Enzymes and hormones. Vitamins, enzymes, hormones - their role in the body. A recessive trait is...

The human body is a unique mechanism in which a huge number of different chemical processes take place every second. All processes are interconnected and ensure the continuous normal operation of the human body. Metabolism, synthesis, cell regeneration, self-healing and many other reactions are carried out due to the supply of vital substances - minerals, enzymes, phospholipids, vitamins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids. All substances take part in biochemical reactions and normalize the work of internal organs and systems.

Needed to speed up chemical reactions. Enzymes are protein molecules that speed up all chemical reactions. These are catalysts that promote the digestion and breakdown of fats, proteins, muscle contraction and the conduction of nerve impulses. They also take part in metabolic processes and synthesis. Enzymes play a huge role in the human body. These substances perform the function of control in all biochemical processes. Without them, the existence of any living organism is absolutely impossible.

Enzymes and hormones

Hormones enter the blood along with enzymes. They also play an important role in all processes that occur in the human body. The main role of hormones is the correct adjustment of the functioning of the body. They are necessary to maintain homeostasis and regulate functions such as metabolism, growth, development, and response to environmental changes. Hormones, like enzymes, take part in chemical reactions. Thanks to hormones in the body, cell activity is regulated and bones are strengthened.

Most act through enzyme systems, while being their activators. They may be groups of enzymes. The close functional relationship between hormones and enzymes is manifested in almost all chemical processes. Despite the commonality of biological regulators, there are distinctive features of these substances. Enzymes show their activity in the cells where they are synthesized. Hormones, in turn, are carried by the bloodstream to the cells and tissues they stimulate. The biochemical function of hormones is much weaker than the functionality of enzymes. But the result of the action of hormones is more noticeable than the bioeffect of enzymes.

Deficiency of hormones and enzymes in the body

Lack of vital substances negatively affect the performance of the whole organism. With a lack of enzymes, metabolic processes in the body and all chemical reactions are disrupted. With a lack of hormones, significant disruptions in the functioning of the human body also occur. In both cases, the deficiency of important substances provokes serious diseases - diabetes mellitus, fungal diseases, blood diseases, allergic diseases, thyroid disorders, etc.

Lack and can be both congenital and acquired. The congenital form is transmitted in utero by heredity, maternal diseases, intrauterine consequences (pathologies, injuries). The acquired form can develop at any age. Various diseases, malnutrition, bad habits can affect the lack of vital substances.

Everyone, regardless of age, should take care of their health. If it is not possible to replenish the body with the necessary substances in a natural way (using products with their content), they will come to the rescue. Dietary supplements are widely used in medical practice. These are universal food supplements that are used for therapeutic and prophylactic purposes.

on the topic:

Chemistry teacher

and biology

Tokhchukova V.B.

MOU "Secondary school p. Caucasian"

2008

Integrated lesson in chemistry and biology

Target: the study of the biochemical nature of enzymes, hormones, vitamins.

Tasks. educational: consider enzymes, hormones, vitamins from the chemical side, summarize and consolidate students' knowledge about the role of enzymes, hormones and vitamins for the human body, reveal the essence of the mechanism of action of enzymes; implement interdisciplinary connections;

developing: develop cognitive interest by performing laboratory experiments, develop logical thinking, the ability to draw conclusions; develop interest in the subject, curiosity;

educational: educate responsibility, accuracy, careful handling of chemical reagents.

Lesson Plan

I Organizing time.

II 1. Checking students' knowledge (conversation).

2. Generalization of students' knowledge.

5. Homework.

DURING THE CLASSES:

“The thinking mind does not feel happy,

until he manages to tie together

disparate facts he observes”

D. Hevesy

Checking students' knowledge.

Frontal survey of students. Questions:

What are enzymes? What role do they play in the body?

What enzymes do you know?

What are hormones? Where are they produced?

What hormones do you know? What functions do they perform?

Define the term vitamin. Who discovered vitamins?

What two groups can vitamins be divided into?

Name the vitamins you know.

What is the role of vitamins in the body?

Generalization of students' knowledge.

Today in the lesson we will continue our acquaintance with organic substances: enzymes, hormones, vitamins. In the process of studying the material, we will try to solve the tasks of the lesson.

Our lesson will be held under the motto (D. Hevesy).

Before we start learning new material about enzymes, let's listen to a little fairy tale.

Dying, the old Arab bequeathed to his sons 17 beautiful white camels. The older half, the middle one a third, the younger one a ninth. When the Arab died, the sons began to divide their inheritance, but 17 camels are not divisible by 2, 3, or 9. At that time, a poor scholar, a dervish, was walking through the desert and leading an old black camel. He approached the brothers and asked what they were grieving about. The brothers told about their inheritance and the impossibility of dividing it. Then the dervish gave them his camel. They had 18 camels and everything worked out: the elder received 9 camels, the middle one - 6 camels, the youngest - 2 camels, the old camel of the scientist remained. "What to do with him?" the brothers asked. “Give it to me,” the scientist asked, and the brothers returned the camel to him. That's enzymes , just like the old dervish camel help carry out reactions in the body.

So what are enzymes?

Enzymes are protein molecules synthesized by living cells.

Every cell has hundreds of different enzymes. With their help, numerous chemical reactions are carried out, which can proceed at high speed at temperatures suitable for a given organism, that is, in the range from 5 o to 40 o. For these reactions to proceed outside the body at the same rate, high temperatures and abrupt changes in conditions would be required. For the cell, this would mean death, since all the work of the cell is structured in such a way as to avoid any noticeable changes in the normal conditions of its existence.

Thus, it can be said that enzymes are biological catalysts, that is, substances that speed up biochemical reactions. They are absolutely necessary, because without them the reactions in the cell would proceed too slowly.

What does the term enzyme mean?

Term "enzyme" (from lat. fermentum - sourdough) was proposed at the beginning of the 17th century by the Dutch scientist Van Helmond. Almost all enzymes are proteins (but not all proteins are enzymes). The idea that enzymes are proteins was not immediately established. To do this, it was necessary to learn how to isolate them in a highly crystalline form. For the first time, enzymes in this form were isolated in 1926 by J. Sumner. After that, it took another 10 years, during which several more enzymes were obtained in crystalline form, so that the idea of the protein nature of enzymes became proven and received general recognition.

Enzymes(enzymes) are specific proteins of a globular nature that are present in all living organisms and play the role of biological catalysts. (Remember what a catalyst is.)
Enzyme Properties. Enzymes are characterized by high activity, but it varies depending on pH (concentration of hydrogen ions), temperature, pressure.
Specificity enzymes is that each of them acts on only one reaction (for example, urease breaks down only urea). The enzyme has the ability to distinguish among the many molecules exactly those that should enter into the reaction - these molecules are called substrate(S). Only a very small part of the enzyme molecule (3–5 amino acid residues) comes into contact with the substrate. This part is active center enzyme (Fig. 1).

