Crimea in the 19th century during the Crimean War. Crimean War. What have we learned

Crimean War 1853-1856, also Eastern war- a war between the Russian Empire, on the one hand, and a coalition of the British, French, Ottoman empires and the Kingdom of Sardinia, on the other. The fighting took place in the Caucasus, in the Danube principalities, in the Baltic, Black, Azov, White and Barents Seas, as well as in Kamchatka. They reached the greatest tension in the Crimea.

By the middle of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was in a state of decline, and only direct military assistance from Russia, England, France and Austria allowed the Sultan to twice prevent the capture of Constantinople by the rebellious vassal Muhammad Ali of Egypt. In addition, the struggle of the Orthodox peoples for liberation from the Ottoman yoke continued. These factors led the Russian Emperor Nicholas I in the early 1850s to think about separating the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, inhabited by Orthodox peoples, which was opposed by Great Britain and Austria. Great Britain, in addition, sought to oust Russia from the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus and from Transcaucasia. The Emperor of France, Napoleon III, although he did not share the plans of the British to weaken Russia, considering them excessive, supported the war with Russia as a revenge for 1812 and as a means of strengthening personal power.

During a diplomatic conflict with France over control of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Russia, in order to put pressure on Turkey, occupied Moldavia and Wallachia, which were under the protectorate of Russia under the terms of the Adrianople peace treaty. The refusal of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to withdraw troops led to the declaration of war on Russia on October 4 (16), 1853, followed by Great Britain and France on March 15 (27), 1854.

In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the Allies succeeded, using the technical backwardness of the Russian troops and the indecision of the Russian command, to concentrate quantitatively and qualitatively superior forces of the army and navy on the Black Sea, which allowed them to successfully land an airborne corps in the Crimea, inflict a number of defeats on the Russian army, and after a year siege to capture the southern part of Sevastopol - the main base of the Russian Black Sea Fleet. Sevastopol Bay, the location of the Russian fleet, remained under Russian control. On the Caucasian front, Russian troops managed to inflict a number of defeats on the Turkish army and capture Kars. However, the threat of Austria and Prussia joining the war forced the Russians to accept the terms of peace imposed by the allies. The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1856, demanded that Russia return to the Ottoman Empire everything captured in southern Bessarabia, at the mouth of the Danube River and in the Caucasus; the empire was forbidden to have a combat fleet in the Black Sea, proclaimed neutral waters; Russia stopped military construction in the Baltic Sea, and much more. At the same time, the goals of separating significant territories from Russia were not achieved. The terms of the treaty reflected the virtually equal course of hostilities, when the allies, despite all efforts and heavy losses, could not advance further than the Crimea, and were defeated in the Caucasus.

Background of the conflict

Weakening of the Ottoman Empire

In the 1820s and 1830s, the Ottoman Empire experienced a series of blows that called into question the very existence of the country. The Greek uprising, which began in the spring of 1821, showed both the internal political and military weakness of Turkey, and led to terrible atrocities on the part of the Turkish troops. The dispersal of the Janissary corps in 1826 was an undoubted boon in the long term, but in the short term it deprived the country of an army. In 1827, the combined Anglo-French-Russian fleet at the Battle of Navarino destroyed almost the entire Ottoman fleet. In 1830, after a 10-year war of independence and the Russian-Turkish war of 1828-1829, Greece became independent. According to the Adrianople peace treaty, which ended the war between Russia and Turkey, Russian and foreign ships received the right to freely pass through the Black Sea straits, Serbia became autonomous, and the Danube principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia) came under the protectorate of Russia.

Taking advantage of the moment, in 1830 France occupied Algeria, and in 1831 its most powerful vassal, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, broke away from the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman forces were defeated in a series of battles, and the inevitability of the capture of Istanbul by the Egyptians forced Sultan Mahmud II to accept Russian military assistance. The 10,000-strong corps of Russian troops, landed on the banks of the Bosphorus in 1833, prevented the capture of Istanbul, and with it, probably, the collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

The Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty, which was favorable for Russia, concluded as a result of this expedition, provided for a military alliance between the two countries if one of them was attacked. The secret additional article of the treaty allowed Turkey not to send troops, but required the closure of the Bosphorus for the ships of any countries (except Russia).

In 1839, the situation repeats itself - Muhammad Ali, dissatisfied with the incompleteness of his control over Syria, resumes hostilities. At the Battle of Niziba on June 24, 1839, the Ottoman troops were again utterly defeated. The Ottoman Empire was saved by the intervention of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia, who signed a convention in London on July 15, 1840, guaranteeing Muhammad Ali and his descendants the right to inherit power in Egypt in exchange for the withdrawal of Egyptian troops from Syria and Lebanon and the recognition of formal subordination to the Ottoman Sultan. After Muhammad Ali refused to comply with the requirements of the convention, the combined Anglo-Austrian fleet blockaded the Nile Delta, bombarded Beirut and stormed Acre. On November 27, 1840, Muhammad Ali accepted the terms of the London Convention.

On July 13, 1841, after the expiration of the Unkar-Iskelesi Treaty, under pressure from European powers, the London Convention on the Straits (1841) was signed, depriving Russia of the right to block the entry of warships of third countries into the Black Sea in case of war. This opened the way for the fleets of Great Britain and France to the Black Sea in the event of a Russian-Turkish conflict and was an important prerequisite for the Crimean War.

The intervention of European powers thus twice saved the Ottoman Empire from collapse, but led to the loss of its independence in foreign policy. The British Empire and the French Empire were interested in the preservation of the Ottoman Empire, for which the appearance of Russia in the Mediterranean was unprofitable. Austria feared the same.

Growing anti-Russian sentiment in Europe

An essential prerequisite for the conflict was that in Europe (including the Kingdom of Greece) since the 1840s there had been an increase in anti-Russian sentiment.

The Western press emphasized Russia's desire to capture Constantinople. In reality, Nicholas I did not initially set the goal of annexing any Balkan territories to Russia. The conservative-protective principles of Nicholas's foreign policy dictated to him restraint in encouraging the national movements of the Balkan peoples, which caused dissatisfaction among Russian Slavophiles.

Great Britain

Great Britain in 1838 concluded a free trade agreement with Turkey, which granted Great Britain the most favored nation treatment and exempted the import of British goods from customs duties and duties. As historian I. Wallerstein points out, this led to the collapse of Turkish industry and to the fact that Turkey found itself in economic and political dependence on Great Britain. Therefore, unlike the previous Russian-Turkish war (1828-1829), when Great Britain, like Russia, supported the liberation war of the Greeks and Greece's independence, now it was not interested in separating any territories from the Ottoman Empire, which in fact was a state dependent on it and an important market for British goods.

The dependent position in which the Ottoman Empire found itself in relation to Great Britain at that time is illustrated by a cartoon in the London magazine Punch (1856). The drawing depicts an English soldier saddling one Turk and holding another on a leash.

In addition, Great Britain was concerned about the expansion of Russia in the Caucasus, the strengthening of its influence in the Balkans and was afraid of its possible advance into Central Asia. In general, she considered Russia as her geopolitical adversary, against whom the so-called. The Great Game (in accordance with the terminology adopted by the then diplomats and modern historians), and was conducted by all available means - political, economic and military.

For these reasons, Great Britain sought to prevent any increase in Russian influence in Ottoman affairs. On the eve of the war, she increased diplomatic pressure on Russia in order to dissuade her from any attempts at the territorial division of the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, Britain declared its interests in Egypt, which "go no further than securing speedy and sure communications with India."

France

In France, a significant part of society supported the idea of ​​revenge for the defeat in the Napoleonic wars and was ready to take part in the war against Russia, provided that England would come out on their side.

Austria

Since the time of the Congress of Vienna, Russia and Austria have been in the Holy Alliance, the main purpose of which was to prevent revolutionary situations in Europe.

In the summer of 1849, at the request of the Emperor of Austria Franz Joseph I, the Russian army under the command of Ivan Paskevich took part in the suppression of the Hungarian National Revolution.

After all this, Nicholas I counted on the support of Austria in the Eastern Question:

But Russian-Austrian cooperation could not eliminate the contradictions that existed between the two countries. Austria, as before, was terrified by the prospect of the emergence of independent states in the Balkans, probably friendly to Russia, the very existence of which would cause the growth of national liberation movements in the multinational Austrian Empire.

Immediate causes of the war

The prelude to war was the conflict between Nicholas I and Napoleon III, who came to power in France after the coup on December 2, 1851. Nicholas I considered the new French emperor illegitimate, since the Bonaparte dynasty was excluded from the French throne by the Congress of Vienna. To demonstrate his position, Nicholas I in a congratulatory telegram turned to Napoleon III "Monsieur mon ami" ("dear friend"), instead of the permissible according to the protocol "Monsieur mon frère" ("dear brother"). Such liberties were regarded as a public insult to the new French emperor.

Realizing the fragility of his power, Napoleon III wanted to divert the attention of the French with the then popular war against Russia and at the same time satisfy the feeling of personal irritation against Emperor Nicholas I. Having come to power with the support of the Catholic Church, Napoleon III sought to repay his ally by protecting the interests of the Vatican arena, in particular in the issue of control over the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which led to a conflict with the Orthodox Church and, directly, with Russia. At the same time, the French referred to the agreement with the Ottoman Empire of 1740, giving France the right to control Christian holy places in Palestine, and Russia - to the Sultan's decree of 1757, which restored the rights of the Orthodox Church in Palestine, and the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty of 1774, which gave Russia's right to protect the interests of Christians in the Ottoman Empire.

France demanded that the keys to the church (which at the time belonged to the Orthodox community) be given to the Catholic clergy. Russia demanded that the keys remain with the Orthodox community. Both sides backed up their words with threats. The Ottomans, unable to refuse, promised to fulfill both French and Russian demands. When this ploy, typical of Ottoman diplomacy, was exposed, at the end of the summer of 1852, France, in violation of the London Convention on the Status of the Straits of July 13, 1841, brought an 80-gun ship of the line under the walls of Istanbul " Charlemagne". In early December 1852, the keys to the Church of the Nativity were handed over to France. In response, Russian Chancellor Nesselrode, on behalf of Nicholas I, stated that Russia "will not tolerate the insult received from the Ottoman Empire ... vis pacem, para bellum!" (lat. If you want peace, prepare for war!) The concentration of the Russian army began on the border with Moldova and Wallachia.

In private correspondence, Nesselrode gave pessimistic forecasts - in particular, in a letter to the Russian envoy in London Brunnov dated January 2, 1853, he predicted that in this conflict Russia would fight against the whole world alone and without allies, since Prussia did not care about this issue, Austria would be neutral or benevolent to Port. Moreover, Britain will join France in asserting its naval power, since "in the remote theater of operations, apart from the soldiers needed for the landing, it will require mainly the strength of the fleet to open the Straits, after which the combined fleets of Britain, France and Turkey will quickly end the Russian Fleet in the Black Sea.

Nicholas I counted on the support of Prussia and Austria and considered an alliance between Britain and France impossible. However, the British Prime Minister Aberdeen, fearing the strengthening of Russia, agreed with the French Emperor Napoleon III on joint actions against Russia.

On February 11, 1853, Prince Menshikov was sent to Turkey as an ambassador, demanding recognition of the rights of the Church of Greece to holy places in Palestine and granting Russia protection over 12 million Christians in the Ottoman Empire, who accounted for about a third of the entire Ottoman population. All this had to be formalized in the form of a contract.

In March 1853, having learned about Menshikov's demands, Napoleon III sent a French squadron to the Aegean Sea.

On April 5, 1853, Stratford-Redcliffe, the new British ambassador, arrived in Constantinople. He persuaded the Ottoman sultan to satisfy Russian demands, but only partially, promising England's support in case of war. As a result, Abdul-Mejid I issued a firman (decree) on the inviolability of the rights of the Greek Church to holy places. But he refused to conclude a protection agreement with the Russian emperor. On May 21, 1853, Menshikov left Constantinople.

