Travel Marco Polo. Polo Marco - biography, facts from life, photos, background information

A journey from Europe to China in the Middle Ages can perhaps be compared to a journey into space in the 20th century. Just as our compatriots knew by name all the once few cosmonauts, we can try to count on our fingers all the Europeans who have visited the Far East. It was still very far from the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, but one of these discoveries was made already at the end of the 13th century. It cannot be said that before Marco Polo, Europe did not know about China. But it was the great Venetian who made this name widely known.

Marco Polo was born on one of the Dalmatian islands of Korcula in 1254. The islands then belonged to Venice, and the Polo family was actively involved in the extensive trading activities of this republic. Father Marco Nicolò and uncle Matteo chose the eastern direction for the development of their trade. They had connections with the Crimea and Asia Minor, and soon after the birth of Marco they decided on a long journey to China. Kublai Khan, who ruled there, took from them a promise to return to China and bring with him several Christian monks.

In 1269, the older Polos returned to Venice, and three years later they again went to China, this time taking with them the 17-year-old Marco. By sea, the merchants reached the southeastern shores of Asia Minor, from there they followed by land, probably from Akkon (Akka) through Erzerum, Tabriz and Kashan (Iran) to Hormuz (Hormuz) and from there through Herat, Balkh and Pamir to Kashgar and further to Katai (China), to the city of Kambala (Beijing). In 1275, the Polos reached Khanbalik (Beijing), where Genghis Khan's son Kublai Khan (Kubla Khan) ruled.

It is not entirely clear how this happened, but the older Venetians and especially their young comrade were favored by the khan. The Mongols created a coherent state system in China, united various provinces, experienced officials, educated and energetic people were required. Marco was a diligent young man and had a gift for languages. While his father and uncle were engaged in trade, he studied the Mongolian language. Khubilai, who usually brought talented foreigners closer to the court, hired Marco into the civil service. Soon Marco became a member of the secret council, and the emperor gave him several instructions. One of them was to draw up a report on the situation in Yunnan and Burma after the latter was conquered by the Mongols in 1287, the other was to buy a tooth of the Buddha in Ceylon. Marco subsequently became the prefect of Yangzhou.

The Polos stayed under Khubilai for 17 years. During the years of service, Marco studied China, collected a lot of information about India and Japan. In 1290, he asked to be allowed to go home, but Khubilai refused. In 1292, Kublai gave the Venetians his last responsible task - to accompany the Mongol princess Kokachin to Persia, where she was to marry the local ruler Arghun, Kublai's great-nephew. The junks with the Polo family on board departed from South China. From the Pacific Ocean to the Indian Ocean, the ships passed through the Malacca Strait, made a three-month stop on the coast of the island of Sumatra. After stopping on the island of Ceylon and sailing along the western coast of India, the ships entered the Persian Gulf and anchored in the city of Hormuz. During the voyage, Marco Polo managed to obtain some information about the African coast, Ethiopia, the islands of Madagascar, Zanzibar and Socotra. In Persia, the Polos received news of the death of the Chinese khan, which relieved them of the obligation to return to China. Marco and his relatives reached Venice in 1295 without much incident.

Marco Polo quickly became famous among fellow countrymen for his stories about distant and amazing countries. Many laughed at him, believing that paper money, tree-lined streets, and other miracles were nothing more than fiction. Whether for the word "million", which the narrator often used when describing the wealth and population of China (the word meant "thousand thousand"), or using the traditional nickname of the Polo family, Marco was nicknamed Mr. Million. In 1297, during a naval skirmish, Marco Polo was captured by the Genoese. In prison, he met the Pisan writer Rusticano. He wrote down the cellmate's stories in a book, which he called "The Book of the Diversity of the World." This book is also known under other names: "The Book of Marco Polo" and simply "Million". It contained descriptions not only of China and the Asian mainland, but also of the vast world of islands, from Japan to Zanzibar. Despite the fact that the invention of printing was still very far away, the book gained popularity during the lifetime of its author. Marco himself, after leaving prison, showed great enterprise, advertising his work. It was copied, translated, the traveler gave copies to influential people in different countries.

"The Book of Marco Polo" contains extremely valuable information on geography, ethnography, history of Armenia, Georgia, Iran, China, Mongolia, India and Indonesia. The mysterious country of Chipango (Japan) is also mentioned there. Much of what the Venetians ridiculed was true, although Marco did not do without some fables and exaggerations. In particular, his information about distances was inaccurate, which led some geographers to move China much further east than they should. This is probably why Christopher Columbus was so confident in the success of his proposed voyage to Asia. After all, he, too, carefully read the Book of Marco Polo.

Marco Polo died in Venice in 1324. They say he was a wealthy man, but these data are refuted by some historians who claim that the most famous "storyteller" of that time remained a poor man.

And the traveler who presented the story of his journey through Asia in the famous Book of the Diversity of the World. Despite doubts about the reliability of the facts presented in this book, expressed from the moment of its appearance to the present time, it serves as a valuable source on geography, ethnography, history of Armenia, Iran, China, Mongolia, India, Indonesia and other countries in the Middle Ages. This book had a significant impact on navigators, cartographers, writers of the XIV-XVI centuries. In particular, she was on the ship of Christopher Columbus during his search for a route to India; according to researchers, Columbus made 70 marks on it. In honor of him, in 1888, a butterfly from the genus of jaundice was named - Marco Polo Jaundice ( Colias marcopolo).

Origin

Marco Polo was born into the family of the Venetian merchant Nicolo Polo, whose family was engaged in the trade of jewelry and spices. Since there are no records of the birth of Marco Polo, the traditional version of his birth in Venice was challenged in the 19th century by Croatian researchers who claim that the first evidence of the Polo family in Venice dates back to the second half of the 13th century, where they are referred to as Poli di Dalmazia , while until 1430 the Polo family owned a house in Korcula, now in Croatia.

