearly defined: the Middle East - the struggle to strengthen its positions in the Transcaucasus, the Black Sea and the Balkans, and the European - Russia's participation in coalition wars against Napoleonic France. One of the first acts of Alexander I after accession to the throne was the restoration of relations with England. But Alexander I did not want to come into conflict with France either. The normalization of relations with England and France allowed Russia to intensify its activities in the Middle East, mainly in the region of the Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

According to the manifesto of Alexander I of September 12, 1801, the Georgian ruling dynasty of the Bagratids lost the throne, the control of Kartli and Kakheti passed to the Russian governor. Tsarist administration was introduced in Eastern Georgia. In 1803-1804. under the same conditions, the rest of Georgia - Mengrelia, Guria, Imeretia - became part of Russia. Russia received strategically important territory for strengthening its positions in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The completion in 1814 of the construction of the Georgian Military Highway, which connected the Transcaucasus with European Russia, was of great importance not only in the strategic, but also in the economic sense.

The annexation of Georgia pushed Russia against Iran and the Ottoman Empire. The hostile attitude of these countries towards Russia was fueled by the intrigues of England. The war with Iran that began in 1804 was successfully waged by Russia: already during 1804-1806. the main part of Azerbaijan was annexed to Russia. The war ended with the annexation in 1813 of the Talysh Khanate and the Mugan steppe. According to the Peace of Gulistan, signed on October 24, 1813, Iran recognized the assignment of these territories to Russia. Russia was granted the right to keep its military vessels on the Caspian Sea.

In 1806, the war between Russia and Turkey began, which relied on the help of France, which supplied it with weapons. The reason for the war was the removal in August 1806 from the posts of the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia at the insistence of the Napoleonic General Sebastiani, who arrived in Turkey. In October 1806, Russian troops under the command of General I. I. Mikhelson occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1807, the squadron of D.N. Senyavin defeated the Ottoman fleet, but then the diversion of the main forces of Russia to participate in the anti-Napoleonic coalition did not allow the Russian troops to develop success. Only when M. I. Kutuzov was appointed commander of the Russian army in 1811 did the hostilities take a completely different turn. Kutuzov concentrated the main forces at the Ruschuk fortress, where on June 22, 1811 he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottoman Empire. Then, with successive blows, Kutuzov defeated in parts the main forces of the Ottomans along the left bank of the Danube, their remnants laid down their arms and surrendered. On May 28, 1812, Kutuzov signed a peace treaty in Bucharest, according to which Moldavia was ceded to Russia, which later received the status of the Bessarabia region. Serbia, which rose to fight for independence in 1804 and was supported by Russia, was presented with autonomy.

In 1812, the eastern part of Moldova became part of Russia. Its western part (beyond the Prut River), under the name of the Principality of Moldavia, remained in vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire.

In 1803-1805. the international situation in Europe sharply worsened. The period of the Napoleonic wars begins, in which all European countries were involved, incl. and Russia.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Almost all of central and southern Europe was under Napoleon's rule. In foreign policy, Napoleon expressed the interests of the French bourgeoisie, which competed with the British bourgeoisie in the struggle for world markets and for the colonial division of the world. Anglo-French rivalry acquired a pan-European character and took a leading place in international relations at the beginning of the 19th century.

The proclamation in 1804 of May 18 of Napoleon as emperor further inflamed the situation. April 11, 1805 was concluded. The Anglo-Russian military convention, according to which Russia was obliged to put up 180 thousand soldiers, and England to pay a subsidy to Russia in the amount of 2.25 million pounds sterling and participate in land and sea military operations against Napoleon. Austria, Sweden and the Kingdom of Naples joined this convention. However, only Russian and Austrian troops numbering 430 thousand soldiers were sent against Napoleon. Having learned about the movement of these troops, Napoleon withdrew his army in the Boulogne camp and quickly moved it to Bavaria, where the Austrian army was located under the command of General Mack and utterly defeated it at Ulm.

The commander of the Russian army, M. I. Kutuzov, taking into account Napoleon's fourfold superiority in strength, through a series of skillful maneuvers, avoided a major battle and, having made a difficult 400-kilometer march, joined up with another Russian army and Austrian reserves. Kutuzov proposed to withdraw the Russian-Austrian troops further east in order to gather enough strength for the successful conduct of hostilities, however, the emperors Franz and Alexander I, who were with the army, insisted on a general battle. On November 20, 1805, it took place at Austerlitz (Czech Republic) and ended in victory Napoleon. Austria capitulated and made a humiliating peace. The coalition actually broke up. Russian troops were withdrawn to the borders of Russia and Russian-French peace negotiations began in Paris. On July 8, 1806, a peace treaty was concluded in Paris, but Alexander I refused to ratify it.

In mid-September 1806, a fourth coalition was formed against France (Russia, Great Britain, Prussia and Sweden). In the battle of Jena and Auerstedt, the Prussian troops were completely defeated. Almost all of Prussia was occupied by French troops. The Russian army had to fight alone for 7 months against the superior forces of the French. The most significant were the battles of Russian troops with the French in East Prussia on January 26-27 at Preussisch-Eylau and on June 2, 1807 near Friedland. During these battles, Napoleon managed to push the Russian troops back to the Neman, but he did not dare to enter Russia and offered to make peace. The meeting between Napoleon and Alexander I took place in Tilsit (on the Neman) at the end of June 1807. The peace treaty was concluded on June 25, 1807.

Joining the continental blockade caused severe damage to the Russian economy, since England was its main trading partner. The conditions of the Peace of Tilsit caused strong discontent both in conservative circles and in the advanced circles of Russian society. A serious blow was dealt to Russia's international prestige. The painful impression of the Tilsit Peace was to some extent “compensated” by the successes in the Russian-Swedish war of 1808-1809, which was the result of the Tilsit agreements.

