Branches of specialization of the industry of Central Europe. Eastern Europe. Let's draw a conclusion about the development of the countries of Eastern Europe

The sectors of the European economy that ensure its global competitiveness are:

Aircraft industry (France, Germany, Great Britain);

Banking (Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, Spain);

Biotechnology (Germany);

Automotive industry (Germany, France);

Digital TV (France);

Financial services (Great Britain, Luxembourg);

Insurance (Netherlands);

Mobile communication (Finland, Sweden, Great Britain);

Publishing (Germany);

Software (Germany, Belgium, Ireland);

Textile (Italy);

Water supply (France).

In addition, Western Europe has strong export positions in the production of office equipment, telecommunications and communications equipment, power equipment, measuring and scientific instruments, precision mechanics and optics, and the chemical industry (synthetic dyes, plastics, etc.).

Despite the global competitiveness of the above industries, the strong social protection of citizens in the EU countries makes the labor market immobile and, in fact, discourages the development of entrepreneurship.

The Europeans are in favor of state guarantees in life insurance, pensions, unemployment benefits, and strict regulation of labor agreements. Thanks to the support of voters who are counting on increased social guarantees, left-wing governments that implement Laborism are currently in power in the EU countries. A rather high degree of social protection, insufficiently high entrepreneurial activity and the macroeconomic policy of the leftist governments in the EU countries are precisely behind the causes of the recession of the early 1990s, and are currently significantly hindering the progressive development of a renewed Europe. The low rates of economic growth thus become the price to pay for the existing socially oriented economy. For successful economic competition with the US, Europe needs its further renewal.

Leading countries of Western Europe

The countries of Western Europe are usually divided into the leading countries that are members of the Big Seven (G7), and the relatively small states of Western Europe.

The leading countries of Western Europe include:

Germany;

France;

Great Britain;

These states form the backbone of the European economy, they have the most powerful economic potential in the region, the largest population in Western Europe, they are sufficiently integrated into the process of world economic relations. The political influence of these countries in the world is also great.

Economy of Germany

The concept of the social market economy was developed to rebuild the German economy after World War II. Its political implementation is associated with the personalities of L. Erhard and A. Müller-Armak. Ludwig Erhard (https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erhard,_Ludwig) was the first Minister of Economics, and then became the Federal Chancellor of Germany. Under his leadership, the concept of a social market economy was developed and then implemented in Germany. The social task of the state was not the redistribution of social benefits, but the provision of framework conditions for the activities of individuals, encouraging their consciousness, independence and responsibility for their own well-being. The result of the implementation of these principles was an "economic miracle".

The social market economy model is a compromise between economic growth and an equal distribution of wealth. If the ethical principles of this model are based on Protestantism, then the social principles are undoubtedly borrowed from Catholicism. The entrepreneurial activity of the state, which ensures a more or less equal distribution of social benefits to all members of society, is placed at the center of the system.

Another feature of Germany's macroeconomic development path is the so-called "Rhine capitalism" characterized by a significant role of banks in the country's economy. Banks are quite large shareholders in industrial and service companies in Germany, so it is no coincidence that banks actively interfere in the business decision-making process. Thus, the positions of banks in the German economy, taking into account their real impact on business, turn out to be much stronger than in the economies of other leading countries of the world.

Another feature of the German economy is "over-industrialization", i.e. a fairly large share of industry in the production of GDP in comparison with many developed countries of the world. Is that Japan, Ireland and Portugal are even more industrial than Germany. This is not accidental, because Germany's specialization in the world economy is the production of industrial (primarily engineering) products.

Today, Germany is experiencing serious difficulties due to its social market economy model.

The high level of taxes and the lack of programs to stimulate foreign investment leads to the fact that Germany is not very attractive for foreign capital. The high cost of the German labor force significantly reduces the competitiveness of Germany as a home country for the production capacities of TNCs. Foreign companies are essentially unable to produce in Germany and prefer to deal here exclusively with sales. Therefore, the share of foreign investments and the share of jobs they create in the German economy are extremely small. For example, in the Netherlands, in the total amount of investments in the economy, foreign investors make up 35%, in the UK - 25%, and even in France - 12%, in Germany - 7.5%.

Along with an insignificant influx of foreign capital into Germany, there is a massive outflow of German capital abroad. German multinationals are moving their production base to countries with lower wages, and financial investors prefer to pay taxes on their operations in countries with a more liberal tax climate.

The lack of interest of foreign investors in the creation of high-tech industries in Germany leads to a gradual technological weakness of the country. Germany is not a world technological leader, its positions in microelectronics and genetic engineering are especially weak. All this is fraught with the loss of the competitiveness of German exports.

The state, in order not to cause mass social protests of the population, continues to subsidize frankly unprofitable sectors of the German economy.

As a result, Germany not only retains the coal, steel, and shipbuilding industries, which are uncompetitive on the world market, but also spends up to a third of the state budget expenditures on such unprofitable sectors of the economy in the form of direct subsidies.

State regulation, in fact, continues to regulate the market in the way that Keynesian economics of demand prescribed. The social market economy leads to the strengthening of the position of the welfare state, which redistributes all resources in the economy. The share of government spending in Germany's GDP is extremely high (about 50%), and the growth of government spending creates a problem with the budget deficit and public debt.