In addition, there is a version unrecognized by most researchers, according to which Marco Polo was a Pole. In this case, "polo" is written with a small letter and indicates not a surname, but a nationality.

The first journey of father and uncle Marco Polo

The merchants of Venice and Genoa, who in the thirteenth century had achieved trading power in the Mediterranean, could not remain indifferent to the explorations undertaken by bold travelers in Central Asia, India and China. They understood that these journeys opened up new markets for them and that trade with the East promised them incalculable benefits. Thus, the interests of trade were bound to lead to the exploration of new countries. It was for this reason that two major Venetian merchants undertook a journey to East Asia.

In 1260, Nikolo, Marko's father, together with his brother Maffeo went to the Crimea (to Sudak), where their third brother, also named Marko, had his own trading house. Then they moved along the same route that Guillaume de Rubruk passed in 1253. After spending a year in Saray-Batu, the brothers moved on to Bukhara. Due to the danger of hostilities conducted by Khan Berke (Batu's brother) in this region, the brothers were forced to postpone their return home. After staying in Bukhara for three years and not being able to return home, they joined the Persian caravan, which Khan Hulagu sent to Khanbaliq (modern Beijing) to his brother, the Mongol Khan Kublai, who by that time had practically completed the defeat of the Chinese Song dynasty and soon became the sole ruler Mongol Empire and China.

In the winter of 1266, the brothers reached Beijing and were received by Khubilai, who, according to the brothers, gave them a golden paisa for a free road back and asked them to convey a message to the Pope asking him to send him oils from the tomb of Christ in Jerusalem and preachers of Christianity. Together with the brothers, the Mongolian ambassador went to the Vatican, however, on the way he fell ill and fell behind. On the way, Niccolo learned about the death of his wife and the birth of a son who was born a few days after his departure, in 1254, and named Marco. Arriving in Venice in 1269, the brothers found that Pope Clement IV had died and a new one had never been appointed. Wanting to fulfill Kublai's order as soon as possible, they decided not to wait for the appointment of a new pope, and in 1271 they went to Jerusalem, taking Marco with them.

Journey of Marco Polo

Road to China

The new journey to China passed through Mesopotamia, the Pamirs and Kashgaria.

Travels 1271-1295

Life in China

The first Chinese city that the Polo family reached in 1275 was Shazha (modern Dunhuang). In the same year, they reached Kublai's summer residence in Shangdu (in modern China's Gansu province). According to Polo, the khan was delighted with him, gave various orders, did not allow him to return to Venice, and even kept him governor of the city of Yangzhou for three years (Chapter CXLIV, Book 2). In addition, the Polo family (according to the book) participated in the development of the Khan's army and taught him how to use catapults during the siege of fortresses.

The description of Polo's life in China rarely follows chronological order, which presents a problem in determining the exact route of his travels. But its description is geographically accurate enough, it gives orientation to cardinal directions and distances in terms of days of the route: "South of Panshin, in one day's journey, the great and noble city of Kaiu". In addition, Polo describes the daily life of the Chinese, mentioning the use of paper money, the typical crafts and culinary traditions of various areas. He stayed in China for fifteen years.

Return to Venice

Marco Polo in China

Despite numerous requests from the Polo family, the khan did not want to let them go, but in 1291 he married off one of the Mongol princesses to the Persian ilkhan Argun. To arrange for her safe journey, he equipped a detachment of fourteen ships, allowed the Polo family to join as official representatives of the Khan, and sent a flotilla to Ormuz. In the process of sailing, the Polos visited Sumatra and Ceylon and returned to Venice in 1295 through Iran and the Black Sea.

Life after returning

Very little is known about his life after his return from China. According to some reports, he participated in the war with Genoa. Around 1298, Polo was captured by the Genoese and remained there until May 1299. His travel stories were recorded by another prisoner, Rusticello (Rusticiano), who also wrote chivalric novels. According to some sources, the text was dictated in the Venetian dialect, according to others - it was written in Old French with inserts in Italian. Due to the fact that the original manuscript has not been preserved, it is not possible to establish the truth.

After his release from the Genoese captivity, he returned to Venice, married and from this marriage he had three daughters (two were married off to merchants from Dalmatia, which, according to some researchers, confirms the hypothesis of his Croatian origin, but the wife herself was from the famous Venetian kind, which rather speaks of the well-established ties of the Polo family in Venice). He also had a house on the corner of Rio di San Giovanni Crisostomo and Rio di San Lio. There are documents that he participated in two small trials.

In 1324, already a sick man, Polo wrote his will, which mentions the golden paiza received from Tatar Khan(he received it from his uncle Maffeo, who, in turn, bequeathed it to Marco in 1310). In the same year, 1324, Marco died and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo. In 1596, his house (where, according to legend, the things he brought from the Chinese campaign were kept) burned down. The church in which he was buried was demolished in the 19th century.

Researchers about the book

Il milione

The book of Marco Polo is one of the most popular objects of historical research. The bibliography compiled in 1986 contains over 2300 scientific papers in European languages ​​only.

From the moment he returned to the city, stories from the trip were viewed with disbelief. Peter Jackson mentions as one of the reasons for distrust unwillingness to accept his description of a well-ordered and hospitable Mongol Empire, which ran counter to the traditional Western idea of ​​barbarians. In turn, in 1995, Frances Wood, curator of the Chinese collection of the British Museum, published a popular book in which she questioned the very fact of Polo's travel to China, suggesting that the Venetian did not travel beyond Asia Minor and the Black Sea, but simply used descriptions of the travels of Persian merchants. For example, in his book Marco Polo writes that he helped the Mongols during the siege of the Sung base in Sanyang, but the siege of this base ended in 1273, that is, two years before his arrival in China. There are other shortcomings in his book that raise questions from researchers.