The war began on February 8, 1808 and demanded a great effort from Russia. At first, military operations were successful: in February-March 1808, the main urban centers and fortresses of Southern Finland were occupied. Then hostilities stopped. By the end of 1808, Finland was liberated from the Swedish troops, and in March, the 48,000th corps of M. B. Barclay de Tolly, having made the transition on the ice of the Gulf of Bothnia, approached Stockholm. On September 5, 1809, in the city of Friedrichsgam, a peace was concluded between Russia and Sweden, under the terms of which Finland and the Aland Islands passed to Russia. At the same time, the contradictions between France and Russia gradually deepened.

A new war between Russia and France was becoming inevitable. The main motive for unleashing the war was Napoleon's desire for world domination, on the way to which Russia stood.

On the night of June 12, 1812, the Napoleonic army crossed the Neman and invaded Russia. The left flank of the French army consisted of 3 corps under the command of MacDonald, advancing on Riga and Petersburg. The main, central group of troops, consisting of 220 thousand people, led by Napoleon, attacked Kovno and Vilna. Alexander I at that time was in Vilna. At the news of France crossing the Russian border, he sent General A. D. Balashov to Napoleon with peace proposals, but was refused.

Usually, Napoleon's wars were reduced to one or two general battles, which decided the fate of the company. And for this, Napoleon's calculation was reduced to using his numerical superiority to smash the dispersed Russian armies one by one. On June 13, French troops occupied Kovno, and on June 16 Vilna. At the end of June, Napoleon's attempt to encircle and destroy the army of Barclay de Tolly in the Drissa camp (on the Western Dvina) failed. Barclay de Tolly, by a successful maneuver, led his army out of the trap that the Dris camp could have turned out to be and headed through Polotsk to Vitebsk to join the army of Bagration, who was retreating south in the direction of Bobruisk, Novy Bykhov and Smolensk. The difficulties of the Russian army were aggravated by the lack of a unified command. On June 22, after heavy rearguard battles, the armies of Barclay da Tolly and Bagration united in Smolensk.

The stubborn battle of the Russian rearguard with the advancing advanced units of the French army on August 2 near Krasnoy (west of Smolensk) allowed the Russian troops to strengthen Smolensk. On August 4-6, a bloody battle for Smolensk took place. On the night of August 6, the burned and destroyed city was abandoned by Russian troops. In Smolensk, Napoleon decided to advance on Moscow. On August 8, Alexander I signed a decree appointing M. I. Kutuzov as commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Nine days later, Kutuzov arrived in the army.

For the general battle, Kutuzov chose a position near the village of Borodino. On August 24, the French army approached the advanced fortification in front of the Borodino field - the Shevardinsky redoubt. A heavy battle ensued: 12,000 Russian soldiers held back the onslaught of a 40,000-strong French detachment all day. This battle helped to strengthen the left flank of the Borodino position. The battle of Borodino began at 5 o'clock in the morning on August 26 with the attack of the French division of General Delzon on Borodino. Only by 16 o'clock was the Raevsky redoubt captured by the French cavalry. By evening, Kutuzov gave the order to withdraw to a new line of defense. Napoleon stopped the attacks, limiting himself to artillery cannonade. As a result of the Battle of Borodino, both armies suffered heavy losses. The Russians lost 44 thousand, and the French 58 thousand people.

On September 1 (13), a military council was convened in the village of Fili, at which Kutuzov made the only right decision - to leave Moscow in order to save the army. The next day the French army approached Moscow. Moscow was empty: no more than 10 thousand inhabitants remained in it. On the same night, fires broke out in various parts of the city, which raged for a whole week. The Russian army, leaving Moscow, first moved to Ryazan. Near Kolomna, Kutuzov, leaving a barrier of several Cossack regiments, turned onto the Starokaluga road and withdrew his army from the attack of the pressing French cavalry. The Russian army entered Tarutino. On October 6, Kutuzov suddenly struck at Murat's corps, which was stationed on the river. Chernishne is not far from Tarutina. The defeat of Murat forced Napoleon to accelerate the movement of the main forces of his army to Kaluga. Kutuzov sent his troops to cross him to Maloyaroslavets. On October 12, a battle took place near Maloyaroslavets, which forced Napoleon to abandon the movement to the south and turn to Vyazma on the old Smolensk road devastated by the war. The retreat of the French army began, which later turned into a flight, and its parallel pursuit by the Russian army.

From the moment Napoleon invaded Russia, a people's war broke out in the country against foreign invaders. After leaving Moscow, and especially during the period of the Tarutino camp, the partisan movement assumed a wide scope. Partisan detachments, having launched a "small war", disrupted enemy communications, performed the role of reconnaissance, sometimes gave real battles and actually blocked the retreating French army.

Retreating from Smolensk to the river. Berezina, the French army still retained combat effectiveness, although it suffered heavy losses from hunger and disease. After crossing the river Berezina already began a disorderly flight of the remnants of the French troops. On December 5, in Sorgani, Napoleon handed over command to Marshal Murat, and he hurried to Paris. On December 25, 1812, the tsar's manifesto was published announcing the end of the Patriotic War. Russia was the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing defeat on it. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. 12 provinces that became the scene of hostilities were devastated. Such ancient cities as Moscow, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk, etc., were burnt and devastated.

To ensure its security, Russia continued hostilities and led the movement for the liberation of the European peoples from French domination.

In September 1814, the Congress of Vienna opened, at which the victorious powers decided on the post-war structure of Europe. It was difficult for the allies to agree among themselves, because. sharp contradictions arose, mainly on territorial issues. The work of the congress was interrupted due to the flight of Napoleon from Fr. Elba and the restoration of his power in France for 100 days. By combined efforts, the European states inflicted a final defeat on him at the Battle of Waterloo in the summer of 1815. Napoleon was captured and exiled to about. St. Helena off the west coast of Africa.