On June 1, the Russian government issued a memorandum on the severance of diplomatic relations with Turkey.

After that, Nicholas I ordered the Russian troops (80 thousand) to take the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia subordinate to the Sultan "as a pledge until Turkey satisfies the fair demands of Russia." In turn, the British government ordered the Mediterranean squadron to go to the Aegean.

This caused a protest by the Porte, which, in turn, led to the fact that a conference of commissioners from England, France, Austria and Prussia was convened in Vienna. The result of the conference was viennese note, a compromise for all parties, requiring Russia to evacuate from Moldavia and Wallachia, but giving Russia the nominal right to protect the Orthodox in the Ottoman Empire and nominal control over the holy places in Palestine.

The Vienna note allowed Russia to get out of the situation without losing face and was accepted by Nicholas I, but rejected by the Ottoman sultan, who hoped for the military support of Britain promised by Stratford-Redcliffe. The Porte proposed various changes in the said note. These changes were not agreed by the Russian sovereign.

Trying to use the favorable opportunity to "teach" Russia through the hands of the Western allies, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul-Mejid I on September 27 (October 9) demanded the cleansing of the Danubian principalities within two weeks, and after Russia did not fulfill this condition, on October 4 (16), 1853 announced Russian war. On October 20 (November 1), Russia responded with a similar statement.

Russia's goals

Russia sought to secure the southern borders, ensure its influence in the Balkans and establish control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, which was important both from a military and economic point of view. Nicholas I, realizing himself a great Orthodox monarch, sought to continue the cause of the liberation of the Orthodox peoples under the rule of Ottoman Turkey. However, despite the existence of plans for decisive military action, providing for landings in the Black Sea straits and Turkish ports, a plan was adopted that provided only for the occupation of the Danube principalities by Russian troops. According to this plan, the Russian troops were not supposed to cross the Danube and were supposed to avoid clashes with the Turkish army. It was believed that such a "peaceful-military" show of force would force the Turks to accept Russian demands.

Russian historiography emphasizes Nicholas' desire to help the oppressed Orthodox inhabitants of the Turkish Empire. The Christian population of the Turkish Empire, which was 5.6 million people and absolutely predominated in its European possessions, desired liberation and regularly rebelled against Turkish rule. The uprising of the Montenegrins in 1852-53, suppressed with great cruelty by the Ottoman troops, became one of the reasons for Russian pressure on Turkey. The oppression by the Turkish authorities of the religious and civil rights of the civilian population of the Balkan Peninsula and the murders and violence that took place at that time caused outrage not only in Russia, but also in many other European countries.

At the same time, according to the Russian diplomat Konstantin Leontiev, who was in 1863-1871. in the diplomatic service in Turkey, the main goal of Russia was not the political freedom of fellow believers, but the predominance in Turkey:

Goals of Great Britain and its allies

During the Crimean War, British policy was effectively concentrated in the hands of Lord Palmerston. His point of view was presented by him to Lord John Russell:

At the same time, the British Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Lord Clarendon, without objecting to this program, in his great parliamentary speech on March 31, 1854, emphasized the moderation and disinterestedness of England, which, according to him,

Napoleon III, who from the very beginning did not sympathize with Palmerston's fantastic idea of ​​dividing Russia, for obvious reasons refrained from objecting; Palmerston's program was drawn up in such a way as to gain new allies: Sweden, Prussia, Austria, Sardinia were attracted in this way, Poland was encouraged to revolt, Shamil's war in the Caucasus was supported.

But it was almost impossible to please all potential allies at the same time. In addition, Palmerston clearly overestimated England's preparations for war and underestimated the Russians (Sevastopol, which was planned to be taken in a week, was successfully defended for almost a year).

The only part of the plan that the French emperor could sympathize with (and was quite popular in France) was the idea of ​​a free Poland. But it was precisely this idea that the allies had to abandon in the first place, so as not to alienate Austria and Prussia (namely, it was important for Napoleon III to win them over to his side in order to put an end to the Holy Alliance).

But Napoleon III did not at all want to strengthen England too much, nor to weaken Russia beyond measure. Therefore, after the Allies managed to capture the southern part of Sevastopol, Napoleon III began to undermine Palmerston's program and quickly reduced it to zero.

During the war, a poem by V.P. Alferyev, published in the Northern Bee and beginning with a quatrain, gained wide popularity in Russia:

In England itself, a significant part of society did not understand the meaning of the Crimean War, and after the first serious military losses in the country and in parliament, a strong anti-war opposition arose. Later, the English historian D. Trevelyan wrote that the Crimean War “was just a stupid expedition to the Black Sea, undertaken without sufficient reason, because the English people were bored with the world ... Bourgeois democracy, excited by its favorite newspapers, incited a crusade for the sake of Turkish domination over the Balkan Christians ... "The same misunderstanding of the goals of the war on the part of Great Britain is expressed by the modern English historian D. Lieven, who claims that "the Crimean War, first of all, was a French war."

Apparently, one of the goals of Great Britain was the desire to force Russia to abandon the protectionist policy pursued by Nicholas I and introduce a regime favorable for the import of British goods. This is evidenced by the fact that already in 1857, less than a year after the end of the Crimean War, a liberal customs tariff was introduced in Russia, which reduced Russian customs duties to a minimum, which was probably one of the conditions imposed on Russia by Great Britain in during the peace negotiations. As I. Wallerstein points out, during the 19th century. Britain has repeatedly resorted to military and political pressure on different countries to conclude a free trade agreement. Examples are the British support for the Greek rebellion and other separatist movements within the Ottoman Empire, which ended with the signing of a free trade agreement in 1838, the British opium war with China, which ended with the signing of the same agreement with China in 1842, etc. The same character was the anti-Russian campaign in the UK on the eve of the Crimean War. As the historian M. Pokrovsky wrote about the period preceding its beginning, “Under the name of“ Russian barbarism ”, for the protection against which English publicists appealed to the public opinion of both their country and all of Europe, it was, in essence, about the fight against Russian industrial protectionism."

The state of the Russian armed forces

As subsequent events showed, Russia was not organizationally and technically ready for war. The combat strength of the army (which included the incapable of combat corps of the internal guard) was far from the million people and 200 thousand horses listed; the reserve system was unsatisfactory. The average death rate among recruits in the years of peace between 1826 and 1858. was 3.5% per year, which was explained by the disgusting sanitary condition of the army. In addition, only in 1849 the norms for issuing meat were increased to 84 pounds of meat per year for each combat soldier (100 grams per day) and 42 pounds for a non-combatant. Previously, even in the guards, only 37 pounds were issued.

Russia was forced, in view of the threat of intervention in the war by Austria, Prussia and Sweden, to keep a significant part of the army on the western border, and in connection with the Caucasian War of 1817-1864, divert part of the ground forces to fight the highlanders.

The technical backwardness of the Russian army and navy, associated with a radical technical re-equipment in the middle of the 19th century, acquired threatening proportions. armies of Great Britain and France, which carried out the Industrial Revolution.

Army

In the 1840s-1850s, the process of replacing obsolete smoothbore guns with new rifled ones was actively going on in European armies: by the beginning of the Crimean War, the share of rifled guns in the small arms of the Russian army did not exceed 4-5%, while in the French rifled guns accounted for about a third of small arms , and in English - more than half.

Infantry armed with rifled guns, in oncoming combat (especially from shelters), had a significant advantage due to the range and accuracy of their fire: rifled guns had an effective range of up to 1200 steps, and smooth-bore guns - no more than 300 steps while maintaining a lethal force of up to 600 steps.

The Russian army, like the allies, had smooth-bore artillery, the range of a striking shot of which (when firing with buckshot) reached 900 steps. This was three times the range of the actual fire of smoothbore guns, which inflicted heavy losses on the advancing Russian infantry, while the Allied infantry, armed with rifled guns, could shoot artillery crews of Russian guns, remaining out of the reach of grapeshot fire.

It is also worth noting that until 1853 in the Russian army, 10 rounds per year per person were issued for training infantry and dragoons. However, the shortcomings were inherent in the armies of the allies. So in the British army during the Crimean War, the archaic practice of manning the army with officers by selling ranks for money was widespread.

The future Minister of War in the reign of Alexander II, D. A. Milyutin, writes in his notes: for adapting it to a combat mission, and for external only harmony, for a brilliant appearance at parades, pedantic observance of countless petty formalities that dull the human mind and kill the true military spirit.

At the same time, a number of facts indicate that the shortcomings in the organization of the Russian army were greatly exaggerated by critics of Nicholas I. Thus, the wars of Russia with Persia and Turkey in 1826-1829. ended with the rapid defeat of both opponents. During the Crimean War, the Russian army, which was significantly inferior in terms of the quality of its weapons and technical equipment to the armies of Great Britain and France, showed miracles of courage, high morale and military skills. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that in the main theater of operations, in the Crimea, the Allied Expeditionary Force, which, along with army units, included elite guard units, was opposed by ordinary Russian army units, as well as naval crews.

The generals who made their careers after the death of Nicholas I (including the future Minister of War D. A. Milyutin) and criticized their predecessors could do this deliberately in order to hide their own serious mistakes and incompetence. Thus, the historian M. Pokrovsky gave examples of the mediocre conduct of the Russian-Turkish campaign of 1877-1878. (when Milyutin himself was Minister of War). The losses of Russia and its allies Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro, which in 1877-1878. confronted only technically and militarily weak Turkey, surpassed the Turkish losses, which speaks in favor of the poor organization of military operations. At the same time, in the Crimean War, Russia, alone resisting the coalition of four powers, which significantly surpassed it in technical and military terms, suffered fewer losses than its opponents, which indicates the opposite. So, according to B. Ts. Urlanis, combat and non-combat losses in the Russian army amounted to 134,800 people, and losses in the armies of Great Britain, France and Turkey - 162,800 people, including in the armies of the two Western powers - 117,400 people. At the same time, it should be taken into account that during the Crimean War the Russian army acted on the defensive, and in 1877 - on the offensive, which could be the reason for the difference in losses.

The combat units that conquered the Caucasus before the start of the war were distinguished by initiative and determination, high coordination of actions of infantry, cavalry and artillery.

The Russian army was armed with missiles of the Konstantinov system, which were used in the defense of Sevastopol, as well as in the Caucasus, the Danube and the Baltic.

Fleet

Britain and France went to war with Russia, believing that sailing ships of the line might still be of military importance. Accordingly, sailing ships participated in 1854 in actions in the Baltic and the Black Sea; however, the experience of the first months of the war in both theaters convinced the Allies that sailing ships had lost their practical value as combat units. However, the Battle of Sinop, the successful battle of the Russian sailing frigate "Flora" with three Turkish frigate steamers, as well as the defense of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, in which sailing ships participated from both sides, testify to the opposite.

The Allies had a significant advantage in all types of ships, and there were no steam battleships in the Russian fleet at all. At that time, the English fleet was the first in the world in terms of numbers, the French was in second, and the Russian was in third place.

A significant influence on the nature of military operations at sea was exerted by the fact that the belligerents had bomb cannons, which proved to be an effective weapon against both wooden and iron ships. In general, before the start of the war, Russia had time to adequately equip its ships and coastal batteries with such weapons.

In 1851-1852, the construction of two screw frigates and the conversion of three sailing ships into screw ones began in the Baltic. The main base of the fleet - Kronstadt, was well fortified. The structure of the Kronstadt fortress artillery, along with cannon artillery, also included rocket launchers designed for salvo fire on enemy ships at a distance of up to 2600 meters.