With a GDP level of 3.815 trillion. US dollars (GDP PPP) Germany in 2015 was in fifth place in the world (after the USA, China, India and Japan) (https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)). In addition, Germany occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of export volumes. In terms of living standards, the country ranks 6th in the world, according to the Human Development Index (for 2015) (https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_human_development_index).

The share of Germany in world GDP is 3.45% (2015). The share of Germany in the GDP of the EU countries is almost 30%. GDP per capita is about 40 thousand US dollars. In general, industry accounts for 38% of GDP, 2% for agriculture, and 60% for services. Public debt - 79.9% of GDP (2013).

According to official data, in 2015 the average number of unemployed was 2.8 million people. (6.4% of the working population of Germany).

The share of agriculture in the country's economy in the post-war period has declined significantly. Nevertheless, German agriculture continues to be at a high quality level. About 90% of food needs are met by our own agricultural production.

Agriculture, like many basic industries, receives considerable subsidies from the state budget, which makes it not very efficient. Germany exports such agricultural products as meat, milk, grain.

The German industry provides the country with leadership in many world markets for finished products. The most competitive branches of German industry are:

Automotive;

Transport engineering (car building, aircraft building);

General mechanical engineering (production of machine tools, various devices);

Electrical industry;

Precise mechanics and optics;

Chemical, pharmaceutical and perfumery-cosmetic industry;

Ferrous metallurgy.

New and progressive industries have a noticeable influence on the development of industry, reducing the importance of the mining, textile, clothing, leather and footwear, and food and flavor industries. The industry of the Eastern lands of Germany has undergone a significant structural restructuring due to the fact that its former industries, originally focused on the USSR and the countries of Central and Eastern Europe (chemical, textile industry, metallurgy, car building and shipbuilding), had to be liquidated, putting the construction industry at the center of development. , food industry, precision mechanics and optics.

The development of the service sector in Germany is somewhat behind the level of other developed countries. In Germany, fewer jobs have been created in the service sector. Nevertheless, Germany in the world economy specializes in banking and financial services, tourism. Germany has a highly developed infrastructure: an excellent network of roads and railways, one of the largest air harbors in Europe and the world (Frankfurt, Dusseldorf, Munich), seaports (Hamburg, Bremen) and the world's largest river port (Duisburg). In the field of transport, the most advanced technologies are used (for example, high-speed trains of our own production, Inter City Express).

The German power industry mainly uses fuels such as oil, coal and natural gas. Nuclear power plants generate only about 10% of all electricity. The country's own energy potential is not too strong: Germany's dependence on external supplies of oil and gas is extremely high.

Germany's foreign economic relations are notable for being one of the most important exporters and importers in the world. In 2014, Germany was in third place (after China and the USA) in terms of exports of goods (1511 billion dollars) and imports of goods (1233 billion dollars).

The German economy is quite strongly integrated into the system of world economic relations. The country's exports account for about 25% of GDP. The main foreign trade partners of the country are: France (12% of exports and 11% of imports), Great Britain (respectively, 8 and 6.3%), the Netherlands (7.7 and 8.2%), Italy (7.6 and 8.4 %), USA (7.9 and 5.3%) and Belgium/Luxembourg (6.8 and 6.0%).

Economy of France

The end of the war put France before the most difficult tasks, the main of which was the elimination of economic ruin. However, neither the government of Charles de Gaulle, nor among entrepreneurs had a unanimity of opinion regarding policy in the financial and economic field.

During 1945-1947. such sectors of the economy as electric power, coal mining, gas industry, aircraft industry, sea and air navigation, automobile factories, major banks and insurance companies were nationalized.

In April 1948, France joined the "Marshall Plan" and over the course of a number of years received massive financial and raw material assistance from the United States (for 10 years, 12 billion dollars)

In the 1950s and 1960s, the main focus was on re-equipping industry with new technology. Planning has become widespread. Unlike the USSR, the French planning system was not mandatory, but recommendatory.

The limiting factor in the development of France in the 50s was an unprecedentedly high rate of inflation and a rapid rise in prices. A so-called inflationary spiral emerged: rising prices followed by an increase in nominal wages, offset by a new increase in prices.

In the late 1950s Charles de Gaulle came to power again. The main content of the economic policy was the all-round encouragement of the development of industry through the further concentration of production, the formation of the largest monopolies and the strengthening of their ties with the state. The development of almost all industries was envisaged. This line was later named "industrial imperative"(proportional development of almost all sectors of the economy)

In the early 1980s, the crisis worsened in the economy. As a response, the French government, headed by F. Mitterrand, carried out a large-scale nationalization. As a result of these actions, France began to have the largest state sector of the economy among the capitalist countries, which covered approximately 25% of industry.

The Delors Program (Minister of Economy, Finance and Budget) was adopted. The main goal of the program was to reduce the foreign trade deficit. An increase in taxes was envisaged, a forced loan was announced, appropriations for social services were frozen. needs, increased utility bills. However, the necessary growth was not achieved. There was a change in the ruling party. J. Chirac won, who developed the most favorable program for private capital. He took a course on privatization. At the same time, in contrast to the Thatcher variant of re-privatization, the Chirac government left the sectors of electricity, gas supply and telecommunications intact.