The decisions of the Congress of Vienna led to the return of the old dynasties in France, Italy, Spain and other countries. From most of the Polish lands, the Kingdom of Poland was created as part of the Russian Empire. In September 1815, the Russian Emperor Alexander I, the Austrian Emperor Franz and the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III signed an act establishing the Holy Alliance. Alexander I himself was its author. The text of the Union contained the obligations of Christian monarchs to provide each other with all possible assistance. Political goals -support of the old monarchical dynasties based on the principle of legitimism (recognition of the legitimacy of maintaining their power), the fight against revolutionary movements in Europe.

At the Congresses of the Union during the years from 1818 to 1822. the suppression of revolutions was authorized in Naples (1820-1821), Piedmont (1821), Spain (1820-1823). However, these actions were aimed at maintaining peace and stability in Europe.

The news of the uprising in St. Petersburg in December 1825 was perceived by the Shah's government as a good moment to unleash hostilities against Russia. On July 16, 1826, the 60,000-strong Iranian army invaded Transcaucasia without declaring war and began a rapid movement towards Tbilisi. But soon she was stopped and began to suffer defeat after defeat. At the end of August 1826, Russian troops under the command of A.P. Yermolov completely cleared Transcaucasia from Iranian troops and military operations were transferred to the territory of Iran.

Nicholas I, not trusting Yermolov (he suspected him of having connections with the Decembrists), transferred the command of the troops of the Caucasus District to I.F. Paskevich. In April 1827, the offensive of Russian troops began in Eastern Armenia. The local Armenian population rose to help the Russian troops. In early July, Nakhchivan fell, and in October 1827, Erivan - the largest fortresses in the center of the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates. Soon all of Eastern Armenia was liberated by Russian troops. At the end of October 1827, Russian troops occupied Tabriz, the second capital of Iran, and quickly advanced towards Tehran. Panic broke out among the Iranian troops. Under these conditions, the Shah's government was forced to agree to the terms of peace proposed by Russia. On February 10, 1828, the Turkmanchay peace treaty between Russia and Iran was signed. According to the Turkmanchay Treaty, the Nakhichevan and Erivan khanates joined Russia.

In 1828, the Russian-Turkish war began, which was extremely difficult for Russia. The troops, accustomed to parade ground art, technically poorly equipped and led by mediocre generals, initially failed to achieve any significant success. The soldiers were starving, diseases raged among them, from which more people died than from enemy bullets. In the company of 1828, at the cost of considerable efforts and losses, they managed to occupy Wallachia and Moldavia, cross the Danube and take the fortress of Varna.

The campaign of 1829 was more successful. The Russian army crossed the Balkans and at the end of June, after a long siege, captured the strong fortress of Silistria, then Shumla, and in July Burgas and Sozopol. In Transcaucasia, Russian troops besieged the fortresses of Kars, Ardagan, Bayazet and Erzerum. On August 8, Adrianople fell. Nicholas I hurried the commander-in-chief of the Russian army Dibich with the conclusion of peace. On September 2, 1829, a peace treaty was concluded in Adrianople. Russia received the mouth of the Danube, the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus from Anapa to the approaches to Batum. After the annexation of Transcaucasia, the Russian government faced the task of ensuring a stable situation in the North Caucasus. Under Alexander I, the general began to advance deep into Chechnya and Dagestan, building military strongholds. The local population was driven to the construction of fortresses, fortified points, the construction of roads and bridges. The result of the policy pursued was the uprisings in Kabarda and Adygea (1821-1826) and Chechnya (1825-1826), which, however, were subsequently suppressed by Yermolov's corps.

An important role in the movement of the mountaineers of the Caucasus was played by Muridism, which became widespread among the Muslim population of the North Caucasus in the late 1920s. 19th century It implied religious fanaticism and an uncompromising struggle against the "infidels", which gave it a nationalistic character. In the North Caucasus, it was directed exclusively against Russians and was most widespread in Dagestan. A peculiar state - Immat - has developed here. In 1834, Shamil became the imam (head of state). Under his leadership, the struggle against the Russians intensified in the North Caucasus. It continued for 30 years. Shamil managed to unite the broad masses of the highlanders, to carry out a number of successful operations against the Russian troops. In 1848 his power was declared hereditary. It was the time of Shamil's greatest successes. But in the late 40s - early 50s, the urban population, dissatisfied with the feudal-theocratic order in Shamil's imamate, began to gradually move away from the movement, and Shamil began to fail. The highlanders left Shamil with whole auls and stopped the armed struggle against the Russian troops.

Even Russia's failures in the Crimean War did not ease the situation of Shamil, who tried to actively assist the Turkish army. His raids on Tbilisi failed. The peoples of Kabarda and Ossetia also did not want to join Shamil and oppose Russia. In 1856-1857. Chechnya fell away from Shamil. Uprisings began against Shamil in Avaria and Northern Dagestan. Under the onslaught of the troops, Shamil retreated to Southern Dagestan. On April 1, 1859, the troops of General Evdokimov took Shamil's "capital" - the village of Vedeno and destroyed it. Shamil with 400 murids took refuge in the village of Gunib, where on August 26, 1859, after a long and stubborn resistance, he surrendered. The Imamat ceased to exist. In 1863-1864 Russian troops occupied the entire territory along the northern slope of the Caucasus Range and crushed the resistance of the Circassians. The Caucasian war is over.

For the European absolutist states, the problem of combating the revolutionary danger was dominant in their foreign policy, it was connected with the main task of their domestic policy - the preservation of the feudal-serf order.

In 1830-1831. a revolutionary crisis arose in Europe. On July 28, 1830, a revolution broke out in France, overthrowing the Bourbon dynasty. Having learned about it, Nicholas I began to prepare the intervention of European monarchs. However, the delegations sent by Nicholas I to Austria and Germany returned with nothing. The monarchs did not dare to accept the proposals, believing that this intervention could result in serious social upheavals in their countries. European monarchs recognized the new French king, Louis Philippe of Orleans, as well as later Nicholas I. In August 1830, a revolution broke out in Belgium, which declared itself an independent kingdom (previously Belgium was part of the Netherlands).