A feature of the naval theater in the Baltic was that, due to the shallow waters of the Gulf of Finland, large ships could not approach St. Petersburg directly. Therefore, during the war, to protect it, on the initiative of Captain 2nd Rank Shestakov and with the support of Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich, 32 wooden screw gunboats were built in record time from January to May 1855. And in the next 8 months, another 35 screw gunboats, as well as 14 screw corvettes and clippers. Steam engines, boilers and materials for their hulls were manufactured under the general supervision of N. I. Putilov, an official for special assignments of the shipbuilding department, in St. Petersburg mechanical workshops. Russian artisans were appointed as mechanics for propeller-driven warships put into operation. The gunboat-mounted bomb cannons turned these small ships into serious fighting force. The French Admiral Penot wrote at the end of the war: "The steam gunboats so quickly built by the Russians completely changed our situation."

For the defense of the Baltic coast, for the first time in the world, the Russians used underwater mines with chemical contact fuses, developed by Academician B.S. Jacobi.

The leadership of the Black Sea Fleet was carried out by admirals Kornilov, Istomin, Nakhimov, who had significant combat experience.

The main base of the Black Sea Fleet - Sevastopol was protected from attack from the sea by strong coastal fortifications. Before the Allied landings in the Crimea, there were no fortifications to protect Sevastopol from land.

In 1853, the Black Sea Fleet conducted active combat operations at sea - it provided the transfer, supply and artillery support of Russian troops on the Caucasian coast, successfully fought the Turkish military and merchant fleet, fought with individual steam ships of the Anglo-French, shelled their camps and artillery support for their troops. After the flooding of 5 battleships and 2 frigates in order to blockade the entrance to the Northern Bay of Sevastopol, the rest of the sailing ships of the Black Sea Fleet were used as floating batteries, and the steamers were used to tow them.

In 1854-1855, mines on the Black Sea were not used by Russian sailors, despite the fact that the ground forces had already used underwater mines at the mouth of the Danube in 1854 and at the mouth of the Bug in 1855. As a result, the possibility of using underwater mines to block the entrance of the allied fleet to the Sevastopol Bay and other harbors of the Crimea remained unused.

In 1854, for the defense of the North Sea coast, the Arkhangelsk Admiralty built 20 rowing 2-gun gunboats, and 14 more in 1855.

The Turkish navy consisted of 13 battleships and frigates and 17 steamships. Even before the start of the war, the command staff was reinforced by British advisers.

Campaign 1853

The beginning of the Russian-Turkish war

On September 27 (October 9), the Russian commander Prince Gorchakov received a message from the commander of the Turkish troops, Omer Pasha, which contained a demand to clear the Danubian principalities within 15 days. In early October, before the deadline set by Omer Pasha, the Turks began to fire on the Russian advanced pickets. On the morning of October 11 (23), the Turks opened fire on the Russian steamships "Prut" and "Ordinarets" passing along the Danube past the fortress of Isakchi. On October 21 (November 2), Turkish troops began to cross over to the left bank of the Danube and create a bridgehead for an attack on the Russian army.

In the Caucasus, Russian troops defeated the Turkish Anatolian army in the battles near Akhaltsikhe, where on November 13-14, 1853, according to Art. With. the 7,000-strong garrison of General Andronikov pushed back the 15,000-strong army of Ali Pasha; and on November 19 of the same year, near Bashkadyklar, the 10,000-strong detachment of General Bebutov defeated the 36,000-strong army of Ahmed Pasha. This made it possible to spend the winter calmly. In details.

On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet blocked Turkish ships in ports.

On October 20 (31), the battle of the steamer "Colchis", carrying a company of soldiers to reinforce the garrison of the post of St. Nicholas, located on the Caucasian coast. When approaching the shore, the Colchis ran aground and came under fire from the Turks, who captured the post and destroyed its entire garrison. She repelled a boarding attempt, refloated and, despite the losses among the crew and the damage received, came to Sukhum.

On November 4 (15), the capture without a fight by the Russian steamship Bessarabia, cruising in the Sinop region, of the Turkish steamship Medjari-Tejaret (became part of the Black Sea Fleet under the name Turk).

November 5 (17) the world's first battle of steam ships. The Russian steamship frigate "Vladimir" captured the Turkish steamship "Pervaz-Bahri" (became part of the Black Sea Fleet under the name "Kornilov").

On November 9 (21), a successful battle in the area of ​​​​Cape Pitsunda of the Russian frigate Flora with 3 Turkish steamships Taif, Feyzi-Bakhri and Saik-Ishade under the overall command of the English military adviser Slade. After a 4-hour battle, Flora forced the ships to retreat, taking the flagship Taif in tow.

November 18 (30) squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov during Sinop battle destroyed the Turkish squadron of Osman Pasha.

Allied Entry

The Sinop incident served as a formal basis for the entry of England and France into the war against Russia.

Upon receiving news of the Battle of Sinop, the English and French squadrons, together with a division of the Ottoman fleet, entered the Black Sea on December 22, 1853 (January 4, 1854). The admirals in charge of the fleet informed the Russian authorities that they had the task of protecting Turkish ships and ports from attacks from the Russian side. When asked about the purpose of such an action, the Western powers replied that they meant not only to protect the Turks from any attack from the sea, but also to help them supply their ports, while preventing the free navigation of Russian ships. On January 17 (29), the French emperor presented an ultimatum to Russia: to withdraw troops from the Danube principalities and start negotiations with Turkey. On February 9 (21), Russia rejected the ultimatum and announced the severance of diplomatic relations with England and France.

At the same time, Emperor Nicholas appealed to the Berlin and Vienna courts, offering them, in case of war, to maintain neutrality, supported by weapons. Austria and Prussia declined this proposal, as well as the alliance proposed to them by England and France, but concluded a separate treaty between them. A special article of this treaty stipulated that if the Russians from the Danubian principalities did not soon follow, then Austria would demand their cleansing, Prussia would support this demand, and then, in the event of an unsatisfactory response, both powers would proceed to offensive actions, which could also be caused the accession of principalities to Russia or the transition of Russians beyond the Balkans.

On March 15 (27), 1854, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. On March 30 (April 11), Russia responded with a similar statement.

Campaign 1854

At the beginning of 1854, the entire border strip of Russia was divided into sections, each subordinate to a special chief as commander-in-chief of an army or a separate corps. These areas were as follows:

• The coast of the Baltic Sea (Finland, St. Petersburg and Ostsee provinces), the military forces in which consisted of 179 battalions, 144 squadrons and hundreds, with 384 guns;
• Kingdom of Poland and the western provinces - 146 battalions, 100 squadrons and hundreds, with 308 guns;
• The space along the Danube and the Black Sea to the Bug River - 182 battalions, 285 squadrons and hundreds, with 612 guns (departments 2 and 3 were under the command of Field Marshal Prince Paskevich);
• Crimea and the Black Sea coast from the Bug to Perekop - 27 battalions, 19 squadrons and hundreds, 48 ​​guns;
• the shores of the Sea of ​​Azov and the Black Sea - 31½ battalion, 140 hundreds and squadrons, 54 guns;
• Caucasian and Transcaucasian Territories - 152 battalions, 281 hundreds and a squadron, 289 guns (⅓ of these troops were on the Turkish border, the rest were inside the region, against hostile highlanders).
• The shores of the White Sea were guarded by only 2½ battalions.
• The defense of Kamchatka, where there were also insignificant forces, was in charge of Rear Admiral Zavoyko.

Invasion of the Crimea and siege of Sevastopol

In April, the allied fleet, consisting of 28 ships, conducted bombing of Odessa, during which 9 merchant ships were burned in the harbor. The Allies 4 frigates were damaged and taken to Varna for repairs. In addition, on May 12, in conditions of dense fog, the English steamer Tiger ran aground 6 miles from Odessa. 225 crew members were taken into Russian captivity, and the ship itself was sunk.

On June 3 (15), 1854, 2 English and 1 French steam frigates approached Sevastopol, from where 6 Russian steam frigates came out to meet them. Taking advantage of the superiority in speed, the enemy, after a short skirmish, went to sea.

On June 14 (26), 1854, the battle of the Anglo-French fleet consisting of 21 ships took place with the coastal fortifications of Sevastopol.

In early July, the allied troops, consisting of 40 thousand French, under the command of Marshal Saint-Arnaud, and 20 thousand English, under the command of Lord Raglan, landed near Varna, from where part of the French troops undertook an expedition to Dobruja, but cholera, which developed on a terrible scale in French landing corps, forced to abandon for a while any offensive actions.

The failures at sea and in Dobruja forced the Allies to turn now to the fulfillment of a long-planned enterprise - the invasion of the Crimea, all the more so since British public opinion loudly demanded that, in reward for all the losses and expenses caused by the war, the naval institutions of Sevastopol and Russian Black Sea Fleet.

On September 2 (14), 1854, the landing of the expeditionary force of the coalition began in Evpatoria. In total, in the first days of September, about 61 thousand soldiers were transported ashore. September 8 (20), 1854 in battle on the Alma the allies defeated the Russian army (33 thousand soldiers), who tried to block their path to Sevastopol. The Russian army was forced to retreat. During the battle, for the first time, the qualitative superiority of the rifled weapons of the allies over the smooth-bore Russian had an effect. The command of the Black Sea Fleet was going to attack the enemy fleet in order to disrupt the Allied offensive. However, the Black Sea Fleet received a categorical order not to go to sea, but to defend Sevastopol with the help of sailors and ship guns.

September 22nd. The attack of the Anglo-French detachment consisting of 4 steam-frigates (72 guns) on the Ochakov fortress and the Russian rowing flotilla located here, consisting of 2 small steamers and 8 rowing gunboats (36 guns) under the command of Captain 2nd Rank Endogurov. After a three-hour firefight at a long distance, the enemy ships, having received damage, went to sea.

started siege of Sevastopol. On October 5 (17), the first bombardment of the city took place, during which Kornilov died.

On the same day, the Allied fleet tried to break through to the inner roadstead of Sevastopol, but was defeated. During the battle, the best training of Russian gunners was manifested, exceeding the enemy in more than 2.5 times in rate of fire, as well as the vulnerability of Allied ships, including iron steamers, from the fire of Russian coastal artillery. So, a Russian 3-pound bomb pierced all the decks of the French battleship Charleman, exploded in his car and destroyed it. The rest of the ships involved in the battle also received serious damage. One of the commanders of the French ships assessed this battle as follows: "One more such battle, and half of our Black Sea Fleet will not be good for anything."

Saint Arnaud died on September 29. Three days before, he had handed over command of the French forces to Canrobert.

October 13 (25) happened Battle of Balaclava, as a result of which the Allied troops (20 thousand soldiers) thwarted an attempt by Russian troops (23 thousand soldiers) to unblock Sevastopol. During the battle, the Russian soldiers managed to capture some positions of the allies, defended by the Turkish troops, which they had to leave, consoling themselves with the trophies captured from the Turks (banner, eleven cast-iron guns, etc.). This battle became famous thanks to two episodes:

• Thin Red Line - At a critical moment for the Allies in the battle, trying to stop the breakthrough of the Russian cavalry into Balaklava, the commander of the 93rd Scottish Regiment, Colin Campbell, stretched his shooters into a line not of four, as was then customary, but of two. The attack was successfully repulsed, after which the phrase "thin red line", denoting defense with the last forces, entered the English language.
• Light brigade attack - the execution of a misunderstood order by an English light cavalry brigade, which led to a suicidal attack on well-fortified Russian positions. The phrase "charge of the light cavalry" has become in English a synonym for a desperate hopeless attack. This light cavalry, which fell down near Balaklava, included in its composition representatives of the most aristocratic families. Balaclava Day has forever remained a mourning date in the military history of England.