Previous contacts with China

One of the myths that have developed around this book is the concept of Polo as the first contact between Europe and China. Even without taking into account the assumption of contacts between the Roman Empire and the Han Dynasty, the Mongol conquests of the 13th century facilitated the route between Europe and Asia (since it now passed through the territory of practically one state).

In the archives of Khubilai from 1261 there is a reference to European merchants from Lands of the midnight sun, probably Scandinavian or Novgorod. On their first journey, Nicolò and Maffeo Polo followed the same route as Guillaume de Rubruk, indeed sent by Pope Innocent IV, who reached the then Mongol capital of Karakorum and returned in 1255. The description of his route was known in medieval Europe and could have been known to the Polo brothers on their first journey.

During Polo's stay in China, a native of Beijing, Rabban Sauma, came to Europe, and the missionary Giovanni Montecorvino, on the contrary, went to China. Published in 1997 by David Selbourne, the text of the Italian Jew Jacob from Ancona, who allegedly visited China in 1270-1271, shortly before Polo, according to most Hebraists and Sinologists, is a hoax.

Unlike previous travelers, Marco Polo created a book that gained great popularity and throughout the Middle Ages competed in success with the public with the fantastic journey of John Mandeville (the prototype of which was Odorico Pordenone).

Book versions

Little is known about the extent of Marco Polo's literacy. It is most likely that he was able to keep commercial records, but it is not known if he could write the lyrics. The text of the book was dictated to him by Rustichello, probably in his native language, Venetian, or in Latin, but Rustichello could also write down in French, in which he wrote novels. The process of writing a book could significantly affect the reliability and completeness of its content: Marco excluded from his description those memories that were not of interest to him as a merchant (or were obvious to him), and Rustichello could omit or interpret at his own discretion memories that were not interest or incomprehensible already for him. It can also be assumed that Rustichello was involved in only some of the four books, and Polo could have other "co-authors".

Shortly after its appearance, the book was translated into Venetian, Latin (different translations from the Venetian and French versions), back into French from the Latin version. In the process of translation and correspondence of the book, fragments of the text were changed, added or deleted. The oldest surviving manuscript (Manuscript F) is substantially shorter than the others, but textual evidence suggests that other surviving manuscripts are based on more complete original texts.

Fragments in doubt

Essential defaults

Francis Wood notes that neither hieroglyphs, nor typography, nor tea, nor china, nor the practice of bandaging the feet of women, nor the Great Wall of China are mentioned in Polo's book. Arguments put forward by proponents of the authenticity of the journey are based on the peculiarities of the process of creating a book and Polo's goal in transmitting his memories.

Polo knew Persian (the language of international communication of the time) while living in China, learned Mongolian (the language of Chinese administration during this period), but did not have to learn Chinese. As a member of the Mongol administration, he lived at a distance from Chinese society (which, according to his testimony, had a negative attitude towards European barbarians), little overlap with its daily life, and did not have the opportunity to observe many traditions that are obvious only in the household.

To a person who had not received a systematic education and was a stranger to literature, local books represented "Chinese writing", but Polo describes in detail the production of paper money, which differs little from the printing of books.

Tea was by that time widely known in Persia, therefore it was of no interest to the author, in a similar way it is not mentioned in Arabic and Persian descriptions of that time.

Porcelain was briefly mentioned in the book.

With regard to the binding of the feet, there is a mention in one of the manuscripts (Z) that Chinese women walk with very small steps, but this is not explained more fully.

The Great Wall as we know it today was built during the Ming Dynasty. In the time of Marco Polo, these were mostly earthen fortifications, which did not represent a continuous wall, but were limited to the most militarily vulnerable areas. For a Venetian, fortifications of this kind might not be of significant interest.

Inaccurate descriptions

Descriptions of Marco Polo are full of inaccuracies. This applies to the names of individual cities and provinces, their mutual location, as well as descriptions of objects in these cities. A famous example is the description of the bridge near Beijing (now named after Marco Polo), which actually has half as many arches as described in the book.

In defense of Marco Polo, it can be said that he was describing from memory, he was familiar with Persian and used Persian names, which were often also inconsistent in their rendering of Chinese names. Some inaccuracies were introduced during the translation or rewriting of the book, so some surviving manuscripts are more accurate than others. In addition, in many cases, Polo did use second-hand information (especially when describing historical or fantastic events that happened before his trip). Many other contemporary descriptions of this kind also sin with inaccuracies, which cannot be blamed for the fact that their authors were not in that place at that time.

Role at court

The honor given by Khubilai to the young Polo, his appointment as governor of Yangzhou, the absence of Chinese or Mongolian official records of the presence of merchants in China for almost twenty years, according to Frances Wood, look unreliable. As proof of Polo's stay in China, for example, a single reference is mentioned from 1271, in which Pagba Lama, a close adviser to Kublai, mentions in his diary a foreigner who is on friendly terms with the khan, but neither name nor nationality is indicated in it, nor the duration of this foreigner's stay in China.

However, in his book, Polo demonstrates such an awareness of the happenings at the Khan's court that it is difficult to acquire without proximity to the court. Thus, in Chapter LXXXV (On the treacherous plan to revolt the city of Kambala), he, emphasizing his personal presence at the events, describes in detail the various abuses of Minister Ahmad and the circumstances of his murder, naming the killer (Wangzhu), which exactly corresponds to Chinese sources.

This episode is especially significant because the Chinese Yuan-shih dynasty chronicle mentions the name of Po-Lo as a person who was on the commission investigating the murder and stood out for telling the emperor frankly about Ahmad's abuses.

It was a common practice to use Chinese nicknames for foreigners, making it difficult to find references to Polo's name in other Chinese sources. Many Europeans who officially visited the center of the Mongol empire during this period, such as de Rubruck, did not merit mention at all in the Chinese chronicles.