Under the influence of these revolutions, in November 1830, an uprising broke out in Poland, caused by the desire to return the independence of the borders of 1792. Prince Konstantin managed to escape. A provisional government of 7 people was formed. The Polish Sejm, which met on January 13, 1831, proclaimed the “detronization” (deprivation of the Polish throne) of Nicholas I and the independence of Poland. Against the 50,000 rebel army, a 120,000 army was sent under the command of I. I. Dibich, who on February 13 inflicted a major defeat on the Poles near Grokhov. On August 27, after a powerful artillery cannonade, the assault on the suburbs of Warsaw - Prague began. The next day, Warsaw fell, the uprising was crushed. The constitution of 1815 was annulled. According to the Limited Statute published on February 14, 1832, the Kingdom of Poland was declared an integral part of the Russian Empire. The administration of Poland was entrusted to the Administrative Council, headed by the emperor's viceroy in Poland, I.F. Paskevich.

In the spring of 1848 a wave of bourgeois-democratic revolutions engulfed Germany, Austria, Italy, Wallachia and Moldavia. At the beginning of 1849 a revolution broke out in Hungary. Nicholas I took advantage of the request of the Austrian Habsburgs for help in suppressing the Hungarian revolution. At the beginning of May 1849, 150 thousand army of I.F. Paskevich was sent to Hungary. A significant preponderance of forces allowed the Russian and Austrian troops to suppress the Hungarian revolution.

Especially acute for Russia was the question of the regime of the Black Sea straits. In the 30-40s. 19th century Russian diplomacy waged a tense struggle for the most favorable conditions in resolving this issue. In 1833, the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty was concluded between Turkey and Russia for a period of 8 years. Under this treaty, Russia received the right to free passage of its warships through the straits. In the 1940s, the situation changed. On the basis of a number of agreements with European states, the straits were closed to all military fleets. This had a severe effect on the Russian fleet. He was locked in the Black Sea. Russia, relying on its military might, sought to re-solve the problem of the straits and strengthen its position in the Middle East and the Balkans. The Ottoman Empire wanted to return the territories lost as a result of the Russian-Turkish wars at the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th century.

Britain and France hoped to crush Russia as a great power and deprive her of influence in the Middle East and the Balkan Peninsula. In turn, Nicholas I sought to use the conflict that had arisen for a decisive offensive against the Ottoman Empire, believing that he would have to wage war with one weakened empire, he hoped to agree with England on the division, in his words: "the legacy of a sick person." He counted on the isolation of France, as well as on the support of Austria for the "service" rendered to her in suppressing the revolution in Hungary. His calculations were wrong. England did not go along with his proposal to divide the Ottoman Empire. Nicholas I's calculation that France did not have sufficient military forces to pursue an aggressive policy in Europe was also erroneous.

In 1850, a pan-European conflict began in the Middle East, when disputes broke out between the Orthodox and Catholic churches about which of the churches had the right to own the keys to the Bethlehem temple, to possess other religious monuments in Jerusalem. The Orthodox Church was supported by Russia, and the Catholic Church by France. The Ottoman Empire, which included Palestine, sided with France. This caused sharp discontent in Russia and Nicholas I. A special representative of the tsar, Prince A. S. Menshikov, was sent to Constantinople. He was instructed to obtain privileges for the Russian Orthodox Church in Palestine and the right to patronize the Orthodox, subjects of Turkey. However, his ultimatum was rejected.

Thus, the dispute over the Holy Places served as a pretext for the Russian-Turkish, and later the all-European war. To put pressure on Turkey in 1853, Russian troops occupied the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. In response, the Turkish Sultan in October 1853, supported by England and France, declared war on Russia. Nicholas I published the Manifesto on the war with the Ottoman Empire. Military operations were deployed on the Danube and in Transcaucasia. On November 18, 1853, Admiral P.S. Nakhimov, at the head of a squadron of six battleships and two frigates, defeated the Turkish fleet in the Sinop Bay and destroyed the coastal fortifications. The brilliant victory of the Russian fleet at Sinop was the reason for the direct intervention of England and France in the military conflict between Russia and Turkey, which was on the verge of defeat. In January 1854, a 70,000 Anglo-French army was concentrated in Varna. At the beginning of March 1854, England and France presented Russia with an ultimatum to clear the Danube principalities, and, having received no answer, declared war on Russia. Austria, for its part, signed with the Ottoman Empire on the occupation of the Danubian principalities and moved an army of 300,000 to their borders, threatening Russia with war. The demand of Austria was supported by Prussia. At first, Nicholas I refused, but the commander-in-chief of the Danube Front, I.F. Paskevich, persuaded him to withdraw troops from the Danubian principalities, which were soon occupied by Austrian troops.

The main goal of the combined Anglo-French command was the capture of the Crimea and Sevastopol, the Russian naval base. On September 2, 1854, the allied troops began landing on the Crimean peninsula near Evpatoria, consisting of 360 ships and 62,000 troops. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov ordered the sinking of the entire sailing fleet in the Sevastopol Bay in order to interfere with the Allied ships. 52 thousand Russian troops, of which 33 thousand with 96 guns from Prince A. S. Menshikov, were located on the entire Crimean peninsula. Under his leadership, the battle on the river. Alma in September 1854, the Russian troops lost. By order of Menshikov, they passed through Sevastopol, and retreated to Bakhchisarai. On September 13, 1854, the siege of Sevastopol began, which lasted 11 months.