The mechanism of action of enzymes. The interaction of the substrate (S) with the enzyme was first studied by the German scientist Emil Fischer. He put forward a hypothesis (1880) according to which the substrate fits the active site of the enzyme like a “key to a lock” (Fig. 2).

The resulting products no longer correspond in shape to the active site. They are separated from the "lock" of the enzyme and enter the environment, after which the released active center can accept new substrate molecules.

The names of enzymes are derived from the names of the substrates on which they act, according to the scheme: the type of reaction catalyzed by this enzyme + the name of one of the reaction products (or one of its participants) with the addition of an ending - aza .
The ending - aza serves to indicate the enzymatic nature. For example: enzyme glycosidase participates in the reactions of hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds in sugars; transaminases contribute to the transfer of the NH 2 group from amino acids to various α-keto acids. Dairy oxidase(other name - dehydrogenase) catalyzes the conversion of lactic acid to acetic acid:

Conclusion . By the name of the enzyme, you can understand the essence of the reaction.

Group	catalyzed reaction
Oxidoreductases. 480 enzymes, a big role in energy processes	Catalyzes oxidation-reduction reactions, the transfer of H and O atoms or electrons from one to another.
Transferases	The transfer of certain groups of atoms from one substance to another
Hydrolases. 460 enzymes, these include digestive enzymes that are part of lysosomes and other organelles, where they contribute to the breakdown of larger biomolecules into simple	Hydrolysis reactions in which two products are formed from the substrate.
Liase. 230 enzymes involved in the regulation of the synthesis and breakdown of metabolic intermediates	Enzymes that catalyze bond breaking reactions in a substrate without water addition or oxidation.
Isomerases. 80 enzymes	Enzymes that catalyze transformations within a single molecule, they cause intramolecular rearrangements.
Ligases (synthetases) (about 80 enzymes)	The catalyzed connection of 2 molecules using the energy of the phosphate bond is associated with the breakdown of ATP.

e) Practical application of enzymes

Can a person use knowledge about enzymes in his practical activities?

Is there a specific science that deals with the study of enzymes?

Enzymology - the doctrine of enzymes is singled out as an independent science.

Enzymes are widely used in light, food and chemical industries, as well as in medical practice.

In the food industry, enzymes are used in the preparation of soft drinks, cheeses, canned food, sausages, and smoked meats.

In animal husbandry, enzymes are used in the preparation of feed.

Enzymes are used in the manufacture of photographic materials.

Enzymes are used in the processing of oats and hemp.

Enzymes are used to soften leather in the leather industry.

Enzymes are part of washing powders, toothpastes.

In medicine, enzymes have a diagnostic value - the determination of individual enzymes in the cell helps to recognize the nature of the disease (for example, viral hepatitis - by the activity of the enzyme in the blood plasma), they are used to replace the missing enzyme in the body.

Now let's talk about vitamins.

Message 1. History of the Discovery of Vitamins(3 min). The student's message contains the following information. In 1880, Nikolai Ivanovich Lunin conducted experiments with white mice fed on whole milk and its artificial analogue. In 1886, H. Aikman established a connection between a monotonous diet of polished rice and the incidence of beriberi.
Clarified definition: “Vitamins are low molecular weight organic compounds of different chemical structure, combined on the basis of their strict necessity for the life of organisms.”

K. Funk's definition: "Vitamins are vital substances that play an important role in metabolism and come from outside with food."
The teacher talks about the classification of vitamins, their functions in the body, using the table. one.

Table 1

Classification and nomenclature of vitamins

· Signs of vitamin deficiency in the lesson can not be considered in detail, and after familiarizing yourself with the classification of vitamins, give a task according to the textbook, according to the text of which the children will complete the table.
· The work can also be built as follows: divide the students into groups and invite them, using the text of the textbook, to fill out a table in which not all, but only the facts not given in the textbook are indicated. One group will look at water-soluble vitamins and the other at fat-soluble vitamins. The table must be prepared in advance, duplicated and distributed to the children before the lesson.
· You can invite students to listen to the messages while filling out the table under the guidance of the teacher. With this option of studying the topic, more children do homework.

Message 2. "The need of the human body for vitamins"(3 min). Work with the textbook, filling in the table. 3.

table 2

Vitamin	daily requirement

Message 3. "Vitamin table"(3–4 min). See table. 2.

Table 3

The concepts of hypervitaminosis (overabundance of vitamins in food), hypovitaminosis and avitaminosis (a sharp lack of vitamins) are introduced, and the symptoms of vitamin deficiency are described. In the work, you can use photographs of people with beriberi, give clinical descriptions.
The teacher concludes: to fill the daily need for vitamins, you need to eat a lot of natural products or take artificial vitamins, but you must remember that vitamins are medicines, you can’t use them without measure.
Vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin. It is a white crystalline substance.
Chemical structure:

Vitamin C is not synthesized in the body of humans and animals, but comes in ready-made form mainly with plant foods. Vitamin C is produced in plants from the carbohydrate glucose. The content of vitamin C in the leaves of plants reaches a maximum in the flowering phase, and then sharply decreases. During the fall of the leaves, this vitamin is almost not contained in them.

Vitamin C

Ecological and geographical dependence of vitamin C synthesis. There is the following relationship: the further north (colder), the more intensively vitamin C is formed in plants. The greater the soil moisture, the faster the synthesis of vitamin C occurs.
Phosphorus-potassium fertilizers increase the content of vitamin C in plants, and nitrogen fertilizers, on the contrary, lower it.
This stage of the lesson can be carried out either with the help of a student’s message, which should be prepared in advance, or by drawing the children’s attention to Table. 2, which shows the concentration of vitamin C in different foods, and ask to find out the relationship based on the proposed facts. At the end of the oral work, the main information about vitamin C should be written in a notebook: the daily human need for vitamin C is 50–100 mg, excess and deficiency of vitamin C are dangerous with hyper- and hypovitaminosis.
Work with the text of the book according to the plan proposed above. Finding out the symptoms of beriberi C, ways to combat beriberi C (scurvy).
At this stage of the lesson, children's attention should be focused on the behavior of the main characters of J. London's work "The Mistake of the Lord God." Ask them to evaluate the moral qualities of the main characters, to approach the question of the meaning of the title of the work. In conclusion, write down the main symptoms of beriberi C, methods of treatment.

MAIN HUMAN HORMONES

Hormones are biologically active substances that perform a regulatory function.

Pituitary hormones: anterior pituitary. The glandular tissue of the anterior lobe produces:

- growth hormone (GH), or somatotropin, which affects all tissues of the body, increasing their anabolic activity (i.e., the processes of synthesis of body tissue components and increasing energy reserves).

- melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which enhances the production of pigment by certain skin cells (melanocytes and melanophores);

- thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), which stimulates the synthesis of thyroid hormones in the thyroid gland;

- follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), related to gonadotropins: their action is directed to the sex glands (see also HUMAN REPRODUCTION).