The second direction of transformation was the reduction of taxation. The last part of the reforms is the deregulation of various spheres of economic activity. From the beginning of 1987, all enterprises received the right to set their own prices for their products, focusing on market conditions. All this in a short time allowed to revive the economy. But by the beginning of the 1990s, the growth factors had exhausted themselves. In subsequent years, the economic policy of France developed within the framework of the EU and the integration of the economy into the European and world economic system.

Thus, in the post-war years, qualitative changes took place in the French economy. The former financial-usurious capitalism was replaced by capitalism with a high degree of concentration and a significant role of the state in determining the country's development programs. The alignment of the economic structure has made France an equal partner in the EU.

The economic system of France is very much like the German one. Here, too, a socially-oriented model of the economy operates, at the center of which is the "welfare state" (letat providence). It is precisely because of the high role of the state in the economy that such a system is often called the statist model.

The following facts speak of the significant role of the state in the French economy. The state redistributes 54% of GDP in France. The number of employees in the public sector is 24% of the total number of employees. The largest French TNCs are primarily state-owned enterprises, such as Elf Aquitaine (later privatized) (oil extraction and refining), Renault (automotive), Thomson (electronics), Aerospaciale (Airbus aircraft and Ariane missiles) .

The social market economy with elements of etatism smoothed out the negative features of capitalism in France, the state stood up for the protection of the interests of the working people. The strong traditions of the social market economy, especially in the post-war period, contributed to the acquisition of significant gains by the French in the social sphere. Wages in the public sector, in particular, are higher than wages in the private sector. In addition to high wages, civil servants received high pensions and various benefits. Unemployment benefits are also very high. Strong unions threaten nationwide strikes at the slightest government attack on the social gains made.

However, the modern economy of France is developing in new conditions: the globalization of the world economy and the unification of Europe have a significant impact on the national economy. Successful global development now requires liberalization of the economy, the abolition of internal regulation, as well as new technologies that can serve as a scientific and technical basis for economic growth. Serious structural changes in the economy, which imply a change in the regulatory role of the state, are also currently at the heart of the world scientific and technical progress.

France, in fact, suffers from the same diseases as Germany: the country's economic development is seriously hampered by the system of social guarantees, the significant difference between the public and private sectors, the brain drain and the problem of public finances.

The system of social guarantees results in a high burden on public finances. After the resignation of the government of General de Gaulle in 1968, the French achieved significant gains in the social sphere, which they are in no hurry to part with. In particular, civil servants are not subject to reduction, they retire at the age of 50-55, their pension level exceeds the salary level. Unemployment benefits also exceed the national average wage. France is proud of such social guarantees, but pride is overshadowed by the aging of the population and growing unemployment (the unemployment rate in the country is about 12-13% of the economically active population).

Social guarantees are financed primarily by taxpayers.

Moreover, not only indirect and individual income taxes are high, but also the social contributions of entrepreneurs. So, if in the United States social contributions are equal to 10.4% of GDP, in Sweden - 14.5%, and in the UK even 6.3%, then France is ahead of the rest here: social contributions account for 19.3% of the country's GDP. Pensions and unemployment benefits are the burden on the workers. It turns out that working French people support a whole army of pensioners and the unemployed, and in some enterprises one employee already supports not only himself and his family, but also at least two pensioners (Thus, the number of personnel on French railways (Societe National de Chemine de Fer - SNCF) is about 190 thousand people.At the same time, retirees who previously worked in SNCF are 350 thousand people. Each employee-taxpayer, therefore, also contains two pensioners). However, high social guarantees are expected only in the public sector of the economy. Wages in the private sector in France are lower, and there are practically no social guarantees inherent in the public sector.

The difference between the public and private sectors of the economy exists not only in the level of wages and guarantees. Initially, the economic ideology of the country was to encourage employment in the public sector and almost a negative attitude towards private entrepreneurship.

The most prestigious is still considered the civil service, which all the French strive to enter, and there are not so many who want to do private business or work in a private company. Higher educational institutions of the country primarily focused on the professional training of civil servants. Private enterprise has been stymied by high taxes and government prejudice against private business. Even in the field of R&D, the state provides all-round support and subsidizes the public sector, and venture business - the real engine of scientific and technological progress and applied technologies - is not encouraged.

The state's lack of attention to the development of the technological base is also explained by the fact that civil servants are not too interested in improving the quality of their work, in releasing high-paying jobs in the public sector through the use of new technology and new management methods. Thus, the French management model suffers from its inefficiency, encouraging arbitrariness and corruption among government officials, and seriously hinders scientific and technological progress.

Brain drain. Higher educational institutions in France do not instill a culture of business, but mainly prepare government officials. The isolation of the system of higher and vocational education in France from the problems of developing private business leads to the fact that graduates of educational institutions very often, without finding work in the public sector, remain out of work. Public universities in France are not able to respond flexibly to demand in the labor market, and therefore it is very difficult for graduates to adapt to the private sector of the economy, as well as to find work in France in general. As a result, the country's most promising and well-educated youth find no demand in the French labor market and prefer to work abroad.