The defense was headed by the Chief of Staff of the Black Sea Fleet, Vice Admiral V. A. Kornilov, and after his death, at the very beginning of the siege, by P. S. Nakhimov, who was mortally wounded on June 28, 1855. Inkerman (November 1854), attack on Evpatoria (February 1855), battle on the Black River (August 1855). These military actions did not help the Sevastopol residents. In August 1855, the last assault on Sevastopol began. After the fall of the Malakhov Kurgan, it was hopeless to continue the defense. In the Caucasian theater, hostilities developed more successfully for Russia. After the defeat of Turkey in Transcaucasia, Russian troops began to operate on its territory. In November 1855, the Turkish fortress of Kars fell. The conduct of hostilities was stopped. Negotiations began.

On March 18, 1856, the Paris peace treaty was signed, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral. Only the southern part of Bessarabia was torn away from Russia, however, she lost the right to protect the Danubian principalities in Serbia. With the "neutralization" of France, Russia was forbidden to have naval forces, arsenals and fortresses on the Black Sea. This dealt a blow to the security of the southern borders. The defeat in the Crimean War had a significant impact on the alignment of international forces and on the internal situation of Russia. The defeat summed up the sad end of Nicholas' rule, stirred up the public masses and forced the government to work hard on reforming the state.

The formation of the Russian Empire happened on October 22, 1721, according to the old style, or on November 2. It was on this day that the last Russian tsar, Peter the Great, declared himself emperor of Russia. This happened as one of the consequences of the northern war, after which the Senate asked Peter 1 to accept the title of Emperor of the country. The state received the name "Russian Empire". Its capital was the city of St. Petersburg. For all the time, the capital was transferred to Moscow only for 2 years (from 1728 to 1730).

Territory of the Russian Empire

Considering the history of Russia of that era, it must be remembered that at the time of the formation of the empire, large territories were annexed to the country. This became possible thanks to the successful foreign policy of the country, which was led by Peter 1. He created a new history, a history that returned Russia to the ranks of world leaders and powers whose opinion should be reckoned with.

The territory of the Russian Empire was 21.8 million km2. It was the second largest country in the world. In the first place was the British Empire with its numerous colonies. Most of them have retained their status to this day. The first laws of the country divided its territory into 8 provinces, each of which was controlled by a governor. He had full local authority, including the judiciary. Subsequently, Catherine 2 increased the number of provinces to 50. Of course, this was done not by annexing new lands, but by crushing them. This greatly increased the state apparatus and rather significantly reduced the effectiveness of local government in the country. We will talk about this in more detail in the corresponding article. It should be noted that at the time of the collapse of the Russian Empire, its territory consisted of 78 provinces. The largest cities in the country were:

1. St. Petersburg.
2. Moscow.
3. Warsaw.
4. Odessa.
5. Lodz.
6. Riga.
7. Kyiv.
8. Kharkiv.
9. Tiflis.
10. Tashkent.

The history of the Russian Empire is full of both bright and negative moments. In this time period, which lasted less than two centuries, invested great amount fateful moments in the fate of our country. It was during the period of the Russian Empire that the Patriotic War, campaigns in the Caucasus, campaigns in India, and European campaigns took place. The country developed dynamically. The reforms affected absolutely all aspects of life. It was the history of the Russian Empire that gave our country great commanders, whose names are on the lips to this day not only in Russia, but throughout Europe - Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov and Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov. These illustrious generals forever inscribed their names in the history of our country and covered Russian weapons with eternal glory.

Map

We present a map of the Russian Empire, a brief history of which we are considering, which shows the European part of the country with all the changes that have occurred in terms of territories over the years of the existence of the state.

Population

By the end of the 18th century, the Russian Empire was the largest country in the world in terms of area. Its scale was such that the messenger, who was sent to all corners of the country to report the death of Catherine 2, arrived in Kamchatka after 3 months! And this despite the fact that the messenger rode almost 200 km daily.

Russia was also the most populous country. In 1800, about 40 million people lived in the Russian Empire, most of them in the European part of the country. A little less than 3 million lived beyond the Urals. The national composition of the country was motley:

• East Slavs. Russians (Great Russians), Ukrainians (Little Russians), Belarusians. For a long time, almost until the very end of the Empire, it was considered a single people.
• Estonians, Latvians, Latvians and Germans lived in the Baltics.
• Finno-Ugric (Mordovians, Karelians, Udmurts, etc.), Altai (Kalmyks) and Turkic (Bashkirs, Tatars, etc.) peoples.
• The peoples of Siberia and the Far East (Yakuts, Evens, Buryats, Chukchi, etc.).

In the course of the formation of the country, part of the Kazakhs and Jews who lived on the territory of Poland, who, after its collapse, went to Russia, turned out to be its citizenship.

The main class in the country were peasants (about 90%). Other estates: philistinism (4%), merchants (1%), and the remaining 5% of the population were distributed among the Cossacks, the clergy and the nobility. This is the classic structure of an agrarian society. Indeed, the main occupation of the Russian Empire was agriculture. It is no coincidence that all indicators that lovers of the tsarist regime are so proud of today are related to agriculture (we are talking about grain imports and butter).

By the end of the 19th century, 128.9 million people lived in Russia, of which 16 million lived in cities, and the rest in villages.

Political system

The Russian Empire was autocratic in the form of its government, where all power was concentrated in the hands of one person - the emperor, who was often called, in the old manner, the king. Peter 1 laid down in the laws of Russia precisely the unlimited power of the monarch, which ensured the autocracy. Simultaneously with the state, the autocrat actually controlled the church.

An important point - after the reign of Paul 1, autocracy in Russia could no longer be called absolute. This happened due to the fact that Paul 1 issued a decree that canceled the system for the transfer of the throne, established by Peter 1. Peter Alekseevich Romanov, let me remind you, decided that the ruler himself determines his successor. Some historians today speak of the negative of this document, but this is precisely the essence of autocracy - the ruler makes all decisions, including about his successor. After Paul 1, the system returned, in which the son inherits the throne after his father.