Prolactin, sometimes referred to as PRL, is a hormone that stimulates the formation of mammary glands and lactation.

The posterior pituitary hormones are vasopressin and oxytocin. Both hormones are produced in the hypothalamus but are stored and released in the posterior pituitary gland, which lies inferior to the hypothalamus. Vasopressin maintains the tone of blood vessels and is an antidiuretic hormone that affects water metabolism. Oxytocin causes uterine contractions and has the property of "letting go" of milk after childbirth.

Thyroid and parathyroid hormones. The thyroid gland is located on the neck and consists of two lobes connected by a narrow isthmus (see THYROID GLAND). The four parathyroid glands are usually located in pairs, on the posterior and lateral surfaces of each lobe of the thyroid gland, although sometimes one or two may be slightly displaced.

The main hormones secreted by the normal thyroid gland are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroid hormones stimulate protein synthesis and breakdown of nutrients to release heat and energy, which is manifested by increased oxygen consumption. These hormones also influence the metabolism of carbohydrates and, along with other hormones, regulate the rate of mobilization of free fatty acids from adipose tissue. In short, thyroid hormones have a stimulating effect on metabolic processes.

Adrenal hormones. The adrenal glands are small structures located above each kidney. They consist of an outer layer called the cortex and an inner part called the medulla. Both parts have their own functions, and in some lower animals they are completely separate structures. Each of the two parts of the adrenal glands plays an important role both in the normal state and in diseases. For example, one of the hormones of the medulla - adrenaline - is necessary for survival, as it provides a reaction to a sudden danger. When it occurs, adrenaline is released into the blood and mobilizes carbohydrate stores for a rapid release of energy, increases muscle strength, causes pupil dilation and constriction of peripheral blood vessels. Thus, reserve forces are sent for “flight or fight”, and in addition, blood loss is reduced due to vasoconstriction and rapid blood clotting. Adrenaline also stimulates the secretion of ACTH (i.e. the hypothalamic-pituitary axis). ACTH, in turn, stimulates the release of cortisol by the adrenal cortex, resulting in an increase in the conversion of proteins into glucose, which is necessary to replenish the glycogen stores in the liver and muscles used during the anxiety reaction.

Hypofunction (reduced activity) of the adrenal glands occurs in acute or chronic form. Hypofunction is caused by a severe, rapidly developing bacterial infection that can damage the adrenal gland and lead to profound shock. In the chronic form, the disease develops due to partial destruction of the adrenal gland (for example, by a growing tumor or tuberculous process) or the production of autoantibodies. This condition, known as Addison's disease, is characterized by severe weakness, weight loss, low blood pressure, gastrointestinal disturbances, an increased need for salt, and skin pigmentation. Addison's disease, described in 1855 by T. Addison, was the first recognized endocrine disease.

Adrenaline and norepinephrine are the two main hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla. Adrenaline is considered a metabolic hormone due to its effect on carbohydrate stores and fat mobilization. Norepinephrine is a vasoconstrictor, i.e. it constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure. The adrenal medulla is closely related to the nervous system; thus, norepinephrine is released by sympathetic nerves and acts as a neurohormone.

Excessive secretion of adrenal medulla hormones (medullary hormones) occurs in some tumors. Symptoms depend on which of the two hormones, adrenaline or noradrenaline, is produced in greater quantities, but the most common are sudden attacks of hot flashes, sweating, anxiety, palpitations, as well as headache and hypertension.

testicular hormones. The testicles (testicles) have two parts, being glands of both external and internal secretion. As external secretion glands, they produce sperm, and the endocrine function is carried out by the Leydig cells contained in them, which secrete male sex hormones (androgens), in particular D4-androstenedione and testosterone, the main male hormone. Leydig cells also produce small amounts of estrogen (estradiol). Androgens, in particular testosterone, are responsible for the development of secondary sexual characteristics in men. Violation of the endocrine function of the testes is reduced in most cases to insufficient secretion of androgens.

Ovarian hormones. The ovaries have two functions: egg development and hormone secretion (see also HUMAN REPRODUCTION). The ovarian hormones are estrogens, progesterone and D4-androstenedione. Estrogens determine the development of female secondary sexual characteristics. Ovarian estrogen, estradiol, is produced in the cells of the growing follicle, the sac that surrounds the developing egg. As a result of the action of both FSH and LH, the follicle matures and ruptures, releasing the egg. Reduced secretion of estradiol occurs with underdevelopment of the ovaries. Ovarian function also decreases at menopause, as the supply of follicles is depleted and, as a result, estradiol secretion decreases, which is accompanied by a number of symptoms, the most characteristic of which are hot flashes. Excess estrogen production is usually associated with ovarian tumors. The greatest number of menstrual disorders are caused by an imbalance of ovarian hormones and ovulation disorders.

Hormones of the pancreas. The pancreas performs both internal and external secretion. The exocrine (relating to external secretion) component is digestive enzymes that, in the form of inactive precursors, enter the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. Internal secretion is provided by the islets of Langerhans, represented by several types of cells: alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin. The main action of insulin is to lower the level of glucose in the blood, carried out mainly in three ways: 1) inhibition of the formation of glucose in the liver; 2) inhibition in the liver and muscles of the breakdown of glycogen (a polymer of glucose, which the body can convert into glucose if necessary); 3) stimulation of the use of glucose by tissues. Insufficient secretion of insulin or its increased neutralization by autoantibodies leads to high blood glucose levels and the development of diabetes mellitus. The main action of glucagon is to increase the level of glucose in the blood by stimulating its production in the liver. While insulin and glucagon are primarily responsible for maintaining physiological blood glucose levels, other hormones such as growth hormone, cortisol, and adrenaline also play a significant role.

Gastrointestinal hormones. The hormones of the gastrointestinal tract are gastrin, cholecystokinin, secretin and pancreozymin. These are polypeptides secreted by the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract in response to specific stimulation. It is believed that gastrin stimulates the secretion of hydrochloric acid; cholecystokinin controls the emptying of the gallbladder, and secretin and pancreozymin regulate the secretion of pancreatic juice.

Neurohormones are a group of chemical compounds secreted by nerve cells (neurons). These compounds have hormone-like properties, stimulating or inhibiting the activity of other cells; they include the releasing factors mentioned earlier, as well as neurotransmitters whose function is to transmit nerve impulses through the narrow synaptic cleft that separates one nerve cell from another. Neurotransmitters include dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine, serotonin, histamine, acetylcholine, and gamma-aminobutyric acid.

In the mid-1970s, a number of new neurotransmitters with morphine-like analgesic effects were discovered; they got the name "endorphins", i.e. "internal morphine". Endorphins are able to bind to special receptors in brain structures; as a result of this binding, impulses are sent to the spinal cord, which block the transmission of incoming pain signals. The analgesic effect of morphine and other opiates is undoubtedly due to their similarity to endorphins, ensuring their binding to the same pain-blocking receptors.