In an effort to disrupt the assault on Sevastopol planned by the Allies, on November 5, Russian troops (totaling 32 thousand people) attacked British troops (8 thousand people) near Inkerman. In the ensuing battle, the Russian troops had initial success; but the arrival of French reinforcements (8 thousand people) turned the tide of the battle in favor of the allies. The French artillery was especially effective. The Russians were ordered to retreat. According to a number of participants in the battle from the Russian side, the decisive role was played by the unsuccessful leadership of Menshikov, who did not use the available reserves (12,000 soldiers under the command of Dannenberg and 22,500 under the command of Gorchakov). The withdrawal of Russian troops to Sevastopol was covered by their fire steam frigates "Vladimir" and "Khersones". The assault on Sevastopol was thwarted for several months, which gave time to fortify the city.

On November 14, a severe storm off the coast of Crimea led to the loss of more than 53 ships by the allies (of which 25 were transports). Additionally, two ships of the line (the French 100-gun Henry IV and the Turkish 90-gun Peiki-Messeret) and 3 allied steam corvettes crashed near Evpatoria. In particular, stocks of winter clothes and medicines sent to the Allied landing corps were lost, which, in the conditions of the impending winter, put the Allies in a difficult situation. The storm of November 14, in terms of the heavy losses it inflicted on the Allied fleet and supply transports, was equated by them with a lost naval battle.

On November 24, the steam frigates "Vladimir" and "Khersones", leaving the Sevastopol roadstead into the sea, attacked the French steamer that was stationed near Pesochnaya Bay and forced it to leave, after which, approaching the Streltsy Bay, they fired bombing guns at the French camp located on the shore and enemy ships .

On the Danube in March 1854, Russian troops crossed the Danube and besieged Silistria in May. At the end of June, in view of the increased danger of Austria entering the war, the siege was lifted and the withdrawal of Russian troops from Moldavia and Wallachia began. As the Russians retreated, the Turks slowly moved forward, and on August 10 (22) Omer Pasha entered Bucharest. At the same time, the Austrian troops crossed the border of Wallachia, which, by agreement of the allies with the Turkish government, replaced the Turks and occupied the principalities.

In the Caucasus, Russian troops occupied Bayazet on July 19 (31), on July 24 (August 5), 1854, they fought a successful battle near Kyuryuk-Dar, 18 km from Kars, but so far have not been able to begin the siege of this fortress, in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bwhich 60- thousandth Turkish army. The Black Sea coastline was abolished.

In the Baltic, two divisions of the Baltic Fleet were left to strengthen the defense of Kronstadt, and the third was located near Sveaborg. The main points on the Baltic coast were covered by coastal batteries, and gunboats were actively built.

With the clearing of the sea from ice, a strong Anglo-French fleet (11 screw and 15 sailing ships of the line, 32 steam-frigates and 7 sailing frigates) under the command of Vice Admiral C. Napier and Vice Admiral A. F. Parseval-Deschen entered the Baltic and blocked the Russian Baltic Fleet (26 sailing battleships, 9 steam-frigates and 9 sailing frigates) in Kronstadt and Sveaborg.

Not daring to attack these bases due to Russian minefields, the Allies began a blockade of the coast and bombarded a number of settlements in Finland. On July 26 (August 7), 1854, an 11,000-strong Anglo-French landing force landed on the Åland Islands and laid siege to Bomarsund, which surrendered after the destruction of the fortifications. Attempts by other landings (in Ekenes, Ganges, Gamlakarleby and Abo) ended in failure. In the autumn of 1854, the allied squadrons left the Baltic Sea.

On the White Sea, the actions of the allied squadron of Captain Omanei were limited to the capture of small merchant ships, the robbery of coastal residents, and the double bombardment of the Solovetsky Monastery. There were attempts to make a landing, but they were abandoned. During the bombing of the city of Kola, about 110 houses, 2 churches (including the masterpiece of Russian wooden architecture, the Resurrection Cathedral of the 17th century), and shops were burned by enemy fire.

On the Pacific Ocean, the garrison of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky under the command of Major General V.S. Zavoyko on August 18-24 (August 30-September 5), 1854, repelled the attack of the Anglo-French squadron under the command of Rear Admiral David Price, defeating the landing force.

Diplomatic efforts

In 1854, in Vienna, with the mediation of Austria, diplomatic negotiations were held between the warring parties. England and France, as peace conditions, demanded a ban for Russia to keep a navy on the Black Sea, Russia's renunciation of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia and claims to patronage of the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, as well as "freedom of navigation" on the Danube (that is, depriving Russia of access to its mouth).

On December 2 (14), Austria announced an alliance with England and France. December 28, 1854 (January 9, 1855) opened a conference of ambassadors of England, France, Austria and Russia, but the negotiations did not produce results and in April 1855 were interrupted.

On January 26, 1855, the Kingdom of Sardinia joined the allies, having concluded an agreement with France, after which 15 thousand Piedmontese soldiers went to Sevastopol. According to Palmerston's plan, Venice and Lombardy, taken from Austria, were to go to Sardinia for participation in the coalition. After the war, France concluded an agreement with Sardinia, in which it officially assumed the corresponding obligations (which, however, were never fulfilled).

Campaign 1855

On February 18 (March 2), 1855, the Russian Emperor Nicholas I died suddenly. The Russian throne was inherited by his son, Alexander II.

Crimea and the siege of Sevastopol

After the capture of the southern part of Sevastopol, the allied commanders-in-chief, who did not dare to move with the army into the peninsula due to a lack of baggage, began to threaten the movement to Nikolaev, which, with the fall of Sevastopol, gained importance, since Russian naval institutions and supplies were located there. To this end, a strong allied fleet approached Kinburn on October 2 (14) and, after a two-day bombardment, forced him to surrender.

For the bombardment of Kinburn by the French, for the first time in world practice, armored floating platforms were used, which turned out to be practically invulnerable to the Kinburn coastal batteries and the fort, the most powerful weapons of which were medium-caliber 24-pounder guns. Their cast-iron cannonballs left dents no more than an inch deep in the 4½-inch armor of the French floating batteries, and the fire of the batteries themselves was so destructive that, according to the British observers present, the batteries alone would have been enough to destroy the walls of Kinburn in three hours.

Leaving Bazaine's troops and a small squadron in Kinburn, the British and French set sail for Sevastopol, near which they began to settle down for the upcoming winter.

Other theaters of war

For operations on the Baltic Sea in 1855, the Allies equipped 67 ships; this fleet appeared before Kronstadt in the middle of May, hoping to lure the Russian fleet stationed there into the sea. Without waiting for this and making sure that the fortifications of Kronstadt were strengthened and underwater mines were laid in many places, the enemy limited himself to raids by light ships on various places on the Finnish coast.

On July 25 (August 6), the allied fleet bombarded Sveaborg for 45 hours, but apart from the destruction of buildings, almost no harm was done to the fortress.

In the Caucasus, a major victory for Russia in 1855 was the capture of Kars. The first attack on the fortress took place on June 4 (16), its siege began on June 6 (18), and by mid-August it became total. After a major but unsuccessful assault on September 17 (29), N. N. Muravyov continued the siege until the surrender of the Ottoman garrison, which took place on November 16 (28), 1855. Vassif Pasha, who commanded the garrison, handed over to the enemy the keys to the city, 12 Turkish banners and 18.5 thousand prisoners. As a result of this victory, the Russian troops began to successfully control not only the city, but also its entire region, including Ardagan, Kagyzman, Olty and the Nizhne-Basensky sanjak.

War and propaganda

Propaganda was an integral part of the war. A few years before the Crimean War (in 1848), Karl Marx, who himself actively published in the Western European press, wrote that a German newspaper, in order to save its liberal reputation, had to “show hatred of the Russians at the right time.”

F. Engels, in several articles in the English press published in March-April 1853, accused Russia of seeking to capture Constantinople, although it was well known that the Russian ultimatum of February 1853 did not contain any territorial claims of Russia itself against Turkey. In another article (April 1853), Marx and Engels scolded the Serbs for not wanting to read books printed in their language in the West in Latin letters, but only books in Cyrillic printed in Russia; and rejoiced that an "anti-Russian progressive party" had finally appeared in Serbia.

Also in 1853, the English liberal newspaper Daily News assured its readers that Christians in the Ottoman Empire enjoyed greater religious freedom than in Orthodox Russia and Catholic Austria.

In 1854, the London Times wrote: "It would be good to return Russia to the cultivation of inland lands, to drive the Muscovites deep into the forests and steppes." In the same year, D. Russell, leader of the House of Commons and head of the Liberal Party, said: “We must pull out the fangs from the bear ... Until its fleet and naval arsenal on the Black Sea are destroyed, Constantinople will not be safe, there will be no peace in Europe.”

Widespread anti-Western, patriotic and jingoistic propaganda began in Russia, which was supported both by official speeches and spontaneous speeches by the patriotic part of society. In fact, for the first time since the Patriotic War of 1812, Russia opposed itself to a large coalition of European countries, demonstrating its “special position”. At the same time, some of the sharpest jingoistic speeches by the Nikolaev censorship were not allowed to print, which happened, for example, in 1854-1855. with two poems by F. I. Tyutchev (“Prophecy” and “Now you are not up to poetry”).

Diplomatic efforts

After the fall of Sevastopol, disagreements appeared in the coalition. Palmerston wanted to continue the war, Napoleon III did not. The French emperor began secret (separate) negotiations with Russia. Meanwhile, Austria declared its readiness to join the Allies. In mid-December, she presented an ultimatum to Russia:

• replacement of the Russian protectorate over Wallachia and Serbia by a protectorate of all the great powers;
• the establishment of freedom of navigation in the mouths of the Danube;
• preventing the passage of someone's squadrons through the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus to the Black Sea, the prohibition of Russia and Turkey to maintain a navy on the Black Sea and have arsenals and military fortifications on the shores of this sea;
• Russia's refusal to patronize Orthodox subjects of the Sultan;
• concession by Russia in favor of Moldova of the section of Bessarabia adjacent to the Danube.

A few days later, Alexander II received a letter from Friedrich Wilhelm IV, who urged the Russian emperor to accept the Austrian terms, hinting that otherwise Prussia might join the anti-Russian coalition. Thus, Russia found itself in complete diplomatic isolation, which, in the face of depleted resources and defeats inflicted by the allies, put it in an extremely difficult position.

On the evening of December 20, 1855, a meeting convened by him took place in the tsar's office. It was decided to invite Austria to delete the 5th paragraph. Austria rejected this proposal. Then Alexander II convened a secondary meeting on January 15, 1856. The assembly unanimously decided to accept the ultimatum as preconditions for peace.

The results of the war

On February 13 (25), 1856, the Paris Congress began, and on March 18 (30) a peace treaty was signed.

• Russia returned the city of Kars with a fortress to the Ottomans, receiving in exchange Sevastopol, Balaklava and other Crimean cities captured from it.
• The Black Sea was declared neutral (that is, open to commercial and closed to military ships in peacetime), with the prohibition of Russia and the Ottoman Empire to have navies and arsenals there.
• Navigation along the Danube was declared free, for which the Russian borders were moved away from the river and part of Russian Bessarabia with the mouth of the Danube was annexed to Moldavia.
• Russia was deprived of the protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, granted to it by the Kyuchuk-Kaynardzhysky peace of 1774, and the exclusive patronage of Russia over the Christian subjects of the Ottoman Empire.
• Russia pledged not to build fortifications on the Aland Islands.

During the war, the members of the anti-Russian coalition failed to achieve all their goals, but managed to prevent the strengthening of Russia in the Balkans and temporarily deprive it of the Black Sea Fleet.