Rulers of the country

Below is a list of all the rulers of the Russian Empire during the period of its existence (1721-1917).

All the rulers were from the Romanov dynasty, and after the overthrow of Nicholas 2 and the murder of himself and his family by the Bolsheviks, the dynasty was interrupted, and the Russian Empire ceased to exist, changing the form of statehood to the USSR.

Main dates

During its existence, and this is almost 200 years, the Russian Empire has experienced many important moments and events that have had an impact on the state and people.

• 1722 - Table of ranks
• 1799 - Suvorov's foreign campaigns in Italy and Switzerland
• 1809 - Accession of Finland
• 1812 - Patriotic War
• 1817-1864 - Caucasian War
• 1825 (December 14) - Decembrist uprising
• 1867 Sale of Alaska
• 1881 (March 1) the murder of Alexander 2
• 1905 (January 9) - Bloody Sunday
• 1914-1918 - World War I
• 1917 - February and October revolutions

End of the Empire

The history of the Russian Empire ended on September 1, 1917, according to the old style. It was on this day that the Republic was proclaimed. This was proclaimed by Kerensky, who by law did not have the right to do so, so declaring Russia a Republic can safely be called illegal. Only the Constituent Assembly had the authority to make such a declaration. The fall of the Russian Empire is closely connected with the history of its last emperor, Nicholas 2. This emperor had all the qualities of a worthy person, but had an indecisive character. It was because of this that the riots occurred in the country that cost Nicholas himself 2 lives, and the Russian Empire - existence. Nicholas 2 failed to severely suppress the revolutionary and terrorist activities of the Bolsheviks in the country. True, there were objective reasons for this. Chief among which, the First World War, in which the Russian Empire was involved and exhausted in it. The Russian Empire was replaced by a new type of state structure of the country - the USSR.

deadline

Lecture 2. Russian Empire in the late XIX-early XX century.

The first general census of the population of the Russian Empire in 1897

Nationalities of Russia (1907-1917) P.P. Kamensky

Class structure of society

The class structure of society

Important:

Main National Policy Issues

The turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

10. Features of the economic development of Russia

11. Features of the economic development of Russia

12. Reforms S.Yu. Witte

13. The turn of the XIX-XX centuries.

14.

15.

16. Reforms P.A. Stolypin

17. Projects of reforms P.A. Stolypin

18. State administration of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century (until 1905).

19. Autocracy and public life at the beginning of the 20th century.

20. Autocracy and public life at the beginning of the 20th century.

21. Liberal Movement

22. Political parties of Russia in n. 20th century

23. "Bloody Sunday"

24. Repin I.E. October 17, 1905. (1907)

25. "Manifesto October 17, 1905"

26. Electoral law 11.12.1905

27.

28. Opening of the State Duma and the State Council April 27, 1906

29. State Duma of the Russian Empire

30. State Duma of the Russian Empire

31.

32. Literature

Management of the Russian Empire. By the end of the XIX century. autocracy, as it seemed, stood firm and indestructible. All the highest functions of power (legislative, executive and judicial) were concentrated in the hands of the emperor, but the implementation of each of them was carried out through a system of state institutions.

The supreme legislative body, as before, remained the State Council, endowed with legislative powers. It consisted of persons appointed by the king and ministers. For the most part, these were well-known courtiers and dignitaries, many of whom were in very advanced years, which allowed the salon public to refer to them only as the State Soviet elders. The State Council had no legislative initiative. At its meetings, only the bills introduced by the monarch, but developed by the ministries, were discussed.

The main body of executive power was the Committee of Ministers. It was headed by a Chairman, whose functions were very limited. The Committee of Ministers included not only ministers, but also heads of departments and state administrations. Cases that required the approval of various ministers were submitted to the Committee for consideration. It was not a consolidated governing body coordinating the activities of individual departments. The committee was a collection of administratively independent dignitaries. Each minister had the right to report directly to the emperor and was guided by his orders. The minister was appointed exclusively by the monarch.

The emperor was considered the head of the court and judicial administration, and the entire court was carried out on his behalf. The competence of the monarch did not extend to specific legal proceedings, he had the role of the highest, and last, arbitrator.

The monarch exercised supervision over the court and administration through the Governing Senate, which supervised to ensure that the orders of the supreme authority were carried out in local areas, and resolved complaints against the actions and orders of all authorities and persons, including ministers.

Administratively, Russia was divided into 78 provinces, 18 regions and Sakhalin Island. There were administrative units that included several provinces - governor generals, usually established on the outskirts. The governor was appointed by the king on the proposal of the Minister of the Interior.

Since 1809, the Russian Empire also included Finland (the Grand Duchy of Finland), headed by the emperor and which had broad internal autonomy - its own government (senate), customs, police, and a monetary unit.

On the rights of vassal formations, Russia also included two Central Asian states - the Bukhara Khanate (emirate) and the Khiva Khanate. They were in complete political dependence on Russia, but in internal affairs their rulers had autonomous rights.

The power of the governor was extensive and extended to almost all areas of the life of the province.

Public education and health care were part of the system of central state administration.

Cities had self-government in the form of city dumas and councils. They were entrusted with administrative and economic tasks - transport, lighting, heating, sewerage, water supply, improvement of pavements, sidewalks, embankments and bridges, as well as the management of educational and charitable affairs, local trade, industry and credit.

The right to take part in city elections was determined by a property qualification. Only those who owned real estate in a given city had it (in large centers - worth at least 3 thousand rubles, in small towns this threshold was much lower).

Four cities (Petersburg, Odessa, Sevastopol, Kerch-Bnikale) were withdrawn from the provinces and controlled by city governors directly subordinate to the central government.

Provinces were divided into districts and regions - into districts. The county was the lowest administrative unit, and the further division had a special purpose: the volost - for peasant self-government, sections of zemstvo chiefs, sections of judicial investigators, etc.