In 1997, one-fifth of French university graduates chose better than in France and higher-paying jobs with low taxes in the US and UK.

The problem of public finances in France is not yet so acute. The country's financial performance meets the Maastricht criteria for currency convergence of 3% budget deficit and 60% public debt relative to GDP. However, in the current course of affairs, the social market system of France is capable of worsening these indicators after some time.

Employment is declining, economic growth is slowing down, the number of pensioners and the level of social incomes of the population is growing. All this is fraught with a violation of the existing balance of the country's financial system, if the necessary changes are not made to the economic course of the government in time.

All of the above reduces the competitiveness of France in both the global and European economies. The high cost of French labor, just like in Germany, makes production in France unprofitable for both national and foreign companies. Capital seeks to leave France and find a country with a more favorable level of taxation and a more flexible labor market. There are no incentives in the country for the development of the private sector, which currently serves as the engine of the economy in almost all developed countries. High taxes and the absence of a stimulating scientific and technological policy of the state have resulted in a lack of innovation in the French economy. The obvious conclusion is brewing that the socio-market model of the French economy also needs to be restructured. Otherwise, the economic and scientific-technical development of the country may seriously slow down.

The region produces more machine tools, industrial robots, precision and optical instruments, automobiles, tractors, petroleum products, plastics, and chemical fibers than the United States.

mechanical engineering- the leading industry of foreign Europe, which is its homeland. This industry accounts for 1/3 of the total industrial output of the region and 2/3 of its exports.

Particularly great development has been Automotive industry. Such car brands as Renault (France), Volkswagen and Mercedes (Germany), FIAT (Italian Automobile Factory Torino), Volvo (Sweden), Tatra (Czech Republic), are world famous. buses "Ikarus" (Hungary). In the UK, Belgium, Spain, and other countries, factories of the Ford Motor company operate.

Mechanical engineering, which focuses primarily on labor resources, scientific base and infrastructure, most of all gravitates towards large cities and agglomerations, including metropolitan ones.

Chemical industry in foreign Europe takes the second place after mechanical engineering. In particular, this applies to the most "chemicalized" country not only in this region, but also in the whole world - Germany.

Until the Second World War, the chemical industry focused mainly on hard and lignite coal, potash and table salts, and pyrites, and was located in areas where they were mined. The reorientation of the industry to hydrocarbon raw materials has led to the fact that it has moved "to oil". In the western part of the region, this shift found expression primarily in the emergence of large centers of petrochemistry in the estuaries of the Thames, Seine, Rhine, Elbe, and Rhone, where this industry is combined with oil refining.

The region's largest hub of petrochemical production and refineries was formed in the estuary of the Rhine and Scheldt in the Netherlands, near Rotterdam. In fact, it serves the whole of Western Europe.

In the eastern part of the region, the shift "to oil" has led to the creation of refineries and petrochemical plants along the routes of main oil and gas pipelines.

The main oil refining and petrochemical enterprises of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Hungary were built on the route of the Druzhba international oil pipeline and gas pipelines, which brought oil and natural gas from the Soviet Union. In Bulgaria, for the same reason, petrochemistry has been "shifted" to the Black Sea coast.

AT fuel and energy economy In most countries of foreign Europe, the leading position was occupied by oil and natural gas produced both in the region itself (the North Sea) and imported from developing countries, from Russia. The extraction and consumption of coal in the UK, Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium have declined sharply. In the eastern part of the region, the focus on coal is still preserved, and not so much on hard coal (Poland, Czech Republic), but on brown coal. Perhaps there is no other area in the world where brown coal would play such a big role in the fuel and energy balance.

The majority of TPPs are also oriented towards coal basins. But they are also built in seaports (on imported fuel) and in large cities. An increasing impact on the structure and geography of the electric power industry - especially in France, Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria - is exerted by the construction of nuclear power plants, of which there are already more than 80 in the region. On the Danube and its tributaries, on the Rhone, upper Rhine, Duero hydroelectric power stations or their entire cascades were built.

But still, in most countries, with the exception of Norway, Sweden and Switzerland, hydroelectric power plants now play a supporting role. Since the region's hydro resources have already been used by 4/5, more economical pumped storage power plants have been built in recent years. Iceland uses geothermal energy.

Metallurgical industry foreign Europe was mainly formed before the beginning of the era of scientific and technological revolution. Ferrous metallurgy has developed primarily in countries that have metallurgical fuel and (or) raw materials: Germany, Great Britain, France, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Poland, and the Czech Republic.

After the Second World War, large plants were built or expanded in seaports with a focus on importing higher quality and cheaper iron ore and scrap metal. The largest and most modern of the plants built in seaports is located in Taranto (Italy).

Recently, not large plants, but mini-factories have been built mainly.