Consequences of the war

Russia

• The war led to the breakdown of the financial system of the Russian Empire (Russia spent 800 million rubles on the war, Britain - 76 million pounds): to finance military spending, the government had to resort to printing unsecured credit notes, which led to a decrease in their silver cover from 45% in 1853 to 19% in 1858, that is, in fact, to more than a twofold depreciation of the ruble. Russia was able to reach a deficit-free state budget again in 1870, that is, 14 years after the end of the war. It was possible to establish a stable exchange rate of the ruble against gold and restore its international conversion in 1897, during the monetary reform of Witte.
• The war became the impetus for economic reforms and, in the future, for the abolition of serfdom.
• The experience of the Crimean War partially formed the basis of the military reforms of the 1860s-1870s in Russia (replacement of the obsolete 25-year military service, etc.).

In 1871, Russia achieved the abolition of the ban on keeping the navy in the Black Sea under the London Convention. In 1878, Russia was able to return the lost territories under the Berlin Treaty, signed as part of the Berlin Congress, which took place following the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878.

• The government of the Russian Empire begins to reconsider its policy in the field of railway construction, which previously manifested itself in the repeated blocking of private projects for the construction of railways, including those to Kremenchug, Kharkov and Odessa, and upholding the unprofitability and uselessness of building railways south of Moscow. In September 1854, an order was issued to begin surveys on the line Moscow - Kharkov - Kremenchug - Elizavetgrad - Olviopol - Odessa. In October 1854, an order was received to start surveys on the Kharkov-Feodosia line, in February 1855 - on a branch from the Kharkov-Feodosia line to the Donbass, in June 1855 - on the Genichesk-Simferopol-Bakhchisarai-Sevastopol line. On January 26, 1857, the Supreme Decree was issued on the creation of the first railway network.

Britannia

Military setbacks led to the resignation of the British government of Aberdeen, who was replaced in his post by Palmerston. The viciousness of the official system of selling officer ranks for money, which has been preserved in the British army since medieval times, was revealed.

Ottoman Empire

During the Eastern Campaign, the Ottoman Empire borrowed £7 million from England. In 1858, the bankruptcy of the Sultan's treasury was declared.

In February 1856, Sultan Abdulmejid I was forced to issue a Gatti Sheriff (decree) Hatt-ı Hümayun, which proclaimed freedom of religion and equality of the subjects of the empire regardless of nationality.

Austria

Austria found itself in political isolation until October 23, 1873, when a new alliance of three emperors (Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary) was concluded.

Influence on military affairs

The Crimean War gave impetus to the development of the armed forces, military and naval art of European states. In many countries, a transition began from smooth-bore weapons to rifled ones, from a sailing wooden fleet to a steam-powered armored one, and positional forms of warfare were born.

In the ground forces, the role of small arms and, accordingly, the fire preparation of an attack increased, a new battle formation appeared - a small arms chain, which was also the result of a sharply increased capabilities of small arms. Over time, she completely replaced the columns and the loose system.

• Sea barrage mines were invented and used for the first time.
• The use of the telegraph for military purposes began.
• Florence Nightingale laid the foundations for modern sanitation and care for the wounded in hospitals - in less than six months after her arrival in Turkey, mortality in hospitals fell from 42 to 2.2%.
• For the first time in the history of wars, sisters of mercy were involved in caring for the wounded.
• Nikolai Pirogov, for the first time in Russian field medicine, used a plaster cast, which made it possible to speed up the healing process of fractures and saved the wounded from ugly curvature of the limbs.

Other

• One of the early manifestations of the information war is documented, when immediately after the battle of Sinop, English newspapers wrote in reports about the battle that the Russians finished shooting the wounded Turks swimming in the sea.
• On March 1, 1854, a new asteroid was discovered by the German astronomer Robert Luther at the Düsseldorf Observatory, Germany. This asteroid was named (28) Bellona in honor of Bellona, ​​the ancient Roman goddess of war, part of the retinue of Mars. The name was proposed by the German astronomer Johann Encke and symbolized the beginning of the Crimean War.
• On March 31, 1856, the German astronomer Hermann Gold Schmidt discovered an asteroid named (40) Harmony. The name was chosen to commemorate the end of the Crimean War.
• For the first time photography is widely used to cover the course of the war. In particular, a collection of photographs taken by Roger Fenton and numbering 363 images was purchased by the US Library of Congress.
• The practice of continuous weather forecasting emerges, first in Europe and then around the world. The storm on November 14, 1854, which inflicted heavy losses on the Allied fleet, as well as the fact that these losses could have been prevented, forced the Emperor of France, Napoleon III, to personally instruct the leading astronomer of his country - U. Le Verrier - to create an effective weather forecast service. Already on February 19, 1855, just three months after the storm in Balaklava, the first forecast map was created, a prototype of those that we see in the weather news, and in 1856, 13 weather stations were already operating in France.
• Cigarettes are invented: the habit of wrapping tobacco crumbs in old newspapers was copied by the British and French troops in the Crimea from Turkish comrades.
• All-Russian fame is gained by the young author Leo Tolstoy with the Sevastopol Tales published in the press from the scene. Here he also created a song criticizing the actions of the command in the battle on the Black River.

Losses

According to estimates of military losses, the total number of those killed in battle, as well as those who died from wounds and diseases in the Allied army was 160-170 thousand people, in the Russian army - 100-110 thousand people. According to other estimates, the total number of deaths in the war, including non-combat losses, was approximately 250,000 on the Russian side and on the side of the allies.

Awards

• In the UK, the Crimean Medal was established to reward distinguished soldiers, and the Baltic Medal was established to reward those who distinguished themselves in the Baltic in the Royal Navy and Marine Corps. In 1856, to reward those who distinguished themselves during the Crimean War, the Victoria Cross medal was established, which to this day is the highest military award in Great Britain.
• In the Russian Empire, on November 26, 1856, Emperor Alexander II established the medal "In Memory of the War of 1853-1856", as well as the medal "For the Defense of Sevastopol" and ordered the Mint to produce 100,000 copies of the medal.
• On August 26, 1856 Alexander II granted the population of Taurida a “Letter of Gratitude”.

By the middle of the 19th century, the international situation in Europe remained extremely tense: Austria and Prussia continued to concentrate their troops on the border with Russia, England and France asserted their colonial power with blood and sword. In this situation, a war broke out between Russia and Turkey, which went down in history as the Crimean War of 1853-1856.

Causes of military conflict

By the 50s of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had finally lost its power. The Russian state, on the contrary, after the suppression of revolutions in European countries, rose. Emperor Nicholas I decided to further strengthen the power of Russia. First of all, he wanted the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits of the Black Sea to become free for the Russian fleet. This led to hostilities between the Russian and Turkish empires. Besides, the main reasons were :

• Turkey had the right to let the fleet of the allied powers through the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles in case of hostilities.
• Russia carried out open support for the Orthodox peoples under the yoke of the Ottoman Empire. The Turkish government has repeatedly expressed its indignation at Russia's interference in the internal politics of the Turkish state.
• The Turkish government, led by Abdulmecid, was eager for revenge for the defeat in two wars with Russia in 1806-1812 and 1828-1829.

Nicholas I, preparing for the war with Turkey, counted on the non-intervention of the Western powers in the military conflict. However, the Russian emperor was cruelly mistaken - the Western countries, incited by Great Britain, openly came out on the side of Turkey. British policy has traditionally been to root out the slightest strengthening of any country with all its might.

Start of hostilities

The reason for the war was a dispute between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches over the right to possess the holy lands in Palestine. In addition, Russia demanded that the Black Sea straits be recognized as free for the Russian navy. The Turkish Sultan Abdulmecid, encouraged by the support of England, declared war on the Russian Empire.

If we talk briefly about the Crimean War, then it can be divided into two main steps:

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• First stage lasted from October 16, 1853 to March 27, 1854. The first six months of hostilities on three fronts - the Black Sea, Danube and Caucasian, Russian troops invariably prevailed over the Ottoman Turks.
• Second phase lasted from March 27, 1854 to February 1856. The number of participants in the Crimean War of 1853-1856 increased due to the entry into the war of England and France. There is a turning point in the war.

The course of the military company

By the autumn of 1853, events on the Danube front were proceeding sluggishly and indecisively for both sides.

• The Russian grouping of forces was commanded only by Gorchakov, who thought only about the defense of the Danube bridgehead. The Turkish troops of Omer Pasha, after futile attempts to go on the offensive on the border of Wallachia, also switched to passive defense.
• Events in the Caucasus developed much more rapidly: on October 16, 1854, a detachment consisting of 5 thousand Turks attacked the Russian border outpost between Batum and Poti. The Turkish commander Abdi Pasha hoped to crush the Russian troops in Transcaucasia and unite with the Chechen Imam Shamil. But the Russian General Bebutov upset the plans of the Turks, defeating them near the village of Bashkadyklar in November 1853.
• But the loudest victory was obtained at sea by Admiral Nakhimov on November 30, 1853. The Russian squadron completely destroyed the Turkish fleet located in the Sinop Bay. The commander of the Turkish fleet, Osman Pasha, was captured by Russian sailors. It was the last battle in the history of the sailing fleet.

• The crushing victories of the Russian army and navy were not to the liking of England and France. The governments of the English Queen Victoria and the French Emperor Napoleon III demanded that Russian troops be withdrawn from the mouth of the Danube. Nicholas I refused. In response, on March 27, 1854, England declared war on Russia. Due to the concentration of the Austrian armed forces and the ultimatum of the Austrian government, Nicholas I was forced to agree to the withdrawal of Russian troops from the Danubian principalities.

The following table presents the main events of the second period of the Crimean War, with dates and a summary of each of the events:

Quite a few peasants tried to avoid recruitment in order not to get into the army. This did not speak of their cowardice, just that many peasants sought to avoid recruitment due to their families that needed to be fed. During the years of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, on the contrary, there was a surge of patriotic sentiments among the population of Russia. Moreover, people of various classes were recorded in the militia.

End of the war and its aftermath

The new Russian sovereign Alexander II, who replaced the suddenly deceased Nicholas I on the throne, directly visited the theater of military operations. After that, he decided to do everything in his power to end the Crimean War. The end of the war was at the beginning of 1856.

In early 1856, a congress of European diplomats was convened in Paris to conclude peace. The most difficult condition put forward by the Western powers of Russia was a ban on the maintenance of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea.

Main terms of the Paris Treaty:

• Russia pledged to return the Kars fortress to Turkey in exchange for Sevastopol;
• Russia was forbidden to have a fleet on the Black Sea;
• Russia lost part of the territories in the Danube Delta. Navigation on the Danube was declared free;
• Russia was forbidden to have military fortifications on the Aland Islands.

Rice. 3. Congress of Paris 1856

The Russian Empire suffered a serious defeat. A powerful blow was dealt to the country's international prestige. The Crimean War exposed the rottenness of the existing system and the backwardness of industry from the leading world powers. The lack of rifled weapons in the Russian army, a modern fleet and a shortage of railways could not but affect military operations.

Nevertheless, such key moments of the Crimean War as the Battle of Sinop, the defense of Sevastopol, the capture of Kars or the defense of the fortress of Bomarzund, remained in history as a sacrificial and majestic feat of Russian soldiers and the Russian people.

The government of Nicholas I introduced the most severe censorship during the Crimean War. It was forbidden to touch on military topics, both in books and in periodicals. Publications that wrote in an enthusiastic manner about the course of hostilities were also not allowed into the press.

What have we learned?

Crimean War 1853-1856 discovered serious shortcomings in the foreign and domestic policy of the Russian Empire. About what this war was, why Russia was defeated, as well as about the significance of the Crimean War and its consequences, the article “Crimean War” tells.

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The entry into the Russian-Turkish war of France, Sardinia and England on the side of Turkey after the famous Battle of Sinop determined the transfer of armed clashes to land, to the Crimea. With the beginning of the campaign in the Crimea, the war of 1853-1856. acquired a defensive character for Russia. The Allies deployed almost 90 warships in the Black Sea against Russia (already mostly steam ships), while the Black Sea squadron consisted of about 20 sailing and 6 steam ships. There was no point in naval confrontation - the superiority of the coalition forces was evident.