By the end of the XIX century. zemstvo self-government was introduced in 34 provinces of European Russia, and in the rest of the regions government bodies were in charge of affairs. Zemstvo bodies were mainly engaged in economic affairs - the construction and maintenance in due order of local roads, schools, hospitals, charitable institutions, statistics, handicraft industry, and the organization of land loans. To fulfill their tasks, the zemstvos had the right to establish special zemstvo dues.

The zemstvo administration consisted of provincial and district zemstvo assemblies and executive bodies - provincial and district zemstvo administrations, which had their own permanent offices and departments.

Zemstvo elections were held every three years by three electoral congresses - landowners, townspeople and peasants. The county zemstvo assemblies elected their representatives to the provincial zemstvo assembly, which formed the provincial zemstvo council. At the head of the county and provincial zemstvo councils were elected chairmen. They not only supervised the activities of these institutions, but also represented the zemstvos in government bodies (provincial presences).

8.1 The choice of the path of historical development of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century under Alexander I.

8.2 Decembrist movement.

8.3 Conservative modernization under Nicholas I

8.4 Public thought of the middle of the 19th century: Westerners and Slavophiles.

8.5 Culture of Russia in the first half of the XIX century.

8.1 The choice of the path of historical development of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century under Alexander I

Alexander I - the eldest son of Paul I, came to power as a result of a palace coup in March 1801. Alexander was initiated into the conspiracy, and agreed to it, but on the condition that his father's life be saved. The murder of Paul I shocked Alexander, and until the end of his life he blamed himself for the death of his father.

characteristic feature of government Alexandra I (1801-1825) there is a struggle between two currents - liberal and conservative, and the maneuvering of the emperor between them. In the reign of Alexander I, two periods are distinguished. Before the Patriotic War of 1812, the liberal period lasted, after the foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. - conservative .

Liberal period of government. Alexander was well educated and brought up in a liberal spirit. In the manifesto on accession to the throne, Alexander I announced that he would rule "according to the laws and according to the heart" of his grandmother Catherine the Great. He immediately abolished the restrictions imposed by Paul I on trade with England and the regulations that annoyed people in everyday life, clothing, social behavior, etc. Letters of grant to the nobility and cities were restored, free entry and exit abroad, the import of foreign books were allowed, an amnesty was given to people who were persecuted under Paul. Religious tolerance and the right of non-nobles to buy land were proclaimed.

In order to prepare a reform program, Alexander I created The secret committee (1801-1803) - an unofficial body, which included his friends V.P. Kochubey, N.N. Novosiltsev, P.A. Stroganov, A.A. Czartoryski. This committee was discussing the reforms.

In 1802 the colleges were replaced ministries . This measure meant replacing the principle of collegiality with one-man management. Eight ministries were established: military, maritime, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. The Committee of Ministers was formed to discuss important issues.

In 1802, the Senate was reformed, becoming the highest judicial and controlling body in the system of state administration.

In 1803, the "Decree on free ploughmen" was adopted. The landowners received the right to release their peasants into the wild, providing them with land for ransom. However, this decree did not have great practical consequences: during the entire reign of Alexander I, a little more than 47 thousand serfs, that is, less than 0.5% of their total number, went free.

In 1804 the Kharkov and Kazan universities, the Pedagogical Institute in St. Petersburg (since 1819 - the university) were opened. In 1811 the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was founded. The university statute of 1804 granted the universities broad autonomy. Educational districts and continuity of 4 levels of education (parochial school, county school, gymnasium, university) were created. Primary education was proclaimed free and classless. A liberal censorship charter was approved.

In 1808, on behalf of Alexander I, the most talented official M.M. Speransky, chief prosecutor of the Senate (1808-1811), developed a draft reform. It was based on the principle of separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial. It was supposed to establish the State Duma as the highest legislative body; election of executive authorities. And although the project did not abolish the monarchy and serfdom, in the aristocratic environment, Speransky's proposals were considered too radical. Officials and courtiers were dissatisfied with him and achieved that M.M. Speransky was accused of spying for Napoleon. In 1812, he was dismissed and exiled, first to Nizhny Novgorod, then to Perm.

Of all the proposals of M.M. Speransky, one thing was accepted: in 1810, the State Council of the members appointed by the emperor became the supreme legislative body of the empire.

The Patriotic War of 1812 interrupted the liberal reforms. After the war and foreign campaigns of 1813-1814. Alexander's policy becomes more and more conservative.

Conservative period of government. In 1815-1825. Conservative tendencies intensified in the domestic policy of Alexander I. However, liberal reforms were first resumed.

In 1815, Poland was granted a constitution that was liberal in nature and provided for the internal self-government of Poland within Russia. In 1816-1819. serfdom was abolished in the Baltics. In 1818, work began in Russia on the preparation of a draft Constitution for the entire empire on the basis of the Polish one, which was headed by N.N. Novosiltsev and the development of secret projects for the abolition of serfdom (A.A. Arakcheev). It was supposed to introduce a constitutional monarchy in Russia and the establishment of a parliament. However, this work was not completed.

Faced with the discontent of the nobles, Alexander abandons liberal reforms. Fearing to repeat the fate of his father, the emperor is increasingly moving to a conservative position. Period 1816-1825 called Arakcheevshchina , those. a policy of brutal military discipline. The period got its name because at that time General A.A. Arakcheev actually concentrated in his hands the leadership of the State Council, the Cabinet of Ministers, was the only speaker to Alexander I on most departments. Military settlements, which were widely introduced from 1816, became the symbol of Arakcheevshchina.

military settlements - a special organization of troops in Russia in 1810-1857, in which state peasants enrolled in military settlers combined service with agriculture. In fact, the settlers became enslaved twice - as peasants and as soldiers. Military settlements were introduced in order to reduce the cost of the army and stop recruiting, as the children of military settlers themselves became military settlers. A good idea eventually resulted in mass discontent.