Return from China

The description of the return trip is the most convincing evidence that the Polo family was indeed in China and was on fairly friendly terms with the Khan's court. Polo in his book describes in detail the preparation of the trip, the route and the number of participants, which are confirmed by Chinese archival records. He also gives the names of three ambassadors, two of whom died on the way to Hormuz, and whose names were not known outside of China.

Evaluation of the book by modern researchers

Most modern researchers reject Frances Wood's opinion about the complete fabrication of the entire trip, considering it an unsubstantiated attempt to cash in on a sensation.

A more productive (and generally accepted) point of view is to look at this book as the source of the merchant's records of places to buy goods, the routes of their movement, and the circumstances of life in these countries. Even the second-hand data in this description (for example, about a trip to Russia) is quite accurate, most of the data on the geography of China and other countries along the route of the trip are also quite consistent with modern knowledge about the history and geography of China. In turn, these notes of the merchant were supplemented by fragments of interest to the general public about life in exotic countries.

It is possible that Polo's role in China is greatly exaggerated in his book, but this mistake can be attributed to the author's bluster, scribal embellishment, or translators' problems, which may have resulted in the role of adviser being transformed into that of governor.

see also

• Ali Ekber Hatay - Ottoman traveler to China

Notes

Literature

• A book about the diversity of the world. Edition: Giovanni del Plano Carpini. History of the Mongols, Guillaume de Rubruk. Travels in Eastern countries., Book of Marco Polo. M. Thought. 1997, translation: I. M. Minaev
• Book of Marco Polo, trans. from Old French text, intro. Art. I. P. Magidovich, M., 1955 (lit. available).
• Same. Alma-Ata, 1990.
• Hart G., The Venetian Marco Polo, trans. from English., M.: Izd-vo inostr. Literature, 1956;
• Hart G. Venetian Marco Polo = Henry H Hart, Venetian Adventurer Messer Marko Polo / Per. from English. N. V. Bannikova; foreword and edited by I. P. Magidovich. - M .: Tsentrpoligraf, 2001. - 368 p. - 6,000 copies. - ISBN 5-227-01492-2 (Reprint of 1956 book)
• Yurchenko A. G. The Book of Marco Polo: Notes of a Traveler or Imperial Cosmography / Translations from Latin and Persian by S. V. Aksenov (PhD). - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2007. - 864 p. - 2,000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-8071-0226-6(in trans.)
• The book of sir Marco Polo, the Venetian…, 3 ed., v. 1-2, L., 1921.
• Magidovich IP, Magidovich VI Essays on the history of geographical discoveries. M., 1982. T. 1. S. 231-235.
• Drège, J.-P., Marco Polo and the Silk Road, Moscow, 2006, ISBN 5-17-026151-9 .
• Dubrovskaya D.V., Marco Polo: the presumption of innocence, Vokrug Sveta magazine No. 3, 2007.

Links

• Polo, Marco. Eastern Literature. Archived from the original on August 24, 2011. Retrieved April 16, 2011.

• Polo, Marco in the library of Maxim Moshkov: A book about the diversity of the world. Translation by I.P. Minaev.
• V. Dubovitsky Venetians. In the land of rubies, or what Marco Polo wrote about Badakhshan

Not much is known about the biography of Marco Polo. It is interesting to note that there is not a single reliable portrait of him. In the 16th century, a certain John Baptist Ramusio made an attempt to collect and organize information about the life of the famous traveler. In other words, three hundred years passed from the moment of his birth to the appearance of the first mention of him. Hence the inaccuracy, the approximation of facts and descriptions.

Marco Polo was born around September 15, 1254 in Venice. His family belonged to the nobility, the so-called Venetian nobility, and had a coat of arms. His father, Niccolo Polo, was a successful trader in jewelry and spices. The mother of the famous traveler died during childbirth, so his father and aunt were involved in his upbringing.

First travels

The largest source of income for the Venetian state was trade with distant countries. It was believed that the greater the risk, the higher the profit. Therefore, it is not surprising that the father of Marco Polo traveled a lot in search of ever new trade routes. The son did not lag behind his father: the love of travel and adventure is in his blood. In 1271, he sets off with his father on his first journey to Jerusalem.

China

In the same year, the newly elected Pope appointed Niccolò Polo, his brother Morfeo and his own son Marco as their official representatives to China. The Polo family immediately sets off on a long journey to the main ruler of China - the Mongol Khan. Asia Minor, Armenia, Mosul, Baghdad, Persia, Pamir, Kashmir - this is an approximate route for them. In 1275, that is, five years after leaving the Italian port, the merchants find themselves in the residence of Khan Kublai. The latter accepts them cordially. He especially liked the young Marco. In it, he valued independence, fearlessness and a good memory. He repeatedly offered him to participate in public life, entrusted him with important assignments. In gratitude, the youngest member of the Polo family helps the khan recruit an army, talks about the use of military catapults, and much more. So 15 years have passed.

Return

In 1291, the Chinese emperor decides to give his daughter to the Persian Shah Arghun. The passage by land was impossible, so a flotilla of 14 ships is equipped. The Polo family is in the first position: they accompany and guard the Mongolian princess. However, even during the journey, sad news comes about the sudden death of the khan. And the Polos immediately decide to immediately return to their native lands. But the way home was long and unsafe.

The book and its contents

In 1295 Marco Polo returns to Venice. Exactly two years later he was imprisoned for participating in the war between Genoa and Venice. Those few months that he spent in custody cannot be called empty and fruitless. There he meets Rusticello, an Italian writer from Pisa. It is he who denounces the stories of Marco Polo about amazing lands, their nature, population, culture, customs and new discoveries into an art form. The book was called "The Book of the Diversity of the World", which later became a desktop for many discoverers, including Christopher Columbus.

Traveler's death

Marco Polo died in his homeland, in Venice. At that time, he lived a long life - 69 years. The traveler died on January 8, 1324.