The most important branches of non-ferrous metallurgy - aluminum and copper industry.Aluminum production arose both in countries with bauxite reserves (France, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Greece), and in countries where there is no aluminum raw material, but a lot of electricity is generated (Norway, Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Recently, aluminum smelters are increasingly oriented towards raw materials coming from developing countries by sea.

copper industry received the greatest development in Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy, Belgium, Poland, Yugoslavia.

timber industry, focusing primarily on the sources of raw materials, has become an industry of international specialization in Sweden and Finland, which have long been the main "forest shop in the region." geographic division europe resource

Light industry, with which the industrialization of foreign Europe began, has largely lost its former significance. The old textile districts, which were formed at the dawn of the industrial revolution (Lancashire and Yorkshire in Great Britain, Flanders in Belgium, Lyon in France, Milan in Italy), as well as those that arose already in the 19th century. The Lodz region of Poland still exists today. But lately light industry has been shifting to Southern Europe, where there are still reserves of cheap labor. So, Portugal has become almost the main "clothing factory" of the region. And Italy in the production of shoes is second only to China.

In many countries, rich national traditions are also preserved in the production of furniture, musical instruments, glassware, metal products, jewelry, toys, etc.

1. General characteristics of the industry

Foreign Europe, as an integral region, ranks first in the world economy in terms of industrial production, export of goods and services, development of international tourism, leading positions in gold and currency reserves. The economic power of the region is primarily determined by four countries that are members of the "Big Seven" of Western countries:

Germany.
France.
Great Britain.
Italy.

It is these countries that have the widest range of various industries and industries. But the balance of power between them has changed in recent decades. The role of leader has passed to Germany, whose economy is developing more dynamically. Great Britain, on the other hand, has lost many of its former positions. Of the rest of the countries of foreign Europe, Spain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Belgium and Sweden have the greatest economic weight. In contrast to the four main countries, their economy is primarily specialized in certain industries, which, as a rule, have won European or world recognition. Small and medium-sized countries are especially widely drawn into world economic relations. The highest levels of economic openness have been reached in Belgium and the Netherlands.
Mechanical engineering plays a special role in the European economy.

2. Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering is the leading branch of industry in foreign Europe, which is its homeland. This industry accounts for about 1/3 of the entire industrial output of the region and 2/3 of its exports. The automotive industry was especially developed. Such car brands as Renault (France), Volkswagen and Mercedes (Germany), FIAT (Italy), Volvo (Sweden) and others are world famous. factories of other automobile concerns. Mechanical engineering, which focuses primarily on labor resources, scientific base and infrastructure, most of all gravitates towards large cities and agglomerations, including metropolitan ones.

3. Chemical industry

The chemical industry in foreign Europe ranks second after mechanical engineering. In particular, this applies to the most "chemicalized" country not only in this region, but also in almost the whole world - Germany. Until the Second World War, the chemical industry focused mainly on hard and lignite coal, potash and table salts, pyrites and was located in the areas of their production.

The reorientation of the industry to hydrocarbon raw materials has led to the fact that it has moved "to oil". In the western part of the region, this shift found expression primarily in the emergence of large centers of petrochemistry in the estuaries of the Thames, Seine, Rhine, Elbe, and Rhone, where this industry is combined with oil refining. The region's largest hub of petrochemical production and refineries was formed in the estuary of the Rhine and Scheldt in the Netherlands, near Rotterdam. In fact, it serves the whole of Western Europe. In the eastern part of the region, the shift “to oil” has led to the creation of refineries and petrochemical plants along the routes of main oil and gas pipelines.

The main oil refining and petrochemical enterprises of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary were built on the route of the Druzhba international oil pipeline and gas pipelines, through which oil and natural gas came from the Soviet Union, and now from Russia. In Bulgaria, for the same reason, petrochemistry is "shifted" to the Black Sea coast.

4. Fuel and energy complex, metallurgy

In the fuel and energy economy of most countries of foreign Europe, the leading place was occupied by oil and natural gas, produced both in the region itself (the North Sea) and imported from developing countries, from Russia. The extraction and consumption of coal in the UK, Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Belgium have declined sharply.

In the eastern part of the region, the focus on coal is still preserved, and not so much on hard coal (Poland, Czech Republic), but on brown coal. Perhaps there is no other area in the world where brown coal would play such a big role in the fuel and energy balance. The majority of TPPs are also oriented towards coal basins. But they are also built in seaports (on imported fuel) and in large cities.

The construction of nuclear power plants has an increasing impact on the structure and geography of the electric power industry - especially in France, Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria.

On the Danube and its tributaries, on the Rhone, the upper Rhine, the Duero, hydroelectric power stations or their entire cascades have been built. But still, in most countries, with the exception of Norway, Sweden and Switzerland, hydroelectric power plants now play a supporting role. Since the region's hydro resources have already been used by 4/5, more economical pumped storage power plants have been built in recent years. Iceland uses geothermal energy.

The metallurgical industry of foreign Europe was mainly formed before the beginning of the era of scientific and technological revolution. Ferrous metallurgy has been developed primarily in countries that have metallurgical fuel and (or) raw materials: Germany, Great Britain, France, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Poland, and the Czech Republic. After the Second World War, large plants were built or expanded in seaports with a focus on importing higher quality and cheaper iron ore and scrap metal. The largest and most modern of the plants built in seaports is located in Taranto (Italy).

Recently, not large plants, but mini-factories have been built mainly.