3. Laboratory experiments "Detection of ascorbic acid" and "Discovery of the enzyme catalase".

Laboratory experience

"Detection of ascorbic acid in some products"

Vitamin C is very unstable, is destroyed in the air, in contact with metal objects, when heated. The study is based on the property of vitamin C to decolorize iodine. We carry out work according to the instruction card.

INSTRUCTION CARD.

Dilute an alcoholic solution of iodine with water to the color of strong tea.

Add starch paste to the solution until a blue color is obtained.

Take 1 ml of lemon juice, add a paste to it drop by drop. Watch the coloring. If the iodine solution (blue color) is discolored, then there is a lot of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), if not, then it is not enough.

Do a similar experiment with apple juice.

Heat apple juice in a spirit stove. Repeat the experiment with heated juice.

Make a conclusion.

Laboratory experience
"Discovery of the enzyme catalase"

Target: to prove the presence of enzymes in animal and plant cells.
Equipment and reagents: stand with test tubes, microscope, glass slide, splinter, matches; a glass with H 2 O 2 (3% solution), sand, plant and animal tissues.

Progress

Exercise 1. Enzymes are found in every animal and plant cell. Most of the enzymes are associated with certain cellular structures (nucleus, cytoplasm, plastids, lysosomes, etc.), where their function is carried out. Catalase is found in microbodies ( peroxisomes). These bodies have an oval shape, a granular structure, and are located in the cytoplasm (Fig. 4).

The enzyme catalase catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide to form water and oxygen molecules:

By breaking down H 2 O 2 , catalase plays a protective role. It neutralizes the toxic substance (hydrogen peroxide), which is continuously formed in the cell in the course of life. The activity of the enzyme is very high: at 0 ° C - 1 molecule of the catalyst decomposes in 1 second up to 40,000 molecules of H 2 O 2.

Task 2.Complete the practical part.

Pour 2 ml of H 2 O 2 into five test tubes with:
a) raw liver;
b) boiled liver;
c) raw potatoes;
d) boiled potatoes;
d) sand.

Put a begonia leaf in a drop of water on a glass slide and examine it under a microscope.

Apply two drops of hydrogen peroxide to a begonia leaf and observe the rapid release of oxygen bubbles from the cells of the begonia leaf under a microscope.

4. Answer the questions.

What causes the splitting of hydrogen peroxide in test tubes with pieces of raw liver, raw potatoes and under the action of hydrogen peroxide on a begonia leaf?

What levels of organization of the catalase protein-enzyme molecule are destroyed during the boiling of potatoes and liver in our experiment, and the rupture of which molecular bonds led to the denaturation of this protein?

Why was the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide in test tubes with pieces of boiled potatoes and liver, as well as in a test tube with sand, not observed?

Experiment results:

4. Consolidation of students' knowledge.

Questions for consolidation:

Now let's remember what was discussed in today's lesson.

What are enzymes?

List the properties of enzymes.

What is the specificity of enzymes?

What underlies the mechanism of interaction between a substrate and an enzyme?

What are the principles of enzyme nomenclature?

Name the classes of enzymes and indicate the reactions they catalyze.

Define vitamins. Who discovered them?

What vitamins do you know?

What are hormones? What are the similarities and differences between an enzyme and a hormone? Where are hormones formed?

What are the functions of hormones?

5. Homework.

Learn the topic "Enzymes. Vitamins. Hormones”, prepare a report on the topic “Drugs”, complete the laboratory experiment “Detection of ascorbic acid in various products”.

Literature:

Green N., Stout W., Taylor D. Biology. M.: Mir, 1990, vol. 1, p. 195–209;
Demyanenkov E.N. Biology in questions and answers. M.: Enlightenment, 1996, p. 38;

Ermolaev M.V. Biological chemistry. M.: Medicine, 1983, p. 92–114;

Korsunskaya V.M., Mironenko G.N., Mokeeva Z.A., Verzilin N.M. General biology lessons. M.: Enlightenment, 1986, p. 137–141;

Murtazin G.M. Tasks and exercises in general biology. M.: Enlightenment, 1981, p. 81–82, 91–92;

Ovchinnikov Yu.A., Shamin A.N. The structure and functions of proteins. (Library of the Children's Encyclopedia.) M .: Pedagogy, 1983, p. 49–74;

Rudzitis G.E., Feldman F.G. Chemistry-11. Moscow: Education, 1998.

D.V.KUZNETSOVA, teacher of chemistry "Enzymes".

Vitamins are complex organic substances found in food in very small quantities. They do not serve as a source of energy, but are absolutely necessary for the normal functioning of the body. Deficiency of one or another vitamin leads to metabolic disorders; this condition is called beriberi. It can be stopped by adding the right vitamin to the diet.

The most important for humans are vitamins A, B, C, D, K and others.

Hormones are biologically active substances produced by the endocrine glands and secreted directly into the blood. Hormones affect the vital activity of the organs for which they are intended, changing biochemical reactions by activating or inhibiting enzymatic processes. There are about 30 known hormones produced by human and mammalian organisms.

Enzymes are globular proteins synthesized by living cells. There are hundreds of enzymes in every cell. They help carry out biochemical reactions by acting as catalysts. Without them, the reactions in the cell would be too slow and would not be able to sustain life. Enzymes are divided into anabolic (synthesis reactions) and catabolic (decay reactions). Often, several enzymes are involved in the process of converting one substance into another; this sequence of reactions is called metabolic pathway.

The main properties of enzymes:

Increase the rate of reaction;

Not consumed in the reaction;

Their presence does not affect the properties of the reaction products;

Enzyme activity depends on pH, temperature, pressure and concentration;

Enzymes change the activation energy at which a reaction can occur;

Enzymes do not significantly change the temperature at which the reaction occurs.

The high specificity of the enzyme is explained by the special shape of its molecule, which exactly corresponds to the molecule of the substrate (substance attacked by the enzyme). This hypothesis is called the "key and lock" hypothesis. In the middle of the 20th century, studies showed that the substrate can cause changes in the structure of the enzyme; the enzyme changes its shape, which enables it to perform its function most efficiently.

Many enzymes require non-protein components called cofactors to work effectively. Such substances can be inorganic ions, causing enzymes to take a form that promotes an enzymatic reaction, prosthetic groups (flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), heme), occupying a position in which they can effectively promote the reaction, and coenzymes (NAD, NADP, ATP).

Some substances can slow down enzymatic reactions by acting as inhibitors. At the same time, they combine with the substrate themselves, taking the place of the enzyme and nullifying the enzymatic effect ( competitive inhibition), or cause denaturation of the enzymatic protein ( noncompetitive inhibition).