In 1821, the Kazan and St. Petersburg universities were purged. Increased censorship. Cane discipline was restored in the army. The rejection of the promised liberal reforms led to the radicalization of part of the noble intelligentsia, the emergence of secret anti-government organizations.

Foreign policy under Alexander I. Patriotic War of 1812 The main task in foreign policy during the reign of Alexander I remained the containment of French expansion in Europe. Two main directions prevailed in politics: European and southern (Middle Eastern).

In 1801, Eastern Georgia was admitted to Russia, and in 1804 Western Georgia was annexed to Russia. The assertion of Russia in Transcaucasia led to a war with Iran (1804-1813). Thanks to the successful actions of the Russian army, the main part of Azerbaijan was under the control of Russia. In 1806, the war between Russia and Turkey began, ending with the signing of a peace treaty in Bucharest in 1812, according to which the eastern part of Moldavia (the lands of Bessarabia) departed to Russia, and the border with Turkey was established along the Prut River.

In Europe, Russia's task was to prevent French hegemony. At first, things didn't go well. In 1805, Napoleon defeated the Russian-Austrian troops at Austerlitz. In 1807, Alexander I signed the Treaty of Tilsit with France, according to which Russia joined the continental blockade of England and recognized all the conquests of Napoleon. However, the blockade, which was disadvantageous for the Russian economy, was not respected, so in 1812 Napoleon decided to start a war with Russia, which intensified even more after the victorious Russian-Swedish war (1808-1809) and the accession of Finland to it.

Napoleon counted on a quick victory in border battles, and then forced him to sign a treaty that was beneficial to him. And the Russian troops intended to lure the Napoleonic army deep into the country, disrupt its supply and defeat it. The French army numbered more than 600 thousand people, more than 400 thousand participated directly in the invasion, it included representatives of the conquered peoples of Europe. The Russian army was divided into three parts, located along the borders, with the intention of counterattacking. 1st Army M.B. Barclay de Tolly numbered about 120 thousand people, the 2nd army of P.I. Bagration - about 50 thousand and the 3rd army of A.P. Tormasov - about 40 thousand people.

On June 12, 1812, Napoleon's troops crossed the Neman River and entered Russian territory. The Patriotic War of 1812 began. Retreating with battles, the armies of Barclay de Tolly and Bagration managed to unite near Smolensk, but after stubborn battles the city was abandoned. Avoiding a general battle, the Russian troops continued to retreat. They fought stubborn rearguard battles with individual units of the French, exhausting and exhausting the enemy, inflicting significant losses on him. A guerrilla war broke out.

Public dissatisfaction with the long retreat, with which Barclay de Tolly was associated, forced Alexander I to appoint M.I. Kutuzov, an experienced commander, a student of A.V. Suvorov. In the context of a war that was acquiring a national character, this was of great importance.

On August 26, 1812, the Battle of Borodino took place. Both armies suffered heavy losses (the French - about 30 thousand, the Russians - more than 40 thousand people). The main goal of Napoleon - the defeat of the Russian army - was not achieved. The Russians, not having the strength to continue the battle, withdrew. After the military council in Fili, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army M.I. Kutuzov decided to leave Moscow. Having made the "Taruta maneuver", the Russian army left the pursuit of the enemy and settled down for rest and replenishment in a camp near Tarutino, south of Moscow, covering the Tula arms factories and the southern provinces of Russia.

On September 2, 1812, the French army entered Moscow. However, no one was in a hurry to sign a peace treaty with Napoleon. Soon the French began to have difficulties: there was not enough food and ammunition, discipline was decomposing. Fires broke out in Moscow. October 6, 1812 Napoleon withdrew troops from Moscow. On October 12, at Maloyaroslavets, Kutuzov's troops met him and, after a fierce battle, forced the French to retreat along the devastated Smolensk road.

Moving to the West, losing people from clashes with Russian flying cavalry units, due to disease and hunger, Napoleon brought about 60 thousand people to Smolensk. The Russian army marched in parallel and threatened to cut off the retreat. In the battle on the Berezina River, the French army was defeated. About 30,000 Napoleonic troops crossed the borders of Russia. December 25, 1812 Alexander I issued a manifesto on the victorious end of the Patriotic War. The main reason for the victory was the patriotism and heroism of the people who fought for their homeland.

In 1813-1814. foreign campaigns of the Russian army took place with the aim of finally putting an end to French rule in Europe. In January 1813, she entered the territory of Europe, Prussia, England, Sweden and Austria went over to her side. In the battle of Leipzig (October 1813), nicknamed the "Battle of the Nations", Napoleon was defeated. At the beginning of 1814 he abdicated the throne. Under the Treaty of Paris, France returned to the borders of 1792, the Bourbon dynasty was restored, Napoleon was exiled to Fr. Elba in the Mediterranean.

In September 1814, delegations from the victorious countries gathered in Vienna to resolve disputed territorial issues. Serious disagreements arose between them, but the news of Napoleon's flight from Fr. Elba ("Hundred Days") and his seizure of power in France catalyzed the process of negotiations. As a result, Saxony passed to Prussia, Finland, Bessarabia and the main part of the Duchy of Warsaw with its capital - to Russia. On June 6, 1815, Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo by the allies and exiled to about. St. Helena.

In September 1815 was created Holy Union , which included Russia, Prussia and Austria. The goals of the Union were to preserve the state borders established by the Congress of Vienna, to suppress revolutionary and national liberation movements in European countries. Russia's conservatism in foreign policy was reflected in domestic policy, in which conservative tendencies were also growing.

Summing up the reign of Alexander I, we can say that Russia at the beginning of the 19th century could become a relatively free country. The unpreparedness of society, especially the higher one, for liberal reforms, the personal motives of the emperor led to the fact that the country continued to develop on the basis of the established order, i.e. conservatively.