The most important branches of non-ferrous metallurgy are the aluminum and copper industries. Aluminum production arose both in countries with bauxite reserves (France, Italy, Hungary, Romania, Greece) and in countries where there is no aluminum raw material, but a lot of electricity is generated (Norway, Switzerland, Germany, Austria). Recently, aluminum smelters are increasingly oriented towards raw materials coming from developing countries by sea. The copper industry has received the greatest development in Germany, France, Great Britain, Belgium, Poland.

5. Forestry, light industry

The timber industry, oriented primarily to the sources of raw materials, has become an international specialization in Sweden and Finland. Light industry, with which the industrialization of foreign Europe began, has largely lost its former significance. The old textile districts, which were formed at the dawn of the industrial revolution (Lancashire and Yorkshire in Great Britain, Flanders in Belgium, Lyon in France, Milan in Italy), as well as those that arose already in the 19th century. The Lodz region of Poland still exists today. But lately light industry has been shifting to Southern Europe, where there are still reserves of cheap labor. So, Portugal has become almost the main "clothing factory" of the region. And Italy in the production of shoes is second only to China. In many countries, rich national traditions are also preserved in the production of furniture, musical instruments, glassware, metal products, jewelry, toys, etc.

Agriculture of Foreign Europe

1. General characteristics of agriculture

In general, the share of the economically active population employed in agriculture in foreign Europe is not large (maximum in Eastern Europe). The share of agriculture in the economies of countries is also maximum in the countries of Eastern Europe.

For the main types of agricultural products, most countries fully meet their needs and are interested in selling them on foreign markets. The main type of agricultural enterprise is a large highly mechanized farm. But in Southern Europe, landownership and small-scale land use by tenant peasants still predominate. The main branches of agriculture in foreign Europe are plant growing and animal husbandry, which are ubiquitous, combined with each other.

2. Main types of agriculture

Under the influence of natural and historical conditions, three main types of agriculture have developed in the region:

northern european
Central European
Southern European

The northern European type, common in Scandinavia, Finland, and also in Great Britain, is characterized by the predominance of intensive dairy farming, and in the crop production that serves it, fodder crops and brown bread.
The Central European type is distinguished by the predominance of dairy and dairy-meat animal husbandry, as well as pig and poultry breeding. Animal husbandry has reached a very high level in Denmark, where it has long become an industry of international specialization. This country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of butter, milk, cheese, pork, and eggs. It is often referred to as the "dairy farm" of Europe. Crop production not only satisfies the basic needs of the population for food, but also "works" for animal husbandry. A significant and sometimes predominant part of arable land is occupied by fodder crops.
The South European type is characterized by a significant predominance of crop production, while animal husbandry plays a secondary role. Although grain crops occupy the main place in the crops, the international specialization of Southern Europe is determined primarily by the production of fruits, citrus fruits, grapes, olives, almonds, nuts, tobacco, and essential oil crops. The Mediterranean coast is the main "garden of Europe".
- The entire Mediterranean coast of Spain, and especially the area of Valencia, is commonly referred to as a garden. Various fruits and vegetables are grown here, but most of all - oranges, which are harvested from December to March. In the export of oranges, Spain ranks first in the world.
- Greece, Italy, Spain have over 90 million olive trees in each country. This tree has become a kind of national symbol for the Greeks. Since the time of Ancient Hellas, the olive branch has been a sign of peace.
- Main wine producing countries: France, Italy, Spain.
In many cases, the specialization of agriculture acquires a narrower profile. So, France, the Netherlands and Switzerland are famous for cheese production, the Netherlands for flowers, Germany and the Czech Republic for growing barley and hops and brewing. And in terms of the production and consumption of grape wines, France, Spain, Italy, Portugal stand out not only in Europe, but throughout the world. Fishing has long been an international specialty in Norway, Denmark and especially Iceland.

The video tutorial allows you to get interesting and detailed information about the countries of Eastern Europe. From the lesson you will learn about the composition of Eastern Europe, the characteristics of the countries of the region, their geographical position, nature, climate, place in this subregion. The teacher will tell you in detail about the main country of Eastern Europe - Poland.

Topic: Regional characteristics of the world. Foreign Europe

Lesson: Eastern Europe

Rice. 1. Map of the subregions of Europe. Eastern Europe is highlighted in red. ()

Eastern Europe- cultural and geographical region, which includes states located in the east of Europe.

Compound:

1. Belarus.

2. Ukraine.

3. Bulgaria.

4. Hungary.

5. Moldova.

6. Poland.

7. Romania.

8. Slovakia.

In the post-war period, the industry actively grew and developed in all countries of the region, and non-ferrous metallurgy relies mainly on its own raw materials, while ferrous metallurgy relies on imported ones.

The industry is also represented in all countries, but is most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool building, production of household appliances and computer technology); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures; in addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland.

The region's chemical industry lags far behind Western Europe due to the lack of raw materials for the most advanced branches of chemistry - oil. But still, the pharmaceutical industry of Poland and Hungary, the glass industry of the Czech Republic can be noted.

Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, significant changes took place in the structure of the economy of the countries of Eastern Europe: agro-industrial complex arose, specialization of agricultural production took place. It manifested itself most clearly in grain farming and in the production of vegetables, fruits, and grapes.