Enzymes and hormones Chemistry lesson in grade 10 (11) Author: chemistry teacher Kim N.V. Secondary School No. 6, Nyagan, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Tyumen Region Enzymes Enzymes are protein substances that play a very important role in various biochemical processes in the body. They are necessary for the digestion of food products, stimulation of brain activity, energy supply processes for cells, restoration of organs and tissues. The function of each of the enzymes is unique, i.e. each enzyme activates only one biochemical process. In this regard, there are a huge number of enzymes in the body. Enzymes Enzymes perform different functions depending on the types of body reactions catalyzed by them. Most often they are divided into two main groups: digestive and metabolic. Digestive enzymes are secreted in the gastrointestinal tract, destroying nutrients, facilitating their absorption into the systemic circulation. Metabolic enzymes catalyze biochemical processes within cells. Digestive enzymes There are three main categories of these enzymes: amylase, protease, lipase. Amylase breaks down carbohydrates and is found in saliva, pancreatic secretions, and intestinal contents. Different types of amylase break down different sugars. Proteases found in gastric juice, pancreatic secretions, and intestinal contents help digest proteins. Lipase, found in gastric juice and pancreatic secretion, breaks down fats. Enzymes Some foods contain enzymes. Unfortunately, enzymes are very sensitive to heat and are easily destroyed by heat. In order for the body to receive an additional amount of enzymes, one should either eat foods containing them in raw form or take biologically active food supplements with such enzymes. Plant foods are rich in enzymes: avocados, papaya, pineapples, bananas, mangoes, sprouts. Proteolytic Enzymes Proteolytic enzymes are pepsin, trypsin, rennin, pancreatin, and chymotrypsin. In addition to improving digestion, these enzymes have an anti-inflammatory effect. Pancreatin is used for pancreatic enzyme deficiency, cystic fibrosis, digestive disorders, food allergies, autoimmune diseases, viral infections, and sports injuries. Enzymes are available in tablets, capsules, powder and liquid form. They are sold in combination or separately. Enzymes To obtain a good effect, it is better to use formulas containing all the main enzymes amylase, protease, lipase. Generally, digestive enzymes are taken after a meal, but if you are eating processed or ground foods, take it with meals. All preparations containing enzymes should be stored in a cool place. Tablets and liquids in the refrigerator, and powder and capsules in a cool, dry place. Properties of enzymes 1. The most important property of enzymes is the preferential course of one of several theoretically possible reactions. Enzymes can catalyze both the forward and reverse reactions depending on the conditions. This property of enzymes is of great practical importance. 2. Another important property of enzymes is thermolability, i.e., high sensitivity to temperature changes. Since enzymes are proteins, for most of them, temperatures above 70 C lead to denaturation and loss of activity. With an increase in temperature to 10 C, the reaction accelerates by 2-3 times, and at temperatures close to 0 C, the rate of enzymatic reactions slows down to a minimum. Properties of enzymes 3. The next important property is that enzymes are found in tissues and cells in an inactive form (proenzyme). Its classic examples are the inactive forms of pepsin and trypsin. The existence of inactive forms of enzymes is of great biological importance. If pepsin were produced immediately in an active form, then pepsin would "digest" the wall of the stomach, that is, the stomach would "digest" itself. Classification of enzymes At the International Congress of Biochemistry, it was agreed that enzymes should be classified according to the type of reaction they catalyze. The name of the enzyme must contain the name of the substrate, i.e., the compound that this enzyme acts on, and the ending -ase. (Arginase catalyzes the hydrolysis of arginine, etc.) According to this principle, all enzymes were divided into 6 features. 1. Oxidoreductases - enzymes that catalyze redox reactions, such as catalase: 2H2O2 --> O2 + 2H2O Classification of enzymes 1. Oxidoreductases - enzymes that catalyze redox reactions, such as catalase: 2 H2O2 --> O2 + 2 H2O 2. Transferases are enzymes that catalyze the transfer of atoms or radicals. 3. Hydrolases - enzymes that break intramolecular bonds by attaching water molecules, for example, phosphatase: OH R - O - P \u003d O + H2O --> ROH + H3PO4 OH Classification of enzymes 4. Lyases - enzymes that cleave one or another group from the substrate without addition of water, non-hydrolytic way. For example: removal of the carboxyl group by decarboxylase: O O // || CH3 - C - C ---- > CO2 + CH3 - C || \ \ O OH H 5. Isomerases are enzymes that catalyze the conversion of one isomer to another: glucose-6-phosphate --> glucose-1-phosphate 6. Synthetases are enzymes that catalyze synthesis reactions. The use of enzymes Enzymes are widely used in light, food and chemical industries, as well as in medical practice. – In the food industry, enzymes are used in the preparation of soft drinks, cheeses, canned food, sausages, and smoked meats. – In animal husbandry, enzymes are used in the preparation of feed. Enzymes are used in the manufacture of photographic materials. – Enzymes are used in the processing of oats and hemp. Enzyme Applications - Enzymes are used to soften leather in the leather industry. - Enzymes are part of washing powders, toothpastes. - In medicine, enzymes have a diagnostic value - the determination of individual enzymes in the cell helps to recognize the nature of the disease (for example, viral hepatitis - by the activity of the enzyme in the blood plasma), they are used to replace the missing enzyme in the body. Hormones Regulatory function is performed by hormone proteins. Hormones are biologically active substances that affect metabolism. Many hormones are proteins, polypeptides, or individual amino acids. One of the best known protein hormones is insulin. This simple protein consists of only amino acids. The functional role of insulin is multifaceted. It reduces blood sugar, promotes the synthesis of glycogen in the liver and muscles, increases the formation of fats from carbohydrates, affects the exchange of phosphorus, enriches cells with potassium. Hormones The protein hormones of the pituitary gland, an endocrine gland associated with one of the parts of the brain, have a regulatory function. It secretes growth hormone, in the absence of which dwarfism develops. This hormone is a protein with a molecular weight of 27,000 to 46,000. Dwarfism - dwarfism, nanosomy. Hormones Vasopressin is one of the important and chemically interesting hormones. It inhibits urination and raises blood pressure. Vasopressin is a cyclic side chain octapeptide. The regulatory function is also performed by the proteins contained in the thyroid gland thyroglobulins, the molecular weight of which is about 600,000. These proteins contain iodine in their composition. With the underdevelopment of the gland, metabolism is disturbed. Hormones Yoti Amge from the Indian city of Nagpur is the smallest girl in the world, according to the Indian Book of Records. A 15-year-old schoolgirl is only 58 cm tall and weighs 5 kg. Amge suffers from a form of dwarfism called achondroplasia The smallest man and the hands of a giant Chinese He Pingping was born with one of the varieties of dwarfism - his height is only 74.61 cm. And the longest-legged woman is our compatriot Svetlana Pankratova, currently living in Spain. Svetlana is 36 years old and the length of her legs - which, by the way, Ho called "very beautiful" - is 1.32 m. the embryonic period, the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics, the functioning of the genital organs and the formation of specific behavioral reactions, as well as affecting metabolism, the state of the body's adaptation systems, etc. According to their biological action, they are divided into androgens, estrogens and gestagens - corpus luteum hormones. Sex hormones are synthesized mainly in the steroid-forming cells of the gonads from the common precursor of cholesterol for steroids. The testicles produce mainly the male sex hormone testosterone, while the ovaries also produce testosterone, which is converted into estrogen in the cells of the maturing follicle. The corpus luteum of the ovary produces predominantly the female sex hormone progesterone. Hormonal imbalances What is the connection between the boy's strange behavior and what kind of cosmetics his mother used during pregnancy? Scientists have found that the sons of mothers exposed to phthalates during pregnancy are more likely to behave like girls. List of references and Internet resources 1. Gabrielyan OS, Maskaev FN, Ponomarev S. Yu., Terenin VI Chemistry. Grade 10. profile level. M. Bustard, 2009 2. Chertkov I.N. The method of formation of the basic concepts of organic chemistry among students. - M.: Education: 1991. 3. alhimic.ucoz.ru/load/26-1-0-39 4. www.alleng.ru/edu/chem1.htm 5. www.uchportal.ru/load/60- 1-0-9056