Other biography options

• The famous "Book" of Marco Polo was not taken seriously by readers at first. It was used not as a source of invaluable information about China and other distant countries, but as light, entertaining reading with a completely fictional plot.
• Christopher Columbus took the "Book" with him on his first expedition to the "shores of India". He made a lot of notes in its margins. Today, the "Columbian" copy is carefully kept in one of the museums in Seville.
• By the end of his life, Marco Polo was indecently stingy and sued his relatives more than once.
• In a brief biography of Marco Polo, it is interesting to note that Poland and Croatia also claim to be his small homeland. The Polish side claims that the surname Polo literally translates as "Pole". The Croats are sure that he was not born in Venice at all, but on their land - in Korcula.

Polo Marco

(c. 1254 - 1324)

Venetian traveler. Born on the island of Korcula (Dalmatian Islands, now in Croatia). In 1271-1275 he traveled to China, where he lived for about 17 years. In 1292-1295 he returned to Italy by sea. The "Book" (1298) written from his words is one of the first sources of European knowledge about the countries of Central, East and South Asia.

The book of the Venetian traveler to China, Marco Polo, is mainly compiled from personal observations, as well as from the stories of his father Niccolò, uncle Maffeo and people he met.

The older Polos not once, like Marco himself, but crossed Asia three times, two times from west to east and once in the opposite direction, during the first trip. Niccolo and Maffeo left Venice around 1254 and, after a six-year stay in Constantinople, left from there for trading purposes in the southern Crimea, then moved in 1261 to the Volga. From the middle Volga, the Polo brothers moved southeast through the lands of the Golden Horde, crossed the Trans-Caspian steppes, and then through the Ustyurt plateau went to Khorezm, to the city of Urgench. Their further path ran in the same southeast direction up the valley of the Amu Darya to the lower reaches of the Zarafshan and up along it to Bukhara. There they met with the ambassador of the conqueror of Iran, Ilkhan Hulagu, who was heading to the great Khan Kublai, and the ambassador invited the Venetians to join his caravan. They went with him "north and northeast" a whole year.

Along the valley of Zarafshan they climbed to Samarkand, crossed into the valley of the Syr Darya and went down to the city of Otrar along it. From here, their path lay along the foothills of the Western Tien Shan to the Ili River. Further to the east, they went either up the Ili valley, or through the Dzungarian Gates, past Lake Alakol (east of Balkhash). Then they moved along the foothills of the Eastern Tien Shan and reached the Khami oasis, an important stage on the northern branch of the Great Silk Road from China to Central Asia. From Khami they turned south, into the valley of the Sulehe River. And further east, to the court of the great khan, they followed the same path that they did later with Marco. Their return route is not clear. They returned to Venice in 1269.

Marco Polo talks sparingly about his childhood, about the first steps of his life until the day he left Venice and went on a journey that brought him immortal fame.

Marco Polo's mother died early, and the boy's uncle, also Marco Polo, probably traded in Constantinople all these years, and the future traveler lived in Venice with his aunt Flora (on the paternal side). He had several cousins ​​and sisters. It is likely that until Marco's father returned from Asia, the boy was raised by relatives.

Marco's life proceeded as it proceeded at that time for all the boys. Marco acquired knowledge on the canals and embankments, bridges and squares of the city. Formal education was then received by very few; however, contrary to the opinion of many publishers and commentators, it is possible that Marco could read and write in his native language. In the introductory chapter to his book, Polo states that "he entered in a notebook only a few notes", because he did not know if he would ever return from China to his homeland. In another chapter of the book, Polo states that during his journey to the great khan, he tried to be as attentive as possible, noting and writing down everything new and unusual that he heard or saw. "Therefore, we can conclude that the boy, who, as you know, later, while in Asia, he learned four languages, could read and write at least a little Italian, and it is possible that he had some knowledge of French as well.

The arrival of Niccolo and Maffeo in Venice was a turning point in Marco's entire life. He eagerly listened to the stories of his father and uncle about the mysterious countries they visited, about the many peoples among whom they lived, about their appearance and clothes, their customs and customs - how they are similar and how they are not similar to Venetian ones. Marco even began to learn some words and expressions in Tatar, Turkic and other outlandish languages ​​- his father and uncle often explained themselves in them, and they often filled their Venetian speech with other people's words. Marco learned what goods various tribes buy and sell, what kind of money they use, where which people are found along the great caravan routes, what they eat and drink where, what rituals they perform with newborns, how they marry, how they bury, what they believe in and what worship. Unconsciously, he accumulated practical knowledge, which in the future served him invaluable service.

Niccolo and his brother, after fifteen years of travel, did not easily put up with a relatively monotonous existence in Venice. Fate persistently called them, and they obeyed her call.

In 1271, Nicollo, Maffeo, and seventeen-year-old Marco set off on a journey.

Before that, they met with Pope Gregory X, who had just ascended the throne, who gave them as companions two monks from the Order of Preachers - Brother Piccolo of Vicenza and Brother Guillaume of Tripoli.

Three Venetians and two monks reached Layas and began to advance to the East. But as soon as they reached Armenia, they learned that Baybars the Arbalest, a former slave who had taken the throne of the Mamelukes, had invaded these places with his Saracen army, killing and destroying everything that came to hand. The travelers faced a very real danger, but they decided to move on. However, the frightened monks preferred to return to Acre. They gave the Polo brothers papal letters and gifts intended for the great khan.

The desertion of cowardly monks did not at all discourage the Venetians. They knew the way from their previous journey, they knew how to speak local languages, they carried letters and gifts from the highest spiritual shepherd of the West to the greatest monarch of the East, and - most importantly - they had a golden tablet with Khubilai's personal seal, which was a safe-conduct and a guarantee that they will be provided with food, shelter and hospitality in almost the entire territory through which they had to pass.

The first country they passed through was "Lesser Armenia" (Cilicia) with the port of Layas. There was a lively, extensive trade in cotton and spices.