The structure of the region's economy is heterogeneous: in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, the share of animal husbandry exceeds the share of crop production, in the rest - the ratio is still the opposite.

Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several zones of crop production can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) rye and potatoes play an important role, vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated in the central part of the subregion, and the "southern" countries specialize in subtropical crops.

The main crops grown in the region are wheat, corn, vegetables, fruits.

The main wheat and corn regions of Eastern Europe were formed within the Middle and Lower Danube lowlands and the Danube hilly plain (Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria).

Hungary has achieved the greatest success in grain growing.

Vegetables, fruits, grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in the subregion, but there are areas where they primarily determine the specialization of agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in the range of products. For example, Hungary is famous for winter varieties of apples, grapes, onions; Bulgaria - oilseeds; Czech Republic - hops, etc.

Livestock. The northern and central countries of the region specialize in dairy and meat and dairy cattle breeding and pig breeding, while the southern countries specialize in mountain pasture meat and wool cattle breeding.

In Eastern Europe, lying at the crossroads that have long connected the eastern and western parts of Eurasia, the transport system has been formed over many centuries. Currently, rail transport is leading in terms of traffic volume, but automobile and sea transport are also intensively developing. The presence of the largest ports contributes to the development of foreign economic relations, shipbuilding, ship repair, and fishing.

Poland. The official name is the Republic of Poland. The capital is Warsaw. The population is 38.5 million people, of which more than 97% are Poles. Most are Catholics.

Rice. 3. Historic center of Warsaw ()

Poland borders on Germany, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania and Russia; in addition, it borders on the sea areas (zones) of Denmark and Sweden.

About 2/3 of the territory in the north and in the center of the country is occupied by the Polish lowland. In the north - the Baltic Ridge, in the south and southeast - the Lesser Poland and Lublin Uplands, along the southern border - the Carpathians (the highest point is 2499 m, Mount Rysy in the Tatras) and the Sudetes. Large rivers - Vistula, Odra; dense river network. Lakes are predominantly in the north. Under the forest 28% of the territory.

Minerals of Poland: coal, sulfur, iron ore, various salts.

Upper Silesia is a region of concentration of Poland's industrial production of pan-European significance.

Poland generates almost all electricity at thermal power plants.

Leading manufacturing industries:

1. Mining.

2. Mechanical engineering (Poland occupies one of the leading places in the world in the production of fishing vessels, freight and passenger cars, road and construction machines, machine tools, engines, electronics, industrial equipment, etc.).

3. Ferrous and non-ferrous (large zinc production) metallurgy.

4. Chemical (sulfuric acid, fertilizers, pharmaceutical, perfumery and cosmetic products, photographic products).

5. Textile (cotton, linen, wool).

6. Sewing.

7. Cement.

8. Production of porcelain and faience.

9. Manufacture of sports goods (kayaks, yachts, tents, etc.).

10. Manufacture of furniture.

Poland has a highly developed agriculture. Agriculture is dominated by crop production. The main crops are rye, wheat, barley, and oats.

Poland is a major producer of sugar beets (over 14 million tons per year), potatoes, and cabbage. The export of apples, strawberries, raspberries, currants, garlic and onions is of great importance.

The leading livestock sector is pig breeding, dairy and meat cattle breeding, poultry farming (Poland is one of the largest egg suppliers in Europe), and beekeeping.

Homework

Topic 6, Item 3

1. What are the features of the geographical location of Eastern Europe?

2. Name the main areas of specialization in Poland.

Bibliography

Main

1. Geography. A basic level of. 10-11 cells: Textbook for educational institutions / A.P. Kuznetsov, E.V. Kim. - 3rd ed., stereotype. - M.: Bustard, 2012. - 367 p.

2. Economic and social geography of the world: Proc. for 10 cells. educational institutions / V.P. Maksakovskiy. - 13th ed. - M .: Education, JSC "Moscow textbooks", 2005. - 400 p.

3. Atlas with a set of contour maps for grade 10. Economic and social geography of the world. - Omsk: Federal State Unitary Enterprise "Omsk Cartographic Factory", 2012. - 76 p.

Additional

1. Economic and social geography of Russia: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. A.T. Khrushchev. - M.: Bustard, 2001. - 672 p.: ill., cart.: tsv. incl.

Encyclopedias, dictionaries, reference books and statistical collections

1. Geography: a guide for high school students and university applicants. - 2nd ed., corrected. and dorab. - M.: AST-PRESS SCHOOL, 2008. - 656 p.

Literature for preparing for the GIA and the Unified State Examination

1. Thematic control in geography. Economic and social geography of the world. Grade 10 / E.M. Ambartsumova. - M.: Intellect-Centre, 2009. - 80 p.

2. The most complete edition of typical options for real USE assignments: 2010. Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: Astrel, 2010. - 221 p.

3. The optimal bank of tasks for preparing students. Unified State Exam 2012. Geography: Textbook / Comp. EM. Ambartsumova, S.E. Dyukov. - M.: Intellect-Centre, 2012. - 256 p.