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Obninsk Industrial College

TOPIC: “Vitamins, enzymes, hormones and their role in the body. Violations with their deficiency and excess.

1st year student
Markina Alexandra

Obninsk
2013

Abstract content

Introduction
Every person wants to be healthy. Health is that wealth that cannot be bought with money or received as a gift. People themselves strengthen or destroy what is given to them by nature. One of the most important elements of this creative or destructive work is nutrition. Everyone is well aware of the wise saying: "A man is what he eats."
The composition of the food we eat contains various substances necessary for the normal functioning of all organs, which help strengthen the body, heal, and are also harmful to health. Indispensable, vital components of nutrition, along with proteins, fats and carbohydrates, include vitamins.
Biologically active substances include: enzymes, vitamins and hormones. These are vital and necessary compounds, each of which performs an irreplaceable and very important role in the life of the body.
Digestion and assimilation of food occurs with the participation of enzymes. The synthesis and breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, hormones and other substances in body tissues is also a set of enzymatic reactions. However, any functional manifestation of a living organism - breathing, muscle contraction, neuropsychic activity, reproduction, etc. - are also directly related to the action of the corresponding enzyme systems. In other words, without enzymes there is no life. Their significance for the human body is not limited to normal physiology. Many human diseases are based on violations of enzymatic processes.
Vitamins can be classified as a group of biologically active compounds that have an effect on metabolism in negligible concentrations. These are organic compounds of various chemical structures that are necessary for the normal functioning of almost all processes in the body. They increase the body's resistance to various extreme factors and infectious diseases, contribute to the neutralization and elimination of toxic substances, etc.
Hormones are products of internal secretion that are produced by special glands or individual cells, released into the blood and carried throughout the body normally causing a certain biological effect.
Hormones themselves do not directly affect any cell reactions. Only by contacting a certain, peculiar only to him receptor, a certain reaction is caused.
Often called hormones and some other metabolic products that are formed in all [eg. carbon dioxide] or only in some [eg. acetylcholine] tissues that have a greater or lesser degree of physiological activity and are involved in the regulation of the functions of the animal organism. However, such a broad interpretation of the concept of "hormones" deprives it of any qualitative specificity. The term "hormones" should refer only to those active metabolic products that are formed in special formations - endocrine glands.

2. Vitamins and their effect on the body
The well-known word "vitamin" comes from the Latin "vita" - life. These various organic compounds received such a name not by chance: the role of vitamins in the life of the body is extremely high. Vitamins have the ability to increase the intensity of all physiological processes of the body, help in protecting it from the adverse effects of the external environment, increase resistance to infectious diseases, and during the period of illness contribute to a speedy recovery.
Absence, deficiency, as well as oversaturation of the body with vitamins leads to a violation of a number of its most important functions. In winter, if it is irrational to approach the diet, the intake of vitamins usually drops sharply, which in turn can lead to spring beriberi.
Compared with the main nutrients: proteins, fats, carbohydrates and mineral salts, vitamins are required by the body in very small quantities: from a few hundredths of a milligram per day, depending on the type of vitamin. But even in these small amounts, vitamins have a beneficial effect on metabolism, stimulate proper growth, development, positively affect the general condition, increase resistance to various diseases, strengthen muscle, bone, circulatory and other systems, and they act interrelatedly.
Currently, about 20 different vitamins are known. And if the benefits of vitamins obtained artificially are disputed by many, then vitamins of natural origin, contained, for example, in plant foods, are not in doubt by almost anyone. We give a list of only some vitamins, consider their effect on the body, and also give as an example food products containing these useful elements.
Vitamin A has an impact on human growth, improves skin condition, and contributes to the body's resistance to infection.
Vitamin A is found in mountain ash, apricots, rose hips, black currants, sea buckthorn, yellow pumpkins, watermelons, red peppers, spinach, cabbage, celery tops, parsley, dill, watercress, carrots, sorrel, green onions, green peppers, nettles , dandelion, clover, as well as in products of animal origin (fish oil, milk fat, butter, cream, cottage cheese, cheese, egg yolk, liver fat and fat of other organs - heart, brain).
Vitamin B1 has a positive effect on the functions of muscles and the nervous system, is part of the enzymes that regulate many important functions of the body, and is involved in metabolism. B1 is found mainly in products of plant origin: in cereals, cereals (oats, buckwheat, millet), in wholemeal flour (with fine grinding, the most rich in vitamin B1 part of the grain is removed with bran, therefore, in the highest grades of flour and bread, the content of vitamin B1 is sharply reduced ). Especially a lot of vitamin in grain sprouts, in bran, in legumes. Also found in hazelnuts, walnuts, almonds, apricots, rose hips, red beets, carrots, radishes, onions, watercress, cabbage, spinach, potatoes. There is in milk, meat, eggs, yeast.
Vitamin B2 affects the growth and renewal of cells, is part of many enzymes necessary for the body. Important for maintaining vision.
There is a lot of B2 in legumes, spinach, rose hips, apricots, leafy vegetables, vegetable tops, cabbage, tomatoes. It is also found in animal products: liver, milk, eggs, yeast.
Vitamin VZ affects the overall metabolism and is involved in the formation of enzymes that ensure the digestion of food.
A lot of OT is found in legumes (beans, peas, beans), mushrooms (champignons, porcini), fresh vegetables (red beets, asparagus, cauliflower). Present in dairy and dairy products. The liver, kidneys, meat, fish, and eggs are also rich in this vitamin.
Vitamin B6 is important for the life of the body, is involved in metabolism. It is necessary for recovery from past illnesses and the use of antibiotics. Vitamin deficiency negatively affects the functions of the brain, blood, leads to disruption of the blood vessels, leads to the occurrence of dermatitis, diathesis and other skin diseases, and disrupts the functions of the nervous system. Especially a lot of vitamin B6 is found in cereal sprouts, walnuts and hazelnuts, spinach, potatoes, cauliflower, carrots, lettuce, cabbage, tomatoes, strawberries, cherries, oranges and lemons. It is also found in meat products, fish, eggs, cereals and legumes.
Vitamin B12 affects blood formation, activates blood clotting processes, participates in the formation of substances necessary for the body, activates the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. It has a beneficial effect on the functions of the liver, nervous and digestive systems. The main source of this vitamin are food products of animal origin: beef liver, fish, seafood, meat, milk, cheeses. Also, vitamin B12 in humans is synthesized in the intestine.
Vitamin C increases the body's defenses, limits the possibility of respiratory diseases, improves vascular elasticity (normalizes capillary permeability). Vitamin has a beneficial effect on the functions of the central nervous system, stimulates the activity of the endocrine glands, promotes better absorption of iron and normal hematopoiesis, and prevents the formation of carcinogens. Contained in fresh plants: wild rose, dogwood, blackcurrant, mountain ash, sea buckthorn, citrus fruits, red pepper, horseradish, parsley, green onions, dill, watercress, red cabbage, potatoes, swede, cabbage, vegetable tops. In medicinal plants: nettle, boudre, lovage, forest fruits.
Vitamin D ensures normal growth and development of bones, promotes the deposition of calcium in bone tissue. Vitamin D helps in the fight against rickets, increases the body's resistance. The formation of vitamin D is facilitated by ultraviolet rays. The need for vitamin D in adults is satisfied by its formation in human skin under the influence of ultraviolet rays and partly by its intake with food. Vitamin D is found in some fish products: fish oil, cod liver, Atlantic herring, notothenia. And also they are rich in alfalfa, horsetail, nettle, parsley, mushrooms.
Vitamin E promotes the absorption of proteins and fats, participates in the processes of tissue respiration, affects the functioning of the brain, blood, nerves, muscles, improves wound healing, and delays aging. Vitamin E is found in almost all foods, but it is especially abundant in cereals and bean sprouts (wheat and rye sprouts, peas), in vegetables - asparagus, tomatoes, lettuce, peas, spinach, parsley tops, rosehip seeds. Some quantities are found in meat, fat, eggs, milk, beef liver.
The uniqueness of vitamins of natural origin is that the possibility of hypervitaminosis when consuming plant products or animal products is negligible. The optimal vitamin balance in the body is the key to good health and beauty. Diversify your menu with fresh products, combine them, and spend more time in the air and sunlight and beriberi will bypass you!