In September 1854, the Allied troops landed near Evpatoria. On September 8, 1854, the Russian army under the command of A.S. Menshikov was defeated near the Alma River. It seemed that the way to Sevastopol was open. In connection with the increased threat of the capture of Sevastopol, the Russian command decided to flood part of the Black Sea fleet at the entrance to the large bay of the city in order to prevent enemy ships from entering there. The guns were previously removed to reinforce the coastal artillery. The city itself did not give up. On September 13, 1854, the defense of Sevastopol began, which lasted 349 days - until August 28 (September 8), 1855.

A huge role in the defense of the city was played by admirals V.A. Kornilov, V.I. Istomin, P.S. Nakhimov. Vice Admiral Vladimir Alekseevich Kornilov became the commander of the defense of Sevastopol. Under his command there were about 18,000 people (subsequently the number will be increased to 85,000), mainly from naval teams. Kornilov was well aware of the size of the Anglo-French-Turkish landing force, which numbered 62,000 people (later the number would reach 148,000) with 134 field and 73 siege guns. Already by September 24, the French occupied the Fedyukhin Heights, and the British entered Balaklava.

In Sevastopol, under the supervision of engineer E.I. Totleben, engineering work was carried out - forts were erected, redoubts were strengthened, trenches were created. The southern part of the city was more fortified. The allies did not dare to storm the city and began engineering work, but successful sorties from Sevastopol did not allow the construction of siege fortifications to be completed quickly.

The first major bombardment of Sevastopol was on October 5, 1854, after which it was planned to storm it. However, the well-aimed return fire of the Russian batteries thwarted these plans. But that day Kornilov died.

The main forces of the Russian army under the command of Menshikov undertook a series of unsuccessful attacking operations. The first was carried out on October 13 on the outskirts of Balaklava. This attack did not have any strategic advantage, but almost an entire brigade of British light cavalry was killed during the battle. On October 24, another battle took place in the region of the Inkerman Heights, lost due to the indecision of the Russian generals.

On October 17, 1854, the allies began shelling Sevastopol from land and sea. They also returned fire from the bastions. Only the British were able to achieve success, acting against the third bastion of Sevastopol. Russian losses amounted to 1250 people. In general, the defenders continued the tactics of night sorties and unexpected raids. The famous Petr Koshka and Ignatiy Shevchenko, with their courage and heroism, have repeatedly proved how high the price the enemy will have to pay for invading Russian open spaces.

The sailor of the 1st article of the 30th naval Black Sea crew Petr Markovich Koshka (1828-1882) became one of the main heroes of the defense of the city. At the beginning of the Sevastopol defense, P. Koshka was assigned to one of the batteries of the Ship side. He was distinguished by extraordinary courage and resourcefulness. By the beginning of 1855, he made 18 sorties into the enemy's location, most often acting alone. His verbal portrait has been preserved: “Medium height, lean, but strong, with an expressive cheekbones face ... A little pockmarked, with Russian hair, gray eyes, did not know the letter.” In January 1855, he already proudly wore "George" in his buttonhole. After leaving the southern part of the city, he was "dismissed for an extended vacation due to the wound." Koshka was remembered in August 1863 and called to serve in the Baltic, in the 8th naval crew. There, at the request of another hero of Sevastopol, General S.A. Khrulev, he received another "George" of the second degree. On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of the defense of Sevastopol, monuments were opened to him in the homeland of the Cat and in Sevastopol itself, and one of the streets of the city was given his name.

The heroism of the defenders of Sevastopol was massive. Sevastopol women, under enemy fire, bandaged the wounded, brought food and water, and mended clothes. The annals of this defense included the names of Dasha of Sevastopol, Praskovya Grafova and many others. Dasha Sevastopolskaya was the first sister of mercy and became a legend. For a long time her real name was not known, and only recently it turned out that Dasha was an orphan - the daughter of a sailor Lavrenty Mikhailov who died in the Sinop battle. In November 1854, “for exemplary diligence in caring for the sick and wounded,” she received a Gold Medal with the inscription “For Diligence” on the Vladimir Ribbon and 500 silver rubles. It was also announced that upon her marriage, she would be "given another 1,000 silver rubles for the acquisition." In July 1855, Daria married the sailor Maxim Vasilyevich Khvorostov, with whom they fought side by side until the end of the Crimean War. Her further fate is unknown and still awaits research.

The surgeon N.I. provided invaluable assistance to the defenders. Pirogov, who saved the lives of thousands of wounded. The great Russian writer L.N. took part in the defense of Sevastopol. Tolstoy, who described these events in the cycle "Sevastopol stories".

Despite the heroism and courage of the defenders of the city, the hardships and hunger of the Anglo-French army (the winter of 1854-1855 turned out to be very severe, and the November storm scattered the allied fleet on the Balaklava roadstead, destroying several ships with stocks of weapons, winter uniforms and food) it was impossible to change the general situation - it was impossible to unblock the city or effectively help it.

On March 19, 1855, during the next bombing of the city, Istomin died, and on June 28, 1855, during a detour of the advanced fortifications on the Malakhov Hill, Nakhimov was mortally wounded. The circumstances of his death are truly tragic. The officers begged him to leave the heavily shelled mound. “Not every bullet is in the forehead,” the admiral answered them, and these were his last words: in the next second, a stray bullet hit him in the forehead. An outstanding Russian naval commander, Admiral Pavel Stepanovich Nakhimov (1802-1855), actively participated in the defense of Sevastopol, commanding the defense of the strategically important southern side of the city. Shortly before his death, he was promoted to the rank of admiral. Nakhimov is buried in the Vladimir Cathedral of Sevastopol. Ships of the national fleet, naval schools in Sevastopol and St. Petersburg bear his name. In 1944, in memory of the admiral, an order of his name of two degrees and a medal were established.

Attempts by the Russian land army to distract the enemy ended in failure in battles, in particular, on February 5, 1855 near Evpatoria. The immediate result of this failure was the dismissal of Commander-in-Chief Menshikov and the appointment of M.D. Gorchakov. Note that this was the last order of the emperor, who died on February 19, 1855. Overcoming the severe flu, the sovereign “remained in line” to the end, visiting marching battalions sent to the theater of war in severe frost. “If I were a simple soldier, would you pay attention to this ill health?” He remarked to the protest of his life doctors. "There is not a doctor in Your Majesty's entire army who would allow a soldier in such a condition to be discharged from the hospital," Dr. Carrel replied. "You have done your duty," replied the emperor, "let me do my duty."

On August 27, the last shelling of the city began. In less than a day, the defenders lost from 2.5 to 3 thousand killed. After a two-day massive bombardment, on August 28 (September 8), 1855, the French troops of General McMahon, with the support of the British and Sardinian units, launched a decisive assault on Malakhov Kurgan, which ended with the capture of the height dominating the city. The fate of Malakhov Kurgan was decided by the stubbornness of McMahon, who, in response to the order of the commander-in-chief Pelissier, replied: "I am staying here." Of the eighteen French generals who went on the assault, 5 were killed and 11 were wounded.

Realizing the gravity of the situation, General Gorchakov gave the order to retreat from the city. And on the night of August 27-28, the last defenders of the city, having blown up the powder magazines and flooded the ships that were there in the bay, left the city. The Allies thought that Sevastopol was mined and did not dare to enter it until August 30th. During the 11 months of the siege, the Allies lost about 70,000 men. Russian losses - 83,500 people.

Important memories of the defense of Sevastopol were left by Theofill Klemm, whose ancestors in the 18th century. came to Russia from Germany. His story is strikingly different from the memoirs written by representatives of the aristocratic strata of Russia, since a significant part of his memoirs is devoted to soldiers' everyday life, the difficulties of field life.

“A lot has been written and said about this Sevastopol life, but my words will not be superfluous, as a participant in this glorious military life for a Russian soldier living in this bloody feast, not in the position of a white hand, like those writers and talkers who know everything from hearsay, but a real laborer-soldier, who was in the ranks and performed, along with the rest of the guys, everything that was only in human power.

You used to sit in a trench and look into a small embrasure that is being done in front of your nose, you can’t stick your head out, now they’ll remove it, without such cover, it was impossible to shoot. Our soldiers made fun, they hang a hat on the ramrod and push it out from behind the trench roller, the French arrows shoot it in a sieve. It used to happen that quite often it would click somewhere, the soldier would fall, hit him in the forehead, his neighbor would turn his head, cross himself, spit, and continue his work - firing somewhere, as if nothing had happened. The corpse will fit somewhere aside so that it does not interfere with walking along the trench, and so, cordially, lies until the shift, - at night the comrades will drag him to the redoubt, and from the redoubt to the mass pit, and when the pit is filled with the required number of bodies, they fell asleep first, if there is, with lime, but if not, with earth - and the matter is settled.

After such a school, you will become a real soldier in blood and bones, and I bow low to any such combat soldier. And what a charm he is in wartime, what you want you will find in him when you need him, he is good-natured, cordial, when you need him, he is a lion. With my own feeling for his endurance and good qualities of a soldier, I love him with my heart and soul. Without claims, without special requirements, patient, indifferent to death, diligent, despite obstacles, danger. I believe that only one Russian soldier is capable of anything, I speak from what I have seen, the past.

Despite the fact that English rifled guns hit almost three times as far as Russian smooth-bore guns, the defenders of Sevastopol proved more than once that technical equipment is far from the main thing in comparison with fighting courage and courage. But in general, the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol demonstrated the technical backwardness of the army of the Russian Empire and the need for change.

The Crimean War, or, as it is called in the West, the Eastern War, was one of the most important and decisive events of the middle of the 19th century. At this time, the lands of the non-falling Ottoman Empire found themselves in the center of the conflict between the European powers and Russia, and each of the warring parties wanted to expand their territories by annexing foreign lands.

The war of 1853-1856 was called the Crimean War, since the most important and intense hostilities took place in the Crimea, although military clashes went far beyond the peninsula and covered large areas of the Balkans, the Caucasus, as well as the Far East and Kamchatka. At the same time, tsarist Russia had to fight not just with the Ottoman Empire, but with a coalition where Turkey was supported by Great Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia.

Causes of the Crimean War

Each of the parties that took part in the military campaign had its own reasons and claims that prompted them to enter into this conflict. But in general, they were united by one single goal - to take advantage of Turkey's weakness and establish themselves in the Balkans and the Middle East. It was these colonial interests that led to the outbreak of the Crimean War. But to achieve this goal, all countries followed different paths.

Russia longed to destroy the Ottoman Empire, and its territories to be mutually beneficially divided among the claiming countries. Under its protectorate, Russia would like to see Bulgaria, Moldavia, Serbia and Wallachia. And at the same time, she was not opposed to the fact that the territories of Egypt and the island of Crete would go to Great Britain. It was also important for Russia to establish control over the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus, connecting the two seas: the Black and the Mediterranean.

Turkey with the help of this war hoped to suppress the national liberation movement that swept the Balkans, as well as to select the very important Russian territories of the Crimea and the Caucasus.

England and France did not want to strengthen the positions of Russian tsarism in the international arena, and sought to preserve the Ottoman Empire, since they saw in her face a constant threat to Russia. Having weakened the enemy, the European powers wanted to separate the territories of Finland, Poland, the Caucasus and Crimea from Russia.

The French emperor pursued his ambitious goals and dreamed of revenge in a new war with Russia. Thus, he wanted to take revenge on his enemy for the defeat in the military campaign of 1812.

If we carefully consider the mutual claims of the parties, then, in fact, the Crimean War was absolutely predatory and predatory. After all, it was not in vain that the poet Fyodor Tyutchev described it as a war of cretins with scoundrels.