4. The most complete edition of typical options for real USE assignments: 2010. Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2010. - 223 p.

5. Geography. Diagnostic work in the format of the Unified State Examination 2011. - M .: MTSNMO, 2011. - 72 p.

6. USE 2010. Geography. Collection of tasks / Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 272 p.

7. Tests in geography: Grade 10: to the textbook by V.P. Maksakovskiy “Economic and social geography of the world. Grade 10 / E.V. Baranchikov. - 2nd ed., stereotype. - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2009. - 94 p.

8. Study guide for geography. Tests and practical tasks in geography / I.A. Rodionov. - M.: Moscow Lyceum, 1996. - 48 p.

9. The most complete edition of typical options for real USE assignments: 2009. Geography / Comp. Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: AST: Astrel, 2009. - 250 p.

10. Unified state exam 2009. Geography. Universal materials for the preparation of students / FIPI - M .: Intellect-Center, 2009. - 240 p.

11. Geography. Answers on questions. Oral exam, theory and practice / V.P. Bondarev. - M.: Publishing house "Exam", 2003. - 160 p.

12. USE 2010. Geography: thematic training tasks / O.V. Chicherina, Yu.A. Solovyov. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 144 p.

13. USE 2012. Geography: Standard exam options: 31 options / Ed. V.V. Barabanova. - M.: National Education, 2011. - 288 p.

14. USE 2011. Geography: Standard exam options: 31 options / Ed. V.V. Barabanova. - M.: National Education, 2010. - 280 p.

Materials on the Internet

1. Federal Institute of Pedagogical Measurements ().

2. Federal portal Russian Education ().

Eastern Europe as a historical and geographical region includes: Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, countries formed as a result of the collapse of the former Yugoslavia (Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia), Albania, Latvia, Lithuania , Estonia. But the name "Eastern Europe" has stuck with the countries of this region and is recognized throughout the world.

Natural resources of Eastern Europe

The countries of Eastern Europe are a single natural-territorial array stretching from the Baltic to the Black and Adriatic Seas. The region and its adjoining countries are based on the ancient Precambrian platform, covered by a cover of sedimentary rocks, as well as an area of alpine folding.

An important feature of all the countries of the region is their transit position between the countries of Western Europe and the CIS.

From the reserves of natural resources stand out: coal (Poland, Czech Republic), oil and natural gas (Romania), iron ore (countries of the former Yugoslavia, Romania, Slovakia), bauxite (Hungary), chromite (Albania).

In general, it must be said that the region is experiencing a shortage of resources, and in addition, it is a vivid example of an "incomplete" set of minerals. So, in Poland there are large reserves of coal, copper ores, sulfur, but almost no oil, gas, iron ore. In Bulgaria, on the contrary, there is no coal, although there are significant reserves of lignite, copper ores, and polymetals.

Population of Eastern Europe

The population of the region is about 130 million people, but the demographic situation, which is not easy in all of Europe, is the most alarming in Eastern Europe. Despite the active demographic policy pursued for several decades, the natural population growth is very small (less than 2%) and continues to decrease. In Bulgaria and Hungary, there is even a natural decline in population. In some countries, the natural increase is higher than the average for the region (Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia), and it is the largest in Albania - 20%.

The population of Eastern Europe is distinguished by a complex ethnic composition, but the predominance of the Slavic peoples can be noted. Of the other peoples, the Romanians, Albanians, Hungarians, and Lithuanians are the most numerous. Poland, Hungary, Albania are distinguished by the most homogeneous national composition. Lithuania. Eastern Europe has always been an arena of national and ethnic conflicts. After the collapse of the socialist system, the situation became more complicated, especially on the territory of the most multinational country in the region - Yugoslavia, where the conflict escalated into an interethnic war.

Economy of Eastern Europe

The countries of Eastern Europe today are not characterized by a pronounced socio-economic unity. But in general, we can say that in the 2nd half of the XX century. Great changes have taken place in the economies of Eastern Europe. Firstly, industries developed at a faster pace - by the 80s, Eastern Europe had become one of the most industrial regions in the world, and secondly, previously very backward regions also began to develop industrially.

Metallurgy in Eastern Europe

Mechanical engineering of Eastern Europe

The industry is also represented in all countries, but is most developed in the Czech Republic (primarily machine tool building, production of household appliances and computer technology); Poland and Romania are distinguished by the production of metal-intensive machines and structures, Hungary, Bulgaria, Latvia - by the electrical industry; in addition, shipbuilding is developed in Poland and Estonia.

Chemical industry in Eastern Europe

Agriculture in Eastern Europe

The structure of the economy of the region is heterogeneous: in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, and the Baltic countries, the share of animal husbandry exceeds the share of crop production, in the rest the ratio is still the opposite.

Due to the diversity of soil and climatic conditions, several zones of crop production can be distinguished: wheat is grown everywhere, but in the north (Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) rye and potatoes play an important role, vegetable growing and horticulture are cultivated in the central part of Eastern Europe, and the “southern” countries specialize in subtropical crops.

Vegetables, fruits, grapes are cultivated almost everywhere in Eastern Europe, but there are areas where they primarily determine the specialization of agriculture. These countries and regions also have their own specialization in the range of products.