From Cilicia the travelers ended up in present-day Anatolia, which Marco calls "Turcomania". He informs us that the Turkomans make the finest and most beautiful carpets in the world.

Having passed Turkomania, the Venetians entered the borders of Greater Armenia. Here, Marco tells us, on the top of Mount Ararat, is Noah's Ark. The Armenian sovereign Khaiton, who wrote the history of his homeland in 1307, when he was the abbot of the monastery, says that " this mountain is higher than all the mountains in the world". Both Marco and Khaiton tell the same thing - this mountain is inaccessible because of the snows that cover its winter and summer, but something black (the ark) appears on the snow, and this can be seen at any time of the year.

The next city that the Venetian traveler talks about was Mosul - "all silk and gold fabrics, which are called Mosulins, are made here." Mosul is located on the western bank of the Tigris, opposite ancient Nineveh, it was so famous for its wonderful woolen fabrics that we still call a certain type of fine woolen fabric "muslin".

The travelers then stopped in Tabriz, the largest shopping center, where people from all over the world gathered - there was a flourishing merchant colony of the Genoese.

In Tabriz, Marco first saw the world's largest pearl market - pearls were brought here in large quantities from the shores of the Persian Gulf. In Tabriz, it was cleaned, sorted, drilled and strung on threads, and from here it dispersed all over the world. Marco watched with curiosity as pearls were bought and sold. After the pearls were examined and evaluated by experts, the seller and the buyer squatted opposite each other and carried on a silent conversation, shaking hands covered with folded sleeves, so that none of the witnesses knew on what terms they bargained.

Leaving Tabriz, the travelers crossed Iran in a southeasterly direction and visited the city of Kerman.

After seven days of travel from Kerman, the travelers reached the top of a high mountain. It took two days to overcome the mountain, and the travelers suffered from severe cold. Then they came to a vast, flowering valley: here Marco saw and described bulls with white humps and sheep with fat tails - "their tails are thick, large; in a different weight, thirty pounds."

Now the Venetians entered into dangerous places, since in this part of Persia there were many robbers, called Karaunas. Marco writes that they descended from Indian women, and their fathers were Tatars. Acquaintance with the Caraunases almost cost Polo his life and almost deprived the world of one of the most interesting books. Nogodar, the leader of the robbers, attacked the caravan with his gang, taking advantage of the fog that is frequent in this area (Marko attributes the fog to the witchcraft of the Karaunas). The robbers took the travelers by surprise, and they rushed in all directions. Marco, his father and uncle, and some of their guides, seven in all, escaped in a nearby village. The rest were captured and killed or sold into slavery.

Having recomposed the caravan, the undaunted Venetians moved towards their goal - to the Persian Gulf, to Hormuz. Here they were going to board a ship and sail to China - Hormuz was then the final point of maritime trade between the Far East and Persia. The transition lasted seven days. At first, the road went along a steep descent from the Iranian plateau - a mountain path, where many robbers were outrageous. Then, closer to Hormuz, a beautiful, well-watered valley opened up - date palms, pomegranates, oranges and other fruit trees grew here, countless flocks of birds flew.

In Polo times, Ormuz was on the mainland. Later, as a result of raids by hostile tribes, it was destroyed, and "the inhabitants moved their city to an island five miles from the mainland."

Obviously, the Venetians came to the conclusion that a long voyage on the local unreliable ships, and even with horses, usually loaded on top of leather-covered goods, was too risky - they turned to the northeast, inland, towards the Pamirs.

For more than a week they traveled through desert places where the water is green as grass and very bitter, reached Kobian, and then made a many-day journey through the desert and arrived in Tonokain. Marco liked the inhabitants of these countries very much. Here he draws his conclusions about women, the first of many. The Tonokain women made a very strong impression on him, for when, twenty-five years later, having already visited many countries, seen many women and, no doubt, experienced many hobbies, he wrote his book, he could still say that Muslim girls in Tonokaine are the most beautiful in the world.

For many days the Venetians traveled through hot deserts and fertile plains and ended up in the city of Sapurgan (Shibargan), where, to Marco's pleasure, game was found in abundance and hunting was excellent. From Sapurgan the caravan headed for Balkh, in northern Afghanistan. Balkh is one of the oldest cities in Asia, once the capital of Bactriana. Although the city surrendered to the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan without resistance, the conqueror sold all the youth into slavery, and killed the rest of the city's population with incredible cruelty. Balkh was swept off the face of the earth. The Venetians saw sad ruins in front of them, although some of the inhabitants of the city, who had survived from the Tatar sword, were already returning to their old place.

It was in this city, as the legend says, that Alexander the Great married Roxana, the daughter of the Persian king Darius.

Leaving Balkh, travelers for many days moved through the lands abounding in game, fruits, nuts, grapes, salt, wheat. Leaving these beautiful places, the Venetians again ended up in the desert for several days and finally arrived in Badakhshan (Balashan), a Muslim region along the Oka River (Amu Darya). There they saw large mines of rubies, called "balash", deposits of sapphires, lapis lazuli - Badakhshan was famous for all this for centuries.

The caravan was delayed here for a whole year either due to Marco's illness, or because the Polo brothers decided to live in the wonderful climate of Badakhshan in order to make sure that the young man would fully recover.

From Badakhshan, the travelers, rising higher and higher, went in the direction of the Pamirs - upstream of the Oka River; they also passed through the Kashmir valley. Marko, who was undoubtedly deeply impressed by these places, claims that the local inhabitants are engaged in witchcraft and black magic. According to Marco, they can make idols speak, change the weather at will, turn darkness into sunlight, and vice versa. Despite the popular belief that the people of Kashmir were swindlers and deceivers, Marco found that the women there "although they are black, they are good". Indeed, Kashmiri women were famous for their beauty throughout India for centuries, they were everywhere sought to be taken as wives and concubines.