The course of hostilities

The beginning of the Crimean War was preceded by several important events. In particular, it was the issue of control over the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Bethlehem, which was decided in favor of the Catholics. This finally convinced Nicholas I of the need to start military operations against Turkey. Therefore, in June 1853, Russian troops invaded the territory of Moldova.

The response of the Turkish side was not long in coming: on October 12, 1853, the Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia.

The first period of the Crimean War: October 1853 - April 1854

By the beginning of hostilities, there were about a million people in the Russian army. But as it turned out, its armament was very outdated and significantly inferior to the equipment of Western European armies: smooth-bore guns against rifled weapons, a sailing fleet against ships with steam engines. But Russia hoped that it would have to fight with an approximately equal in strength Turkish army, as happened at the very beginning of the war, and could not imagine that it would be opposed by the forces of the united coalition of European countries.

During this period, the fighting was carried out with varying success. And the most important battle of the first Russian-Turkish period of the war was the Battle of Sinop, which took place on November 18, 1853. The Russian flotilla under the command of Vice Admiral Nakhimov, heading for the Turkish coast, discovered large enemy naval forces in the Sinop Bay. The commander decided to attack the Turkish fleet. The Russian squadron had an undeniable advantage - 76 cannons firing explosive shells. This is what decided the outcome of the 4-hour battle - the Turkish squadron was completely destroyed, and the commander Osman Pasha was taken prisoner.

The second period of the Crimean War: April 1854 - February 1856

The victory of the Russian army in the battle of Sinop greatly disturbed England and France. And in March 1854, these powers, together with Turkey, formed a coalition to fight a common enemy - the Russian Empire. Now a powerful military force fought against her, several times superior to her army.

With the beginning of the second stage of the Crimean campaign, the territory of hostilities expanded significantly and covered the Caucasus, the Balkans, the Baltic, the Far East and Kamchatka. But the main task of the coalition was the intervention in the Crimea and the capture of Sevastopol.

In the autumn of 1854, a united corps of 60,000 coalition forces landed in the Crimea near Yevpatoriya. And the Russian army lost the first battle on the Alma River, so it was forced to retreat to Bakhchisaray. The garrison of Sevastopol began to prepare for the defense and defense of the city. The illustrious admirals Nakhimov, Kornilov and Istomin stood at the head of the valiant defenders. Sevastopol was turned into an impregnable fortress, which was protected by 8 bastions on land, and the entrance to the bay was blocked with the help of sunken ships.

The heroic defense of Sevastopol continued for 349 days, and only in September 1855 did the enemy capture Malakhov Kurgan and occupied the entire southern part of the city. The Russian garrison moved to the northern part, but Sevastopol never capitulated.

Results of the Crimean War

The military actions of 1855 weakened both the allied coalition and Russia. Therefore, the continuation of the war could no longer be discussed. And in March 1856, the opponents agreed to sign a peace treaty.

According to the Treaty of Paris, Russia, like the Ottoman Empire, was forbidden to have a navy, fortresses and arsenals on the Black Sea, which meant that the southern borders of the country were in danger.

As a result of the war, Russia lost a small part of its territories in Bessarabia and the mouth of the Danube, but lost its influence in the Balkans.

The main events of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and in particular the heroic defense of Sevastopol, have firmly entered the annals of Russian military history. However, in the art history literature, a strong opinion has been entrenched, largely due to the categorical statements of the well-known critic of the 19th century V.V. Stasov, about the “indifference of art”, that the theme of the Crimean War was not widely reflected in the paintings and graphic works of artists of the second half of the 19th century .

Nakhimov Pavel Stepanovich (06/23/1802 - 06/30/1855), outstanding Russian naval commander, one of the organizers of the defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855, admiral

Timm Vasily Fedorovich. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov. Pencil. Drawing from nature. February 1855

Vasily Fedorovich Timm created the only lifetime image of the defense hero Admiral P.S. Nakhimov. For a series of Sevastopol drawings in 1855, the artist received the title of academician of battle painting.
Completely devoted to the service, he did not know outside of it and had no interests.

Colleagues made up his family, and all his ambition consisted in the strict fulfillment of his duty, ”those who knew him closely spoke of Nakhimov.

There were legends about his courage and contempt for death, so the appearance of the admiral on the batteries and bastions was accompanied by a loud enthusiastic "Hurrah!"

From the beginning of hostilities off the Crimean coast, Nakhimov took command of the ships anchored in the roadstead of the Sevastopol Bay, and five days later "was appointed in the absence of V. A. Kornilov as the commander-in-chief of the fleet and naval battalions."

Nakhimov took command of the fortifications of the southern side of the city, developed active activities to increase the combat readiness of personnel on ships and coastal batteries, to strengthen the sea approaches to Sevastopol.

In addition, several coastal batteries were built, lighthouses were darkened, and an enemy surveillance service was organized.

Pryanishnikov I.M. Admiral P.S. Nakhimov on the 5th bastion during the first bombardment on October 5, 1854. Oil. 1871-1872 Album "Episodes of Sevastopol life in 1854-1855".

From the beginning of the defense, Nakhimov became the first assistant to Vice Admiral V.A. Kornilov to organize a rebuff to the enemy from the sea, the transfer of sailors to land, the formation of naval battalions, the creation of reserves. An outstanding achievement of Nakhimov was the exemplary organization of fire support for the actions of the ground forces by the ships of the fleet.

His undoubted merit is that on October 5, 1854, the Anglo-French fleet, having a 12-fold superiority of forces and firing 50 thousand shells from their guns, could not suppress the coastal defenses of the city, the assault on Sevastopol was postponed. This joyful event was overshadowed by the news of the death of V.A. Kornilov, after whose death all responsibility for the leadership of the defense practically fell on P.S. Nakhimov.

When repelling the first bombardment on 10/5/1854, he was wounded in the head, on 05/26/1855, during the storming of the Kamchatka lunette by the French, he was shell-shocked, but hid the pain that tormented him from others. His personal example was the most effective force for the defenders.

Makovsky V.E. Fatal wound of Admiral P.S. Nakhimov on June 28, 1855. Oil. 1872 Album "Episodes of Sevastopol life in 1854-1855"

06/28/1855 at 12 noon P.S. Nakhimov went to the 3rd bastion, examined all its batteries and drove to Malakhov Kurgan. Arriving at the place, he went alone to his usual place and began to examine the positions of the enemy through the parapet through the telescope. Admiral Nakhimov's epaulettes were a conspicuous target. Several bullets hit the bag of earth on the parapet near the admiral himself. He did not have time to say: “They shoot smartly,” when the mortally wounded fell. The bullet passed above the temple, above the left eye, pierced the skull and affected the brain. P.S. Nakhimov died on 06/30/1855. Buried in the crypt of the Cathedral of St. Vladimir, next to M.P. Lazarev, V.A. Kornilov, V.I. Istomin.

Malakhov Kurgan

Timm Vasily Fedorovich. Internal view of the battery on the Malakhov Kurgan. Lithography. 1855 Drawing from life

Malakhov barrow. Located on the ship side. For the first time its name appeared on the "General plan of the city of Sevastopol in 1851" shortly before the Crimean War. The main bastion of the Ship side was built on it.

Vice-Admiral V.A. was mortally wounded on Malakhov Hill on October 5, 1854. Kornilov. Since that time, the barrow has received the official name - the Kornilov bastion.

06/28/1855 Admiral P.S. was mortally wounded on the bastion. Nakhimov. With the fall of Malakhov Kurgan, a key position of defense, on 08/27/1855 the defenders abandoned the southern part of Sevastopol and ended its 349-day defense.

The Kamchatka lunette is a fortification during the defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855, built to protect Malakhov Kurgan, a key position in the fortification system of the Ship Side. Lunette began to be called Kamchatsky after the name of the regiment that erected it

Pryanishnikov I.M. Reflection of the night assault by the defenders of the Kamchatka lunette. Oil. 1871-1872 Album "Episodes of Sevastopol life in 1854-1855"

Ship guns were installed on the Kamchatka lunette. For three months, the defenders of the Kamchatka lunette held, stopping the attempts of the French to seize it by storm. Every day the defenders lost from 50 to 150 people on the lunette. 03/07/1855 Rear Admiral V.I. died near the lunette. Istomin.

At the place of his death in 1904, a monument was erected from Inkerman stone with the image of the Order of St. George.

Sailor Cat

Timm Vasily Fedorovich. Sevastopol sailors. Lithography. 1855 Drawing from life (from left to right: Afanasy Eliseev, Akseny Rybakov, Petr Koshka, Ivan Dimchenko and Fyodor Zaika)

Makovsky V.E. Sailor Petr Koshka in reconnaissance. Oil. 1871 Album "Episodes of Sevastopol life in 1854-1855"

Dasha Sevastopolskaya - the first Russian national sister of mercy

Timm V.F. The first Russian sister of mercy Dasha Sevastopolskaya bandaging the wounded during the battle of Alma. Lithography. 1855

Dasha Sevastopolskaya (1831 - after 1911) - the daughter of a sailor, participant in the defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855. For the first time on September 8, 1854, she bandaged the wounded under enemy fire on the Alma battlefield. Her wagon with clean rags, bread, barrels of water and wine became the first advanced dressing station in the Crimea, and Daria became the first Russian folk sister of mercy.

Depicted by the artist F.A. Roubaud on the picturesque canvas of the Sevastopol panorama. In 1954, for the 100th anniversary of the defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855, a street in the Nakhimovsky district was named after Dasha Sevastopolskaya, between the street. K. Pishchenko and Bryansk.

In 2004, Sevastopol Hospital No. 3 was named after Dasha Sevastopolskaya, and in 2005 a monument was opened on the territory of this hospital.

The girl's battery operated during the defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855, was part of the rear line of the defensive structures of the City side

It was located on the southern slope of the City Hill, north of Theater Square (now Ushakov Square). It was erected under the guidance of two sappers exclusively by the women of Sevastopol, who carried the earth in baskets, scarves and aprons.

In 1892, a monument was erected with the inscription "A battery was built at this place by the women of Sevastopol in 1854."

Now the Sevastopol Industrial Pedagogical College is located here.

Alma battle - the first field battle of the Eastern (Crimean) war on the territory of Crimea

It happened on the river Alma 09/08/1854 between Russian troops and the Anglo-French-Turkish troops, who landed on September 2-6, 1854 near Evpatoria.

7 Sept. The 62,000-strong Allied army with 134 guns moved to Sevastopol. Having made a 15-kilometer transition, they approached the river. Bulganak and stopped on its left bank, 6 km from the river. Alma.

During the landing of the enemy, the commander-in-chief of the military land and sea forces in the Crimea, Prince. A.S. Menshikov concentrated the Russian army for defense beyond the river. Alma (33600 people with 96 guns).

The French pressed the Russian troops on the left flank and in the center, forcing them to retreat to the river. Kacha. After the success of the French, the British troops went on the offensive. They drove the Russians out of their positions in the orchards and vineyards by the river. Having suffered significant losses, some regiments, two light batteries began to withdraw.

Pryanishnikov I.M. The Vladimir regiment goes on a bayonet attack during the battle of Alma on September 8, 1854. Ink. 1871

The severity of the last phase of the battle was taken on by the Jaegers of His Imperial Highness Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich (Kazan), Vladimir and Suzdal regiments. Wanting to prevent the British from crossing the river. Almu, the battalions of the regiments went on a bayonet attack.

The Vladimir Infantry Regiment was especially distinguished, which went on the attack three times, forcing the British to retreat from their positions, having lost most of their personnel. It was not possible to block the way to Sevastopol, however, the steadfastness, courage, bravery of the Russian soldier in the battle of Alma showed the allies that the Crimean campaign could take a protracted character.