3. Enzymes and their role in metabolic processes
Which of the people far from medicine can answer the question: “what are enzymes”? Virtually no one. “Why do I need this?” They will say, and they will be wrong, because these substances play one of the main roles in our body. Let's find out what, or who are enzymes.
Concept. Enzymes (translated from Latin - sourdough, enzymes) are proteins that act as catalysts in living organisms.
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction but is not part of the reaction products. Catalysts are substances that only by their presence affect the chemical reaction of other substances (accelerate, slow down, normalize), but they themselves do not change.
So, enzymes are present in all living cells and catalyze almost all reactions in all biological processes.
Function. The main function of enzymes is to accelerate the transformation of substances that enter the body and are formed during metabolism.
With food, all the necessary substances enter the human body, but in an unprocessed form, the body is able to absorb only water, vitamins and minerals. Fats, proteins and carbohydrates need complex splitting, since in food these components are in a biologically inaccessible form for the body. In addition, in the body, all nutrients must take a form acceptable to the immune system, otherwise they will be perceived as dangerous and alien, and removed. This is exactly what the digestive system does along with enzymes.
All processes in the body associated with metabolism and energy proceed with the participation of enzymes. The metabolism of proteins, fats, carbohydrates and mineral salts proceeds with the direct action of enzymes. For their formation, vitamins are needed, most of which come with food.
With a lack of one or another vitamin, the activity of the corresponding enzyme decreases. Consequently, the reactions that it catalyzes slow down or stop completely. See how everything is interconnected in our body.
The substance on which the enzyme acts is called the substrate. Each enzyme has specificity, that is, it acts strictly on a specific substrate. Each enzyme is able to act on its substrate under certain conditions, which are influenced by: temperature, acid-base balance, etc.
For example, digestive enzymes are most active at a temperature of 37 - 39 C, and at low temperatures, the enzymes lose their activity, or do not work at all. The most acceptable temperature for enzymes is the temperature of our body. When boiled, enzymes, like other proteins, coagulate and lose their activity. Also detrimental to enzymes is oxygen and sunlight.
At the same time, each enzyme works only under certain conditions: saliva enzymes - in a slightly alkaline environment, stomach enzymes - in an acidic environment, pancreatic enzymes - in a slightly alkaline environment.
There are a lot of enzymes (today more than 2000 are known), but no enzyme can be replaced by another. There are enzymes that start the processes of metabolism inside the cell. There is practically no such system in the body that would not produce its own enzymes.
Enzymes are involved not only in digestion, but also in the growth of new cells and in the functioning of the nervous system. The work of enzymes significantly reduces the energy costs of the body for the processing of food.
Types of enzymes. All enzymes are divided into three main groups: amylase, lipase and protease.
The enzyme amylase is essential for the processing of carbohydrates. Under the influence of amylase, carbohydrates are destroyed and easily absorbed into the blood. Amylase is present in both saliva and intestines.
Lipase are enzymes that are present in gastric juice and are produced by the pancreas. Lipase is essential for the absorption of fats by the body.
Protease is a group of enzymes that are present in gastric juice and are also produced by the pancreas. In addition, protease is also present in the intestine. Protease is essential for the breakdown of proteins.
The transformation of nutrients in the digestive organs

Nutrients, substrates	Organs of the alimentary canal	Digestive glands, enzymes	end products
Complex carbohydrates (starch)	Oral cavity	Salivary gland enzymes (amylase)	Glucose
		Enzymes of the pancreas and intestinal glands
Squirrels	Stomach	Enzymes of gastric juice (pepsin)	Amino acids
	duodenum and other parts of the small intestine	Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin), liver bile
Fats	duodenum and other parts of the small intestine	Pancreatic enzymes (lipase), liver bile	Glycerin and fatty acids

Enzymes are studied by such a science as enzymology. The study of enzymes is of great importance, since enzymes have an effect not only on the human body, but are also used in the pharmaceutical, chemical and food industries, engaged in the preparation of catalysts, vitamins, antibiotics and many other biological substances used in the national economy and medicine.
Today it is already known for certain that many problems of human hereditary pathology, the development of congenital malformations of metabolism, are closely related to defects or a complete lack of synthesis of specific enzymes.
An essential feature of enzymes is that their activity in cells is strictly controlled at the genetic level. An organized sequence of metabolic processes is possible provided that each cell of our body is provided with its own genetically predetermined set of enzymes.