From Kashmir, the caravan went to the northeast and climbed the Pamirs: Marko's guides assured him that this was the highest place in the world. Marco notes that during his stay there, the air was so cold that not a single bird could be seen anywhere. The stories of many ancient Chinese pilgrims who crossed the Pamir confirm Marco's message, and the latest researchers say the same. The Venetian had a sharp eye, and the ascent to the roof of the world was so engraved in his memory that when, almost thirty years later, he was dictating his book in distant Genoa, he remembered how dimly the fire burned at this height, laid out by travelers, how it shone with others , an unusual color, how much more difficult it was to cook food there than usual.

Descending from the Pamirs along the gorge of the Gyoz River (Gyozdarya is the southern tributary of the Kashgar River), the Polos entered the wide plains of East Turkestan, now called Xinjiang. Here deserts stretched out, then rich oases met, irrigated by many rivers flowing from the south and west.

Polo, first of all, visited Kashgar - the local climate seemed moderate to Marco, nature, in his opinion, gave here "everything you need for life". From Kashgar, the caravan route continued to the northeast. Although Niccolò and Maffeo probably lived in Samarkand during their first trip, we have no evidence that Marco was there.

During his journey, Polo described the ancient city of Khotan, where emeralds had been mined for centuries. But much more important was the trade in jade, which went from here to the Chinese market from century to century. Travelers could watch how workers dig up pieces of a precious stone in the beds of dried up rivers - this is how it is done there to this day. From Khotan, jade was transported through the deserts to Beijing and Shazhou, where it was used for polished products of a sacred and non-sacred nature. The thirst of the Chinese for jade is insatiable, there is nothing more valuable for them, they consider it the quintessence, the material embodiment of the power of yang - the bright masculine principle of the universe.

Leaving Khotan, Polo, stopping to rest at rare oases and wells, drove through a monotonous desert covered with dunes.

The caravan moved through vast desert spaces, occasionally bumping into oases - Tatar tribes, Muslims lived here. The transition from one oasis to another took several days, it was necessary to take with them more water and food. In Lon (modern Charklyk), travelers stood for a whole week to gain strength to overcome the Gobi desert ("gobi" in Mongolian and means "desert"). A large supply of food was loaded onto camels and donkeys.

On the thirtieth day of the journey, the caravan arrived at Shazhou ("Sand District"), located on the border of the desert. It was here that Marco first observed purely Chinese manners and customs. He was especially struck by the funeral rites in Shazhou - he describes in detail how coffins were made, how the deceased was kept in the house, how they made offerings to the spirit of the deceased, how paper images were burned, and so on.

From Ganzhou, our travelers went to the city that now bears the name of Lanzhou. On the way, Marco saw yaks: the size of these animals and their role in the economy made a vivid impression on him. Valuable little musk deer (musk deer) - this animal is found in large numbers there to this day - Marco Polo was so interested that, returning to his homeland, he took thousands of miles with him to Venice "the dried head and feet of this beast."

And now a long journey through the plains, mountains and deserts of Asia is already coming to an end. It took three and a half years: during this time, Marco saw and experienced a lot, learned a lot. But this endless journey, one must think, is tired of both Marco and his senior companions. One can imagine their joy when they saw on the horizon a cavalry detachment sent by the great khan to accompany the Venetians to the khan's court. The squad leader told Polo they had more to do. "forty day marches"- he meant the way to Shangdu, the summer residence of the Khan, - and that the convoy was sent so that the travelers would arrive in complete safety and come directly to Kublai. "Is- said the head of the detachment, - noble Messers Piccolo and Maffeo are not plenipotentiary ambassadors of the khan to the apostle and should not be received according to their rank and position?

The rest of the journey flew by unnoticed: at each stop they were given the best reception, they had everything that was required at their service. On the fortieth day, Shandu appeared on the horizon, and soon the exhausted caravan of the Venetians entered its high gate.

The reception given to travelers by Kublai Khan, surprisingly, Marco described very simply and restrainedly. Usually, he does not hesitate to describe at length the splendor and splendor of the khan's receptions and feasts, processions and festivities. Venetians on their arrival in Shandu "went to the main palace, where the great khan was, and with him a large gathering of barons". The Venetians knelt before the khan and bowed to the ground. Khubilai graciously ordered them to get up and "received them with honor, with merriment and feasts."

The Great Khan, after the official reception, talked for a long time with the Polo brothers, he wanted to find out about all their adventures, starting from the day they left the Khan's court many years ago. Then the Venetians presented him with gifts and letters entrusted to them by Pope Gregory (and two timid monks who turned back), and also handed over a vessel with holy oil, taken at the request of the khan from the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem and carefully kept under all the vicissitudes and dangers of the long journey with shores of the Mediterranean. Marco was added to the list of courtiers.

The young Venetian very soon attracted the attention of Khubilai - this happened thanks to the mind and ingenuity of Marco. He noticed how eagerly Khubilai perceived all kinds of information about the lands subject to him, about their population, customs, wealth; the Venetian also saw that the khan could not stand it when the ambassador, having completed all the assigned tasks, returned without any additional information and observations obtained beyond the instructions. Cunningly deciding to take advantage of this, Marco began to collect information, making notes about every place he went to, and always sharing his observations with the Khan.

According to Marco himself, the Great Khan decided to test him as an ambassador and sent him to the remote city of Karajan (in Yunnan province) - this city was so far from Khanbalik that Marco "barely turned around in six months". The young man coped with the task brilliantly and delivered to his master a lot of very interesting information. Marko's stories enchanted the great khan: "In the eyes of the sovereign, this noble youth had a divine mind rather than a human one, and the sovereign's love increased,<...>until the sovereign and the whole court spoke of nothing with such astonishment as the wisdom of a noble youth.

The Venetian stayed in the service of the Great Khan for seventeen years. Marco nowhere reveals to the reader on what particular cases he was sent as a confidant of Khan Kublai for many years. It is impossible to accurately trace his travels in China.