On the site of the Alma battle on September 8, 1884, a monument was opened - a tetrahedral obelisk made of Inkerman stone on a pedestal with an inscription on the northwestern facade: "In memory of the soldiers who fell in the battle of Alma" and the date "September 8, 1854" on the opposite side.

On September 8, 1902, on the 45th anniversary of the battle, a monument to the soldiers of the Vladimir regiment was unveiled.

In Paris, in honor of the victory of the Anglo-French troops over the Russian troops in the battle of Alma, the name of Alma is given to: a bridge, a square, a passage and a metro station.

Filippov Konstantin Nikolaevich. In the besieged Sevastopol. Oil

Totleben Eduard Ivanovich (05/08/1818 - 06/19/1884), count, adjutant general, military engineer general, member of the State Council, participant in the defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855

Filippov Konstantin Nikolaevich. The house on Belbek, where Major General E.I. Totleben lived during the treatment of a wound received during the defense of Sevastopol. Lithography. Russian Art sheet. 1857.

In 1854, with the rank of lieutenant colonel, he arrived in Sevastopol, was appointed acting head of the engineering service of the Sevastopol garrison, which he held until the end of the defense.

Under the leadership and direct supervision of Totleben, the engineering defense of Sevastopol was carried out, incl. mine war. 06/8/1855 wounded by a bullet in the leg at battery No. 6, until the end of the siege he was treated at Belbek.

Honorary citizen of Sevastopol. In 1876 he was engaged in strengthening Kerch, Sevastopol, Ochakov, Odessa. In Sept.-Nov. 1877 - led the siege and capture of the Turkish fortress of Plevna.

In 1878-1879 he was commander-in-chief of the active army in the Balkans.

Several settlements in Bulgaria are named after Totleben. Reburied from the Petrovsky Lutheran cemetery in Riga to the Fraternal Cemetery in Sevastopol.

The monument to Totleben is installed on the Historical Boulevard.

Pryanishnikov I.M. Construction of fortifications in Sevastopol. Oil. 1871-1872 Album "Episodes of Sevastopol life in 1854-1855"

Kolya Pischenko. Children of the Crimean War

Makovsky V.E. 10-year-old Sevastopol resident Kolya Pishchenko on the battery. Oil. 1872 Album "Episodes of Sevastopol life in 1854-1855"

Pishchenko Nikolai Timofeevich (1844-?), participant in the defense of Sevastopol 1854-1855, son of a sailor who served on the Zabudsky battery (near the 5th bastion).

The boy was next to his father on the battery from the very beginning of the defense of Sevastopol. After the death of his father, he moved to redoubt No. 1 and, with the permission of the commander, fired from nine mortars under the supervision of a disabled sailor. It was there until the end of the defense of the city.

For the defense of Sevastopol, he was awarded the medal "For Bravery", later replaced by the Military Order Badge on the St. George Ribbon. He was retired at the age of 22.

A street in the Nakhimovsky district was named after Kolya Pishchenko in Sevastopol.

Makovsky V.E. Games of Sevastopol children. Oil. 1871 Album "Episodes of Sevastopol life in 1854-1855"

The theme of the Crimean War was not widely reflected in the paintings and graphic works of artists of the second half of the 19th century.

The main events of the Crimean War of 1853-1856, and in particular the heroic defense of Sevastopol, have firmly entered the annals of Russian military history.

However, in the art history literature, a strong opinion has been entrenched, largely due to the categorical statements of the well-known critic of the 19th century V.V. Stasov, about the “indifference of art”, that the theme of the Crimean War was not widely reflected in the paintings and graphic works of artists of the second half of the 19th century .

Such an opinion is primarily due to the unpopularity of this war among different sections of Russian society, the actual defeat of Russia and the dramatic consequences for it.

Stasov's vivid and emotional statements are not entirely fair, because artists of different generations and different stylistic trends have repeatedly turned to the theme of the Crimean War, to the mass heroism of soldiers, their commanders and residents of the city, and not only to the tragic pages of the defense of Sevastopol, but also to the glorious victories of the Black Sea fleet.

Fine art was not “silent”, although, of course, it was incomparable in its vitality, power and artistic merits with literature, which, according to Stasov, “has long been accustomed by Pushkin and Gogol to depicting one deep true truth, passionately clutched at a powerful pen and hand of one of the highest Russian artists, Leo Tolstoy, drew pictures of the great Crimean War, forever standing as colossal tables of truth, historical depth and creative talent.

He enjoyed great popularity during the Crimean War. "Russian Art Sheet" - periodical collection of artistic lithographs with explanatory texts. It reflected the most important events of Russian and partly international life.

Its publisher and chief artist was the famous draftsman Vasily Fedorovich Timm, and among other authors, A.P. Bogolyubov, K.N. Filippova, G.G. Gagarin, I.K. Aivazovsky ...

This publication was published three times a month. More than a hundred issues were devoted to the Crimean War and the defense of Sevastopol and along with artistic value had great historical value since most of the drawings were made from life.

Historical and documentary depiction of the heroes of the events, made from nature by V.F. Timm, reproduced in the RHL lithographs, was distinguished by deep observation and truthfulness, sincere interest of the author and brought him well-deserved fame.

Vasily Fedorovich Timm created the only lifetime image of the defense hero Admiral P.S. Nakhimov. For a series of Sevastopol drawings in 1855, the artist received the title of academician of battle painting.

Konstantin Nikolaevich Filippov makes the first attempts at a new interpretation of the battle theme in painting, namely, the image of the war mainly from the side of those hardships and disasters that it brings to the people - the mass of soldiers and the civilian population.

During the Crimean War of 1854 - 1855, he was with the Russian army in the Crimea and was an eyewitness to the "Sevastopol suffering". In 1856 he was awarded the medal "For the Defense of Sevastopol".

Some of his front-line drawings from life were reproduced in the form of lithographs in V.F. Timma.

Filippov Konstantin Nikolaevich. Military road between Sevastopol and Simferopol during the Crimean War. 1858. Oil

At the academic exhibition of 1858, his painting “The High Road between Simferopol and Sevastopol in 1855” appeared, for which he received the Big Gold Medal and the right to retire abroad.

Filippov's painting depicts, in fact, not the road itself, but its roadside. The road is relegated to the background, and it can be seen that it is cluttered with approaching troops, so that the transport of the wounded, the ammunition wagons and the local population have to be content only with detours, inconvenient ways, over bumps, water-filled ditches and impassable mud.

The second plan of the picture is brightly lit and, above all, attracts attention. In the center, on a hillock, two wagons with the wounded are depicted. One of them is harnessed by two camels.

From another wagon drawn by two oxen, a Russian orderly removes a seriously wounded Greek volunteer in a fez. To the left, the paramedic bandages the leg of the young defender of Sevastopol lying on the ground; the head of the wounded is supported by a sister of mercy, protecting him from the scorching sun with a dark green umbrella.

Behind them, a priest blesses soldiers passing along the road.

The shaded foreground is designed very meaningfully. In the left corner you can see the front of the cart, as if cut off by the frame of a picture (the reception is by no means traditionally academic), and a horse with a foal, getting out of a beam filled with water.

To the right is a cart loaded with cannonballs, stuck in the mud and pushed from behind by a fair-haired soldier in a white shirt, a white cap and a gray overcoat on his shoulder and an elderly black-bearded militiaman in a red shirt.

Nearby, a driver drives the horses with a whip. The soldiers are very typical, they feel that courageous efficiency of ordinary Russian people, which "moves mountains." A cart drawn by oxen with a woman in a white veil sitting in it and a black-haired girl in colorful clothes crouching on her knees descends towards them from a hillock.

Walking beside him, holding the ox by the horns, is a black-bearded man in a cloak with bare swarthy chest, his figure is full of epic calm. In the depths on the right, wagons are visible, leaving the beam to the side of the road. Mountains looming in the distance. The sky at the horizon is covered with smoke.

Filippov Konstantin Nikolaevich. .Before the fight. Scene from the Sevastopol War of 1854-1855. 1862. Watercolor.

Of great interest are two watercolor compositions by Filippov on the plots of the Crimean campaign, which now belong to the Kaluga Regional Art Museum: “Scene from the Sevastopol War. Before the battle" and "A scene from the Sevastopol war. After battle".

They, apparently, represent a single plot whole and were made by the artist based on sketches from life made during the Crimean campaign. The first composition depicts a detachment of infantry lined up on Ekaterininskaya Street in Sevastopol before going into battle.

In front of the detachment was a group of officers on horseback, who turned to face the lined up soldiers. In this scene, one can feel the significance of the upcoming case: many troops are gathered on the square, and it seems that the command is explaining to them the main task of some unusual operation.

In addition, from the messages of one of Filippov's biographers, we know that the artist in 1802 in Rome executed the painting "Dressing station after the case on the Black River in the Crimea, August 4". All these considerations suggest that the watercolor compositions of interest to us reflect episodes related to the battle on the Black River on August 4/10, 1855, in which the artist was interested.

A significant event in the artistic life of Russia was a series of small paintings dedicated to the heroic defense of Sevastopol, created in 1871-1872 by the subsequently famous Wanderers, Moscow painters Vladimir Egorovich Makovsky and Illarion Mikhailovich Pryanishnikov.

(The whole series is in the State Historical Museum). The paintings were intended for the "Sevastopol Album" and were shown in Moscow at the Polytechnic Exhibition, organized by the "Society of Lovers of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography", held at Moscow University. The exhibition dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the birth of Peter I was opened in 1872.

In the program of the album, published as a manuscript and including 97 plots, a huge place was given to the activities of the famous heroes of Sevastopol P. S. Nakhimov and V. A. Kornilov, but most importantly - the exploits of ordinary Russian soldiers and sailors who showed examples of selfless courage and patriotism.

Photos from the paintings of Makovsky and Pryanishnikov, made by I. Dyagovchenko, were included in the albums published under the title “Episodes of Sevastopol Life in 1854/55”.

The paintings were painted with liquid oil on cardboard, therefore in all documents and art history literature they are called drawings.

While working on the series, the artists met eyewitnesses of the Sevastopol harvest, listened to their stories, got acquainted with historical documents, photographs, engravings, and consulted with military experts.

Literary sources played a very important role, from which many plots were taken and detailed programs were drawn up for each. Most likely, during the work, the artists were not in Sevastopol. The deadlines were very short and tight, with great haste due to some imperfection, sketchiness of the paintings. Their total number is quite large: Pryanishnikov performed 18 stories, and Makovsky - 21.

It should be noted that the artists used not only literary, but also visual material: folk prints, paintings and drawings, which have already been mentioned above and, of course, the works of V.F. Timma.

And yet, when studying the series, it becomes clear that the most important source for artists was Leo Tolstoy's Sevastopol Tales, which provided precious material for understanding the very spirit of the defenders of Sevastopol. In them, the brilliant writer remarkably expressed his admiration for the courage and steadfastness of the ordinary defenders of Sevastopol. He bowed before the feeling of deeply conscious patriotism, love for the homeland of Russian soldiers.

The works of Pryanishnikov and Makovsky cannot be considered accurate illustrations of the Sevastopol Tales, however, the artists were able to perceive and reflect the main problems raised by Tolstoy, to show the unvarnished truth of the war, the courage, and patriotism of the people.

A number of paintings are dedicated to the exploits of heroes whose glorious names entered the history of the Sevastopol defense: Admiral P.S. Nakhimov and ordinary sailors - P. Cats, I. Shevchenko, G. Palyuk ...

The Sevastopol series is unequal in its artistic merits, but on the whole it played a significant role in the development of new ways of the battle scene, using the conquests of the everyday genre.

It is no accident that the famous battle painter F.A. Rubo carefully studied the works of I.M. Pryanishnikov and V.E. Makovsky when creating the Sevastopol panorama.