4. Hormones. General characteristics, properties of hormones.
Hormones are specific substances that are produced in the body and regulate its development and functioning. Translated from Greek - hormones - mean move, excite. Hormones are produced by special organs - endocrine glands (or endocrine glands). These organs are so named because the products of their work are not released into the external environment (as, for example, in the sweat or digestive glands), but are "picked up" by the blood flow and carried throughout the body. "True" hormones (as opposed to local regulatory substances) are secreted into the blood and act on almost all organs, including those far removed from the site of hormone formation.
Biologically active substances formed in organs and tissues other than the endocrine glands are usually called "parahormones", "histohormones", "biogenic stimulants". The participation of these substances in the regulation of body functions was first pointed out by the Russian physiologist V.Ya. Danilevsky (in 1899 at the 7th congress of the society of Russian doctors in memory of N.I. Pirogov).The term "hormones" was first used by W. Bayliss and E. Starling in 1902. In relation to the specific product of secretion of the mucous membrane of the upper part intestines - the so-called secretin, which stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice.However, secretin should be attributed to histohormones.
Biologically active metabolic products are also formed in plants, but it is completely wrong to classify these substances as “hormones”.
Invertebrates do not have a well-formed endocrine system (i.e., functionally interconnected endocrine glands). So, in insectivores, only separate glandular formations were found, in which, apparently, the production of hormonal substances (for example, causing molting, pupation, etc.) occurs. invertebrates to vertebrates - ascidians (tunicates) - there are homologues of the pituitary and thyroid glands. The endocrine system with specific physiological functions reaches its full development only in vertebrates and humans.
Currently, the following options for the action of hormones are distinguished:
1) hormonal, or hemocrine, i.e. action at a considerable distance from the place of formation;
2) isocrine, or local, when a chemical synthesized in one cell has an effect on a cell located in close contact with the first, and the release of this substance is carried out into the interstitial fluid and blood;
3) neurocrine, or neuroendocrine (synaptic and non-synaptic), action, when the hormone, being released from nerve endings, performs the function of a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator, i.e. a substance that alters (usually enhances) the action of a neurotransmitter;
4) paracrine - a kind of isocrine action, but at the same time, the hormone formed in one cell enters the intercellular fluid and affects a number of cells located in close proximity;
5) juxtacrine - a kind of paracrine action, when the hormone does not enter the intercellular fluid, and the signal is transmitted through the plasma membrane of a nearby other cell;
6) autocrine action, when a hormone released from a cell affects the same cell, changing its functional activity;
7) solinocrine action, when a hormone from one cell enters the lumen of the duct and thus reaches another cell, having a specific effect on it (for example, some gastrointestinal hormones).
The synthesis of protein hormones, like other proteins, is under genetic control, and typical mammalian cells express genes that encode between 5,000 and 10,000 different proteins, and some highly differentiated cells up to 50,000 proteins. Any protein synthesis begins with the transposition of DNA segments, followed by transcription, post-transcriptional processing, translation, post-translational processing, and modification. Many polypeptide hormones are synthesized in the form of large prohormone precursors (proinsulin, proglucagon, proopiomelanocortin, etc.). The conversion of prohormones into hormones is carried out in the Golgi apparatus.
Of particular interest is the body's ability to keep hormones in an inactivated (inactive) state.
Hormones, being specific products of the endocrine glands, do not remain stable, but change structurally and functionally in the process of metabolism. The products of hormone transformation may have new biocatalytic properties and play a certain role in the life process: for example, the oxidation products of adrenaline - dehydroadrenaline, adrenochrome, as shown by A.M. Utevsky, are a kind of catalyst for internal metabolism.
The work of hormones is carried out under control and in close dependence with the nervous system. The role of the nervous system in the processes of hormone formation was first proved in the early 20th century. Russian scientist N.A. Mislavsky, who studied the nervous regulation of the activity of the endocrine glands. They discovered a nerve that enhances the secretion of thyroid hormone; his student M.N. Cheboksarov owns (1910) a similar discovery in relation to the hormone of the adrenal gland. I.P. Pavlov and his students showed the enormous regulatory significance of the cerebral cortex in hormone formation.
The specificity of the physiological action of hormones is relative and depends on the state of the organism as a whole. Of great importance is the change in the composition of the environment in which the hormone acts, in particular, an increase or decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions, sulfhydryl groups, potassium and calcium salts, the content of amino acids and other metabolic products that affect the reactivity of nerve endings and the relationship of hormones with enzyme systems. Thus, the action of the hormone of the adrenal cortex on the kidneys and the cardiovascular system is largely determined by the content of sodium chloride in the blood. The ratio between the amount of active and inactive forms of adrenaline is determined by the content of ascorbic acid in the tissues.
It has been proven that hormones are closely dependent on environmental conditions, the influence of which is mediated by the receptors of the nervous system. Irritation of pain, temperature, visual, and other receptors affects the secretion of the hormone of the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and other glands. The constituent parts of food can serve, on the one hand, as a source of structural material for building hormones (iodine, amino acids, sterols), and on the other hand, by changing the internal environment and influencing interoreceptors, affect the function of the glands that form hormones. So, it was found that carbohydrates predominantly affect the release of insulin; proteins - on the formation of pituitary hormone, sex hormones, adrenal cortex hormone, thyroid hormone; vitamin C - on the function of the thyroid gland and adrenal gland, etc. Some chemicals introduced into the body can specifically interfere with hormone production.
In medical practice, hormonal preparations are used to treat diseases of the endocrine glands, in which the function of the latter is reduced. For example, insulin is used to treat diabetes (diabetes).
In addition to the treatment of diseases of the endocrine glands, hormones and hormonal preparations are also used for other diseases: insulin - for pathological exhaustion, liver diseases, schizophrenia; thyroidin - in some forms of obesity; male sex hormone (testosterone) - with breast cancer in women, female sex hormone (or sinestrol and stilbestrol) - with hypertrophy and prostate cancer in men, etc.
vitamin enzyme hormone metabolism

5. Conclusion
Biologically active substances: enzymes, vitamins and hormones are vital and necessary components of the human body. Being in small quantities, they ensure the full functioning of organs and systems. Not a single process in the body can do without the participation of certain enzymes. These protein catalysts are capable of not only performing the most amazing transformations of substances, but also doing it extremely quickly and easily, at ordinary temperatures and pressures.
It is hard to imagine that such a well-known word as "vitamin" entered our lexicon only at the beginning of the 20th century. It is now known that vitamins are involved in the basis of vital metabolic processes in the human body. Vitamins are vital organic compounds that are necessary for humans and animals in negligible amounts, but are of great importance for normal growth, development and life itself.
Most vitamins are enzyme precursors, and some compounds perform signaling functions.
Recently, ideas about the role of vitamins in the body have been enriched with new data. It is believed that vitamins can improve the internal environment, increase the functionality of the main systems, the body's resistance to adverse factors.
Consequently, vitamins, enzymes and hormones are considered by modern science as an important means of general primary prevention of diseases, increasing efficiency, and slowing down the aging process.

6. Literature