Marco reports on the peoples and tribes of China and neighboring countries, on the amazing views of the Tibetans on morality; he described the indigenous population of Yunnan and other provinces.

The chapter of Marco's book is very interesting, in which he talks about the ancient custom of using cowrie shells as money, about crocodiles (Marco considered them snakes with two legs) and how to catch them. He also tells about the custom of the Yunnanese: if a handsome or noble stranger or any person stayed in their house "with good reputation, influence and weight", at night he was poisoned or killed in another way. "They didn't kill him to steal his money, and they didn't kill him out of hatred.", but in order for his soul to remain in the house where he was killed, and bring happiness. The more beautiful and noble the dead, the Yunnanese believed, the happier the house in which his soul remained would be.

As a reward for his loyalty and in recognition of his administrative ability and knowledge of the country, Kublai appointed Marco governor of the city of Yangzhou, in the province of Jiangsu, on the Grand Canal, near its junction with the Yangtze.

Given the commercial importance of Yangzhou and the fact that Marco lived there for a long time, one cannot help but be surprised that the traveler devoted one short chapter to it. stating that "Mr. Marco Polo, the same one mentioned in this book, ruled this city for three years"(approximately from 1284 to 1287), the author remarks sparingly that "the people here are commercial and industrial", that especially a lot of weapons and armor are made here.

The Venetians enjoyed the patronage and great favors of Khubilai, in the service of him they acquired both wealth and power. But the khan's favor aroused envy and hatred towards them. Enemies at the court of Khubilai among the Venetians became more and more. They were afraid of the day when the khan would die. Cost their mighty patron "ascend up" on a dragon, how they would be unarmed in the face of enemies, and their riches would almost inevitably doom them to death.

And they were on their way. However, the Khan at first did not want to let the Venetians go.

Khubilai summoned Marco to him along with his father and uncle, spoke to them about his great love for them and asked them to promise, having been in a Christian country and at home, to return to him. He ordered them to be given a golden tablet with commands that they should not be delayed throughout his land and food was given everywhere, he ordered that they be provided with escorts for safety, and also authorized them to be his ambassadors to the pope, the French and Spanish kings and to other Christian rulers. .

The Great Khan ordered fourteen vessels of the Court to be set afloat, probably stationed in Zaiton (Quanzhou), they had four masts and so many sails that Marco marveled, as all medieval travelers who came to the Far East marveled.

After spending many years in the service of Khubilai, the Venetians returned to their homeland by sea - around South Asia and through Iran. On behalf of the Great Khan, they accompanied two princesses - Chinese and Mongol, who were given in marriage to the Ilkhan (Mongol ruler of Iran) and his heir, to the capital of the Ilkhans, Tabriz. In 1292, the Chinese flotilla moved from Zeytun to the southwest, through the Chip (South China) Sea, during this transition, Marko heard about Indonesia - about "7448 islands", scattered in the Chin Sea, but he visited only Sumatra, where the travelers lived for five months. From Sumatra, the flotilla moved to the island of Sri Lanka past the Nicobar and Andaman Islands. Sri Lanka (as well as Java) Marco incorrectly classifies as "the biggest in the world" islands, but truthfully describes the life of the Sri Lankans, the deposits of precious stones and the famous pearl fishing in the Polk Strait. From Sri Lanka, the ships passed along Western India and Southern Iran, through the Strait of Hormuz to the Persian Gulf.

Marco also talks about African countries adjacent to the Indian Ocean, which he apparently did not visit: about the great country of Abasia (Abyssinia, that is, Ethiopia), about the islands of Zangibar located near the equator and in the southern hemisphere and " Madeigascar". But he confuses Zanzibar with Madagascar, and both islands with the East African maritime region, and therefore gives much false information about them. Yet Marco was the first European to report on Madagascar. After a three-year voyage, the Venetians brought the princesses to Iran (about 1294), and in 1295 they arrived home. According to some reports, Marco participated in the war with Genoa and around 1297, during a naval battle, he was captured by the Genoese. In prison in 1298 he dictated the "Book", and in 1299 he was released and returned to his homeland. Almost all the information given by biographers about his subsequent life in Venice is based on later sources, some of which even date back to the 16th century. Very few documents of the XIV century about Marco himself and his family have come down to our time. It has been proven, however, that he lived out his life as a wealthy, but far from rich, Venetian citizen. He died in 1324.

The overwhelming majority of biographers and commentators believe that Marco Polo really made those journeys that he speaks of in his Book. However, many mysteries still remain.

How could he, during his travels, "not notice" the most grandiose defensive structure in the world - the Great Wall of China? Why did Polo, who lived for so many years in the northern capital of China and visited many Chinese cities, and therefore saw many Chinese women, not mention a word about the custom of disfiguring the feet, which was already widespread among Chinese women? Why does Polo never mention such an important and typical Chinese consumer product as tea? But precisely because of such gaps in the "Book" and the fact that Marco, undoubtedly, did not know either the Chinese language or Chinese geographical nomenclature (with few exceptions), some of the most skeptical historians in the first half of the 19th century suggested that Marco Polo never been to China.

In the XIV-XV centuries, the "Book" of Marco Polo served as one of the guides for cartographers. The "Book" of Marco Polo played a very important role in the history of great discoveries Not only did the organizers and leaders of the Portuguese and first Spanish expeditions of the 15th-16th centuries use maps compiled under the strong influence of Polo, but his work itself was a reference book for outstanding cosmographers and navigators, including Columbus. The "Book" of Marco Polo is one of the rare medieval writings - literary works and scientific works that are being read and re-read at the present time. It entered the golden fund of world literature, translated into many languages, published and republished in many countries of the world.

MEETING WITH THE MAGNIFICENT ASIA (Marco Polo) The famous Soviet writer-publicist Viktor Shklovsky has one little-known story for children: "Marco Polo Scout" (1931). A strange title for a work about a great traveler, who is rightly considered